Reichmuth_The Second Intifada and the Day of Wrath

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The Second Intifada and the "Day of Wrath": Safar al-ḥawālī and His Anti-Semitic Reading of Biblical Prophecy Author(s): Stefan Reichmuth Source: Die Welt des Islams, New Series, Vol. 46, Issue 3, Anti-Semitism in the Arab World (2006

), pp. 331-351Published by: BRILLStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20140741Accessed: 24-08-2015 14:44 UTC

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THE SECOND INTIFADA AND THE "DAY OF WRATH": SAFAR AL-HAW?L? AND HIS ANTI-SEMITIC READING OF

BIBLICAL PROPHECY

BY

STEFAN REICHMUTH Bochum1

"Though this be madness, yet there is method in't"

Polonius in W. Shakespeare, Hamlet

"Put on your seat belts and prepare for an action-packed apocalyptic thrill

er!"

Internet blurb for Blood Moon, an Apocalyptic Novel by Hal Lindsey (one of the authors referred to by al-Haw?l?), http://armageddonbooks.com/hal.html

(3 September 06)

Abstract

Few months after the outbreak of the al-Aqsa Intifada, Safar al-Haw?l?, one of the most prominent and controversial Islamic scholars of Saudi

Arabia, published his book Yawm al-gadab, "The Day of Wrath", which

has enjoyed a wide readership both for its Arabic and English versions in the internet. Engaging with the current wave of Christian and Jewish

apocalyptical literature, he challenges the widespread view that the bibli

cal prophecies predict the final victory of the Israel over its neighbours. The book claims that, quite to the contrary, they can be read as indica

tions of the violent end of that state and its allies. The article analyses Safar al-Haw?l?'s unusually close reading of the Bible which even trans

fers the biblical promises of return to the Palestinians. His fierce accusa

tions against Israel and the U.S.A., which are orchestrated with extensive

quotes from the biblical Prophets, testify to a new stage of the sacralisa

tion of political language in the Middle East.

On Friday, 29 September, 2000/29 Jumada II, 1421, the eve

1 I am grateful to Gudrun Kr?mer, Alexander Flores, Werner Ende and Stefan

Wild for their valuable comments and suggestions, and also to Bj?rn Bentlage for

his technical help with the Arabic internet sources of this article.

? Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2006 Die Welt des Islams 46, 3

Also available online?www.brill.nl



332 STEFAN REICHMUTH

of the Jewish New Year 5761, a bloody confrontation developed on the Haram al-sar?f in Jerusalem after Friday prayer, between

the participants in the prayer and the Israeli police. Several Pal

estinians were killed and many others wounded. Violent demon

strations erupted in the following days in most of the towns and

villages of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. This was the be

ginning of the Second Intifada. The violent protests had been

sparked by the visit of the head of the Likud Party, Ariel Sharon, on the Temple Mount which he had undertaken with a group of

other Likud politicians under massive police protection on the

preceding day, 28 September. The visit was regarded as a provo cation by both Palestinian and international observers, falling as

it did into a period of growing tensions between Israelis and Pal

estinians after the failure of the Camp David negotiations (11-25

July) and the suspension of bilateral talks (19 September). Nego tiations had failed mainly because of the unresolved question of

future sovereignty over Jerusalem and the Temple Mount. The

offer of a limited Palestinian sovereignty over the area, as sug

gested by the U.S. delegation and the incumbent Israeli Prime

Minister Ehud Barak, had enraged the Likud Party and the reli

gious camp in Israel. Sharon's visit was generally

seen as an ex

pression of support for lasting Israeli control over the Temple Mount as a site sacred to Judaism, and as a move to increase his

popularity during the imminent elections. The approaching Jew ish New Year's eve added to its symbolic meaning.2

Among Palestinian Muslims, protest was increasingly expressed in religious terms, contributing to a growing radicalisation on

both sides. Already on the subsequent Friday (6 October/7 Ra

2 On the beginnings of the Second Intifada, see Rema Hammami, Salim Tamari,

"Anatomy of Another Rebellion", MEEIP Report 217, Winter 2000 (http://www.meup.

org/mer/mer217/217_hammami-tamari.html (20. 9. 06); also in Joel Beinin, Rebecca L.

Stein (eds.), The Struggle for Sovereignty. Palestine and Israel, 1993-2005; Stanford, CA:

Stanford University Press, 2006, 263-281; Ramzy Baroud, The second Palestinian Inti

fada: a chronicle of a people s struggle, London: Pluto Press, 2006; a detailed chronology

compiled by the Institute of Palestine Studies can be found under "Killing fields.

Day by day chronology of the second Intifada", http://www.leksikon.org/killingfields/ (20.09.06); www.aijac.org.au/updates/Oct-00/121000.html (03.12.05) describes the be

ginnings of the Intifada from an Israeli point of view.



THE SECOND INTIFADA AND "THE DAY OF WRATH" 333

jab), Hamas called for a "Day of Anger" (yawm al-gadab), which led to fresh riots in Old Jerusalem after Friday prayers.3 The "Day of Anger" was repeated over the following months and became

established as an occasion for violent rallies of protest against the massive use of military force by the Israeli army and police all over the West Bank and Gaza. These rallies gradually led to

armed resistance and finally to the suicide attacks on Israeli mil

itary and civilian targets which began on 26 October and soon came to dominate the public image of the Second Intifada.

The "Day of Anger" comes out as a remarkable phrase, saturat

ed with religious connotations. It seems to fuse the expression of

popular anger with a reference to God's anger and wrath, as it is mentioned in the Qur'?n and in the Hadit.4 At the same time it can be understood as an allusion to a biblical expression. The

"Day of Wrath" (Hebr. y?m evr?h) occurs with several variants as a term for the day of divine judgement or punishment in the

Psalms, the Proverbs and some of the Prophets (Ezekiel, Zeph aniah).5 Zephaniah in particular announces the "Day of God's

Wrath" as the imminent judgement which will be meted out by God to Judah and the whole world, "a day of distress and hard

ship, a day of devastation and ruin, a day of darkness and gloom, a day of clouds and dark skies, a day of trumpet blasts and battle cries". Punishment will fall upon the towns and countries which have sinned against the Lord. This is followed by a prophecy on

the restoration of Jerusalem to the humbled and purified rem nant of Israel, and on the in gathering and return of the dis

persed servants of God.6 The apocalyptic colouring of the term

3 Described in an article written from Ramallah by Arian Fariborz, ?Die Schlacht um Jerusalem. Eine Einheitsfront aller Islamisten freut sich ?ber das Ende des

Friedensprozesses", Jungle World 42, 11 October 2000 (http://www.nadir.org/nadir/ periodika/jungle_world/J2000/42/21.html, 29.11.2005).

4 In the Qur'?n as "God's wrath" (gadaba ll?hi, Q 23:9) or "by a wrath from God"

(bi-gadabin mini ll?hi, Q 2:61, 3: 112, 8:16, and others), or even "My wrath" (gadabi, Q 20:81); for similar references in the Hadtt, see A. J. Wensinck et al., Concordance et indices de la Tradition Musulmane, Leiden: Brill, 1936-1988, IV, 524ff. (gadabun). 5 Psalm 110:5; Proverbs 11:4; Ezekiel 7:19; Zephaniah 1:15.

6 Zephaniah 2:3.




is further illustrated by a passage in Daniel7 and another one

in the Book of Revelation8 of the New Testament, where on the

"Day of His Wrath" (i.e., of Christ) the dramatic events of the

end of the world will unfold. The dies irae of the Latin Catholic

tradition seems to go back to these texts.9

The "Day of Wrath" does not appear to belong to the Islam

ic apocalyptical tradition. It will be hard to prove that the Pal

estinian initiators of the protest rallies had biblical connotations

in mind. But evoking religious motifs and symbols of both Jew ish and Christian origins certainly has a long tradition in modern

Palestinian poetry and literature.10 Palestinian political organisa tions equally did not hesitate to marshal biblical texts and images

when the issues of the holy sites or of Palestinian national unity were at stake. The Islamic organisations,

on the other hand, un

til then had hardly ever done so.

The apocalyptic dimension of the term was highlighted by the

Saudi Islamic scholar Safar al-Haw?li in a book on the Intifada

and its significance, which he published in late 2000 or early 2001. It was soon translated into English, and both Arabic and

English versions began to be distributed by different internet sites

before 11 September 2001. Its title already indicates a claim to

unravel the eschatological significance of the Intifada: "The Day of Wrath. Is the Raj ab Intifada only the Beginning? An exegeti cal reading of the prophecies of the Bible concerning the end of

the State of Israel" ( Yawm al-gadab. Hal bada3a bi-intif?dat Rajab ?!

Qiraa tafslriyya li-nubu?t al-tawr?t can n?h?yat dawlat Isral?)}1 The

7 Daniel 8:19, "in the last time ofwrath". 8 Revelation 6:17. 9 For a general overview of apocalyptic concepts in Judaism, Christianity and Islam,

see, e.g., the article "Apokalyptik" in RGG (Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Hand

w?rterbuchf?r Theologie und Religionswissenschaft), 4th ed., T?bingen: Mohr, 1998, vol.

1, 590-602; Frederik Leemhuis, "Apocalypse", in Encyclopaedia of the Qur?n, vol. 1,

111-114, with further references. io por Palestinian poetry, see notably Stefan Wild, "Judentum, Christentum und Is

lam in der pal?stinensischen Poesie", WI, 23-24, 1984, 259-297. 11 Arabic version available on the website which contains Safar al-Haw?l?'s writings,

http://saaid.net/warathah/safar (last checked 30 August, 2006). Also on al-Haw?l?'s

Arabic website, (22.9.2006). English version titled The Day of Wrath. Is the Intifadha

of Rajah only the Beginning?, first downloaded 13 September, 2001 from a well-known




cover page of the Arabic version shows an American flag with an

attached Star of David, whose staff breaks under a shower of fist

shaped stones hurled against it.

The author is at present one of the most prominent and contro

versial Salafi scholars in Saudi Arabia who through his polemical

writings against other Islamic currents as well as against Judaism,

Christianity and western secularism, and even more through his

critique of the pro-American politicies of the Saudi government, exerted a strong influence on Us?ma Bin L?din and on what he

himself calls the Islamic "awakening" (sahwa) in his country. Safar

b. cAbd al-Rahm?n al-Haw?l?12 (b. ca. 1950 in the G?mid region of south western Saudi Arabia) was professor of kal?m and dean

of the Faculty of Islamic Studies at the Umm al-Qur? Universi

ty in Mecca. He was dismissed and arrested together with other scholars and preachers in 1994, after they had sharply criticized the Saudi government for allying itself with "the American un

believers" and allowing them to establish a military base in the

country. He was released after five years in 1999 and allowed to

Islamic militant website, www.azzam.com; still available, e.g. under http://www.islam, com/books/0_preface.htm, under al-Haw?l?'s English web site http://www.alhawali.com/ en/ (both last checked 1 September 2006), and also under http://'www.as-sahwah.com/

viewarticle.php?articleID=9088c (22 September 2006). A printed edition remains to be

identified. A first overview of its content was given by Victor and Victoria Trimondi,

Krieg der Religionen. Politik, Glaube und Terror im Zeichen der Apokalypse, M?nchen: W.

Fink, 2006, 393-408. 12 For information on him and access to many of his works, see especially the

Saudi web site already mentioned above, http//saaid.net/waratha/safar, which includes a long personal note by one of his students, Hadir S?lih Sanad, written after al-Haw?l? was hospitalized because of a stroke in 2005 (http//saaid.net/waratha/safar/02.htm). For his role in Saudi politics since the 1990's, see the overviews by Guido Steinberg, "Islamistische Opposition in Saudiarabien. Eine Spurensuche im Lande Usama Bin

Ladins", ami. Antimilitarismus-Information, 31.Jg., Heft 10, October2001, 94-106 (www.

antimilitarismus-information.de/ami_homepage/ami_archiv/2001/10-01/pdf/0-01/8-saudi neu-10-01.pdf, 29 August, 2006), and more recent but also more sensationalist, by Trimondi, Krieg der Religionen, 393ff. A one-page entry on al-Haw?l? even found its

way into Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safar_al-Hawali) (29 November 2005, last modified 01:18, 17 November, 2005). He has also roused the interest of Ameri can "counterterrorism research"; cf. Erick Stakelbeck, "The Saudi Hate Machine", In the National Interest, December 19, 2003 (http://frontpagemag.com/Articles/Printable.asp?

ID=11388, 29 November 2005); "Saudi Double Talk", In the National Interest, August 4, 2004 (http://www.inthenationalinterest.com/Articles/Vol3 Issue31 /Vol3Issue31 Stakelbeck,

html) (29 November 2005). For a list of his publications, see the appendix below.




resume teaching which he continued with interruptions until

2005. His influence on the younger generation of Saudi scholars and academicians has been considerable, and Us?ma bin L?din

repeatedly referred to him in his declarations. After 11 Septem ber 2001, al-Haw?l? engaged in other political activities, publish

ing an open letter to the U.S. president and initiating a response to the declaration "What we're fighting for", which had been is

sued by 60 American intellectuals under the auspices of the In

stitute of American Values and addressed mainly to the Muslim

world.13 He also commented upon events in Palestine and in

Iraq and is reported to have founded a "Global Campaign Against

Aggression".14 Since October 2003/Sacb?n 1424 his books, book

lets and articles have been made available for downloading by the Saudi dacwa web site Sayd al-naw?fir.15 According to this web

site, readership numbers range for most of them over 10.000 us

ers which would seem to surpass by far the reach of his printed

publications, most of which still remain to be traced. Al-Haw?l?

is thus one of several prominent representatives of Islamic learn

ing in the Arab world who along with their personal teaching have come to rely on the internet to circulate their books, arti

cles, fatw?s and statements, rather than on the established ways of printed publication.16

Yawm al-gadab challenges the view, propagated by religious cir cles within the Zionist movement and their Christian evangelical

sympathizers, that the biblical prophecies predict the final victory

13 "Open Letter to President Bush", first downloaded from http://66.96.205.195/

-azzam/afghan/htmfatawaopen letter.htm (7 December 2001 ), still widely available in the

net; Arabic version under http://saaid.net/warathah/safar: Bay?n li-l-umma can al-ahd?t

wa-hit?b il?B?s; "How we Can Coexist", http://americanvalues.org/html/saudi_statement. html (12 November 2002); Arabic: loc. cit., Ris?la min Makka.. can ayyi say' nud?fic. 14 Reuven Paz, "The 'Global Campaign Against Aggression': The Supreme Council

of Global Jihad?", Intelligence and Terrorism Information Centre at the Center for

Special Studies (C. S. S), http://www. intelligence.org.il/eng/g_j/rp_f_ll_03.htm.org.il/eng/

gj/rpJLll-03.htm (29 November, 2005). 15

http://saaid.net/ warathah/safar/ (30 August, 2006). 16 The best known example is, of course, Y?suf al-Qarad?w?; see Gudrun Kr?mer,

"Drawing Boundaries: Y?suf al-Qarad?w? on Apostasy", in Gudrun Kr?mer and Sabi ne Schmidtke (eds.), Speaking for Islam. Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies, Leiden:

Brill, 2006, 181-217, with further reference.




of the Israel over its neighbours. The book claims that, quite to

the contrary, they can be read as indications of the violent end

of that state and its allies. It was explicitly written in reaction to

the publications of important evangelical groups in the United

States who have entered into a close alliance with the Orthodox

wing of the Zionist movement since the 1980s.17 The apocalyp tical visions of these groups focus on the state of Israel and its

special place in God's plans which He holds for the end of the

world. Arabs and Muslims figure in these visions as the eternal

enemies who will be finally defeated in the decisive battle of Ar

mageddon.18

Visions of the final battle and the impending end of the world, often illustrated by dramatic book covers and web site images, can also be found in evangelical web sites in other countries. A

German example shows the globe with a wild red dragon cover

ing the Middle East and facing three apocalyptic trumpets blow

ing from the west. A flag with the Star of David flies on the

longest trumpet. The author of this site, owner of an "Internet

Bible School"19, also dwells upon the "time of wrath" that will

lead to the destruction of the world which is dominated by Sa

tan. God's punishment will be meted out to all nations who in

tend to fight a total war against Israel, in particular to the Arab

people. The author even reads the final expulsion of the Ar

abs from Palestine and their deportation to the Yemen into the

biblical prophecies. Al-Haw?l? himself mentions one of the best

known apocalyptic writers, Hal Lindsey, whose essays and novels

17 See e.g. Allan Mittleman, "Religion, Politik und die Neo-Konservativen. Eine

Stellungnahme aus j?discher Sicht", in Klaus-M. Kodalle (ed.), Gott und Politik in USA.

?ber den Einflue des Religi?sen. Eine Bestandsaufnahme, Frankfurt a.M.: Athen?um, 1988, 126-145. For the historical background, and the role played by Christian Zionism

in British and American Middle Eastern policy, see Paul C. Merkley, The Politics of Christian Zionism 1891-1948, London: Frank Cass, 1998; Irvine H. Anderson, Biblical

interpretation and Middle East policy: The promised land, America, and Israel, 1917-2002, Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2005.

18 See in particular the large number of books offered by Armageddon Books, "World's Largest Bible Prophecy Bookstore", www.armageddonbooks.com (last checked

1 September 2006). 19 Cf. ?Internet-Bibelschule", http://www.internet-bibelschule.de/index.htm (29 No

vember 2005).




offer vivid and imaginative scenarios of the world's final days. In

his books, too, Islam often represents the major enemy in the fi

nal struggle of the righteous. Only the elect few can hope for re

demption. In a final "rapture" they will be taken away from earth

which will then be completely destroyed.20

Against this current of Christian Zionism strongly supportive of

Israel, and its growing popularity especially in the United States, al-Haw?l? with grim sarcasm presents his own reading of the bib

lical prophecies. As is to be expected from an Islamic scholar, he comes to entirely opposite conclusions.

Apocalyptical literature in general draws to a considerable ex

tent on the political positions taken by its authors, and their pro

phetic arguments are largely framed by these positions for which

they claim a special place in the divine plan. Safar al-Haw?l? is no exception to this rule. His introductory chapter begins with a

ruthless critique of the Middle Eastern peace process during the

1990s. According to him it was an illusionary undertaking from

the very start. He pours ridicule on the proposal of a vertically divided sovereignty over the Temple Mount which was offered by the Israeli delegation. According to this proposal the Palestinians

would control only the surface area of the Haram al-sar?f, and Is

rael would retain control of the areas below21, "a strange project [...] which was nevertheless in harmony with the Jewish mind."

(p. 7/4).22 But, he continues, even this minor concession was

20 See, e.g. Hal Lindsey, Late Great Planet Earth, Grand Rapids: Zondervan 1970;

The rapture: truth or consequences, Toronto, New York: Bantam Books, 1983; The Final

Battle, Palos Verdes: Western Front Publ., 1996; Vanished Into Thin Air: The Hope of

Every Believer, Beverly Hills: Western Front, 1999; The Everlasting Hatred, Murrieta:

Oracle House, 2002, and many others, all available at Armaggeddon Books and often

also at Amazon.com. On Hal Lindsey and other Christian Zionists, see especially Ste

phen Sizer, Christian Zionism. Road map to Armageddon f Leicester: InterVarsity Press, 2004.

21 Hammami, Tamari, "Anatomy of Another Rebellion", 4. Al-Haw?l? even men

tions the aerial space above the Haram as a third area of remaining Israeli sovereignty as provided by the proposal. 22 In this and the following references to al-Haw?l?'s Yawm al-gadab, the first num

ber refers to the Arabic paginated text, the second to the English translation. As the

latter is without pagination the indicated numbers might vary according to download

format and can only provide an approximative location of the quoted text.




met with outrage by the Jews, revealing the futility of any agree ment based on secular grounds. Al-Haw?l? therefore welcomes

the Intifada with its strong Islamic overtones, as it expresses what

he sees as the "spiritual strength of the blessed Islamic revival, which is the only remaining path after the exposure of the futil

ity of all the secular slogans." (p. 8/5).

According to al-Haw?l? the challenge of Jewish and Christian Zionism and their eschatological claims, with which Muslims have

been increasingly confronted, can be countered by their own in

terpretations of the biblical prophecies. He sees this is a legit imate undertaking since the books which were revealed before

the Qur'?n may still contain some truth, despite their distort

ed transmission. Even today's Jewish and Christian apocalyptic authors, he argues, are not always in agreement with each oth

er. Some expect the coming of Christ, others that of the Anti

christ, yet others the battle of Armageddon. Some even predict the end of Israel through the Intifada. This last group seems to

refer to those parts of the ultra-Orthodox haredim who even re

ject the state of Israel and who believe that the neglect of the

religious law, the halakha, was a sacrilege which led to the Ho

locaust and which might yet bring about severe punishments for

the heedless Jews in the future.23 Al-Haw?l? considers this be

lief as highly attractive, since the end of Israel is of outmost rel evance to the "real life situation" of his readers (p. 13/8). The sense of urgency constitutes a typical element of nearly all apoc

alyptic writing. Al-Haw?l? is clearly fascinated with the results of a positivist read

ing of the biblical texts. To him, it counts as an assessment of his

torical processes that is basically as valid as other kinds of analysis:

"Any secular strategic study can arrive at conclusions which are

similar or nearly identical to that which biblical prophecy states

concerning the end of the State of Israel." (p. 13/8). Its great

strength lies in its specification of exact times, which makes it a

matter of faith for the believer, not just a research opinion. He

23 See e.g. Gilles Kepel, Die Rache Gottes. Radikale Moslems, Christen und Juden auf dem Vormarsch, Munich: Piper, 1991, 245f.




sees the need to refute and destroy the current versions of these

prophecies as they present a grave danger to the world and could

be used by religious Zionists of Jewish and Christian background. Here he seems to think of the plans of the extremist Gush Emu

nim to blast the al-Aqsa Mosque during the 1980s.24

This is followed by a full chapter devoted to the "Jewish psyche", which in his eyes is marked by corruption and the lust for pow er. To him, the Jews have always remained the same, from the

times of the Prophet to present-day America where they continue

to exert control over large portions of the economy, the media, and politics (p. 26/13). But their hope that through the peace

process they would be able to break through their neighbours'

psychological barriers and to gain control over Middle Eastern

markets has not been fulfilled. They continue as a nation living under the wrath of God, showing no interest in peace, but surviv

ing solely through enmity, barbarism and racism (pp. 27f./14f.). Al-Haw?l? is quite conscious of the accusations of racism and anti

Semitism which he might have to face. In order to avoid the fate

of Roger Garaudy who was taken to court because of his anti-Se

mitic statements, al-Haw?l? decided to base his writings entirely on the evidence of the Bible, which, according to him, time and

again exposes the evil character of the Jews: "If the discussion of the criminal characteristics and behaviour of the Jews is anti-Se

mitic, as the Zionists claim, then the most anti-Semitic book on

earth is the Bible itself (p. 102/55). Al-Haw?l? quotes the fierce accusations, threats and curses di

rected by the biblical prophets against their people at length and

with relish, and turns them against the contemporary Jews and the state of Israel. The English version even subsumes all who re

fuse to believe in one of the divine messengers under the rubric

of "Jews" (p. 16, n. 9). Not surprisingly, he also mentions their

punishment of being transformed into apes and pigs (30/16).25

According to him, today's Jews have no right to the legacy of

Abraham (p. 112/63). Still, the biblical threats apply to them.

24 Seee.g.Kepel,Rache Gottes, 203-243.

25 Q5:60.




These passages offer a mix of traditional Islamic anti-Judaism and of topics belonging to the common stock of modern anti

Semitism, including a world-wide Jewish conspiracy to control the

world, greed for money and power, impurity and lewdness.26 A

novel argument in this context is his denial that today's Jews can

claim authentic Semitic descent; according to him they represent a racial mixture of Europeans, Khazars, Persians, Africans, and

many others. This only adds to their depravity: "Therefore, their

descent is false, their mother will receive no mercy, and their de

scendants are not Allah's people" (pp. 114f./64f.). These statements are backed by an Islamic interpretation of the

biblical prophecies concerning the city of Jerusalem. First of all, al-Haw?l? reaffirms the priority of the Kacba in Mecca over the

sanctuary in Jerusalem. According to Islamic tradition the Kacba was built by Adam or even by the angels. The Kacba?called in

Arabic the "Ancient House" (al-bayt al-atlq)?made Arabia "the

font of human civilisation and the center of world leadership" (p. 41/23). Jerusalem's sanctuary came only second. It was the "dis tant place of worship" (al-masjid al-aqsa), which is mentioned in

the Qur'?n (Q 17:1) and which Muhammad visited in his famous

night journey (pp. 38ff./21ff.). It was renewed by Solomon with

the help of human and jinn? craftsmen, and the present mosque also bears its name (al-Aqsa). The name "Temple" (haykal) which

the Jews gave to it went along with the corruption of their reli

gion with paganism of which they are often accused in the To

rah. In accordance with widespread Palestinian views, the author

denies that there are remains of the Solomonic building beneath the al-Aqsa or in its vicinity, and he declares that archeological excavations have never revealed any traces of the supposed Tem

ple of Solomon.27 Al-Haw?l?'s stress upon the Solomonic building as a

predecessor of the al-Aqsa Mosque stands in marked contrast

to the medieval Islamic tradition concerning the sanctuary of Je

26 See the contributions of Kiefer and Kr?mer to this volume. 27 The Second Temple, of which only the platform and parts of the surrounding

wall remain, is not mentioned by the author; see for the two temples Gudrun Kr?mer, Geschichte Pal?stinas, 2nd ed., Munich: C. H. Beck, 2002, 34ff., 380 n. 12; Theodor A.

Busink, Der Tempel von Jerusalem von Salomo bis Herodes, 1, Leiden: Brill, 1970.




rusalem. These focused mainly on the Dome of the Rock whose

construction by the Umayyads had both revived and transformed

the ancient Jewish sanctuary.28 The change of the qibla from Jerusalem to Mecca, he continues,

which the Prophet carried out in obedience to divine command,

again confirmed the priority of the Kacba. Jews and Christians did not heed God's command concerning the true direction of

prayer and were therefore excluded from the faith of Abraham

(p. 43/24). Al-Haw?l? also presents many scattered references from

the Bible as evidence that Mecca is the "New Jerusalem" of the

prophecies. Anybody watching the large crowds of worshippers in TV broadcasts from Mecca during Ramadan or the hajj sea

son, he argues, cannot but arrive at this conclusion (pp. 47/25f.). Even Jesus predicted a time when God would no longer be wor

shipped in Jerusalem or on Mount Garizim (John 4:21). Mecca as the biblical "New Jerusalem" is only one item on a long

list of Islamic interpretations of key terms of the biblical prophe cies. This list is offered with sarcastic generosity to the believers in

the Bible, as a tool which will allow them to solve their disputes (p. 49/27). As in Islamic tradition, Al-Haw?l? ascribes the bibli

cal notions of the "Paraclete", the "Head of Creation", and the

"Righteous One" to the Prophet of Islam. According to al-Haw?l?, he is also the "Son of Man" mentioned by Daniel. The use of this term for Jesus in the four Gospels is ignored by him. From the

English translation of the Arabic ibn al-ins?n, he derives a pecu liar distinction between Muhammad, the "Son of Man", and cIs?

(Jesus), the "Son of Woman" (p. 49/27): the fact that Muhammad

has a father where Jesus only has a (virgin) mother qualifies him

alone as the "Son of Man" and implies his superiority. Similar to the evangelical interpretations of the prophetic and

apocalyptic texts of the Bible, al-Haw?l? tries to find present-day identifications for most of the horrible creatures that figure in

these texts. The apocalyptic "beast" is Zionism in its Jewish and

28 Cf. O. Grabar, "Qubbatal-sakhra", EP II, 298f.; H. Russe, Jerusalemer Heiligtums traditionen in altkirchlicher und fr?hislamischer Zeit, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, I7ff.; 22

25.




Christian fundamentalist versions. "False prophets" were Paul, the

popes and all who claimed to be Christ or to receive revelations from him. The "little horn" and the "abomination of desolation"

mentioned by Daniel are identified with the state of Israel, and the "New Babylon" with modern Western, especially American cul

ture; not surprisingly, the United State are branded as the "New Roman Empire" (p. 50/27).

Equipped with these keys, al-Haw?l? approaches the Book of Daniel with its famous visions, which throughout the ages have

provided a major source of political and historical imagination to

the Christian world. Occasionally he also refers to the New Tes tament and more specifically to the Book of Revelation. The last he describes with some irony as a "horror film" to whose atroci

ties he does not want to expose his readers (p. 73/39). A central argument of al-Haw?l?'s book, as of Muslim polem

ics since the early period of Islam, is that many of the biblical

prophecies were fulfilled by the coming of Islam. This, howev

er, was denied and suppressed by Jews and Christians alike, who either projected that fulfilment back to the past or postponed it to an undefined future, disappointing the human longing for

redemption and for the triumph of goodness, truth, and peace. For al-Haw?l?, however, these are false views which are in obvi ous contradiction with divine wisdom, mercy, and justice. It be comes very clear from this argument that he is less interested in

the end of the world than in very tangible and this-worldly hopes of political?and military?liberation.

The Book of Daniel (Dan. 2) mentions a dream which disturbed

Nebuchadnezzar, the Babylonian king: he saw a huge figure with a golden head, with a chest and arms of silver, a belly and thighs of bronze, iron legs and feet of clay. A stone fell upon it, shat tered it and turned into a great mountain that filled the earth.

Daniel interpreted the dream to the king: four empires would follow upon each other and would finally be destroyed by a fifth one which would last forever. This prophecy was much discussed

by Jewish and Christian scholars. The first four empires were gen

erally assumed to represent Babylon, followed by the Persians, the Greek empire of Alexander the Great, and Rome. There was no

agreement about the fifth: in Christian tradition it was often seen




as indicating the rise of the Church; al-Haw?l? takes it as a clear

sign of the rise and final rule of Islam (pp. 61-73/33-39). Another famous vision of Daniel (Dan. 7) describes the rising

of four great beasts from the sea: a winged lion, a bear, a leop ard with four heads and four wings, and finally a beast with ten

horns, which killed and devoured all the others. An evil little horn

with human eyes and mouth appeared on it. This beast will be

defeated and put to judgement, and everlasting rule will be given to a fifth being, the "Son of Man" who will descend from heav en. He represents the chosen "People of the Saints of the Most

High" who will be given lasting power and rule over the whole

world (Dan. 7:27). Over time, the two prophecies of a fifth, ev

erlasting empire were variously interpreted in religious as well as in political terms, especially during the religious wars of the

post-Reformation period.29 Al-Haw?l? offers his own interpreta tion of the last vision: the lion stands for the British empire, the

bear for the Soviet Union. The multi-winged and multi-headed

leopard represents either France and the Catholic colonial em

pires, or perhaps the eight Asian tiger states. The fourth beast is

without doubt a symbol of the United States or NATO, with Is

rael as the little evil horn. For the saints who will destroy Amer

ica no interpretation is required for, as he says, "we will have to

wait only a short time to see" (p. 71/38). Here he clearly refers to the Muslim muj?hid?n, whom he also identifies with the vic

torious armies coming from the north or east, which are men

tioned elsewhere in the Book of Daniel (p. 81/42).30 Al-Haw?l? devotes an entire chapter (ch. 9, pp. 81-101/44-55)

to the vision of two evil animals mentioned in the Book of Reve

lation (Rev. 13), which appear on the shore of the sea. He takes

them to represent Jewish and Christian Zionism (p. 80/42). He

29 The "Fifth Monarchy Men", for example, were a powerful group within the anti

royalist party during the English Revolution of the seventeenth century, who were

convinced that the British Protestant nation with its Parliament was the rightful heir

to that prophecy; see, e.g., B. Capp, The Fifth Monarchy Men: a study in seventeenth

century English Millenarianism, London: Faber and Faber, 1972; Christopher Hill, The

World Turned Upside Down, London: Penguin, 1991 [1975]. 30 Reference here is apparently to Dan. 11:44.




also connects their evil activities with Daniel's prophecy on the abomination which will be effected by the little horn in Jerusa lem and which will last for 2.300 days.31 The "abomination of desolation" (rujsat al-har?b), which is also mentioned in the New Testament (Matth. 24:15), comes out as the most important sym bol for the depravity of the present state of Israel. Al-Haw?l? fires another volley of biblical accusations, threats and condemnations of the Jewish people in order to bring home this point (ch. 10,

pp. 102-107/55-59), dwelling upon their immorality and defile ment as mentioned in their own sacred book.

Al-Haw?l? then scrutinizes some Christian speculations on the

timing of this abomination in Jerusalem. He offers his own cal culation as to its beginning and the final "day of wrath" which will end it. Following those commentators who translate the num

ber of days mentioned in Daniel into years, he arrives at the year 1966/7 as the beginning of the time of evil: the "Abomination of Desolation" thus started with the Israeli occupation of the Haram in Jerusalem.32 The 45 days of duration for these evils derived from another enigmatic saying in Daniel33 are also in

terpreted by our author as years: the year 2012 might thus be

hoped for as the year of the "Day of Wrath". He shows himself convinced that the turning point has already been reached with the Intifada of Raj ab. Incidentally his prediction comes close to

that of his American antipodes: in Hal Lindsey's apocalyptic nov

el Blood Moon, the battle between the "futuristic namesakes" of Isaac and Ishmael unfolds in 2014.34

31 Dan. 8:14. In Christian exegesis of the Book of Daniel this vision is generally re

garded as referring to the desecration of the Temple in Jerusalem by the Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV (d. 163 BCE), which sparked the Maccabean revolt. On the his torical background of the Book of Daniel and its role in Jewish and Christian tradi

tion, see e.g. Jean Dani?lou, "Daniel", Reallexikon f?r Antike und Christentum, Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann, 1957, 3, 575-585.

32 This is not quite in accordance with his reference to Dan. 8:14 before, where the number of 2.300 days describes the duration, not the beginning of the desecration of the Temple. 33 This is based on Dan. 12:11, from which a period of 45 days between the end of the tribulations of the believers and the final restitution of the Temple cult can be inferred.

34 http://www.armageddonbooks.com/hal.html (3 September 2006).




That final day will bring judgement not reconciliation (muh?kama l? mus?laha, ch. 11, pp. 108-118/60-67). Al-Haw?li again emphat

ically rejects any peace process. On the "Day of Wrath", the state

of Israel and the United States will be defeated by the armies of

the Muslims, and Israel will be annihilated. This will be the fi

nal fulfilment of the biblical prophecies. The author dwells with

considerable enthusiasm on the prophetic calls to war, especial

ly those in Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Joel (pp. 119ff./68ff.), which he

reads as calls to jihad and as a praise of the Muslim warriors. Af

ter this great victory the expelled Palestinians will return to their

homeland. The biblical promises are reserved for them, not for

the Jews who will be dispersed again, except those who convert

to Islam or choose to remain as dimmts under Muslim rule. As

al-Haw?l? attempts to dispossess the Jews of both their state and

their biblical heritage, his transfer of the biblical promises and

prophecies to the Palestinian Muslims conveys an engagement with the Bible which is rather unusual for an Islamic scholar.

Taken in isolation, the "Day of Wrath" might appear as a blind

and vitriolic attack, built upon forced and distorted interpreta tions of biblical texts. But as has been shown, the book has to be

read in the framework of current Jewish and Christian apocalyp tic tendencies, since it engages with them to such an extent and

even owes many of its own concepts to their interpretations of the

Bible. Taken together they illustrate the general re-sacralisation

of the political language which could be observed in the Middle

East over the last decades. Within Israel, secularist Zionism was

strongly challenged after 1967 by the militant religious messian

ism of the Gush Emunim and other Orthodox Jewish groups, and

American political attitudes towards the region have increasing

ly come under the influence of Christian Zionism. For Muslims, the demise of secular patterns of political ideology and the grow

ing "Islamisation of nationalism" (L. Binder)35 have also opened the field for Islamist movements who have increasingly domin?t

35 On the beginnings of this process, see already Naseer Aruri, "Nationalism and

Religion in the Arab World: Allies or Enemies", Muslim World, 67, 1977, 266-279.




ed the "terrain of social utopia" (G. Kepel).36 Since the Iranian

revolution they have to a large extent

gained control over the ar

ticulation of social and political values in the Arab World.

As Safar al-Haw?l? makes rather creative use of the biblical texts

used by his Jewish and Christian opponents, he brings a new ele ment into the polemic interaction between Israelis and Palestin

ians. The "Day of Wrath" demonstrates how a Muslim polemicist finds in the Bible a promising resource for his anti-Israeli and anti

American views and aspirations. A comparison of the two camps thus reveals a striking convergence of their apocalyptic language. Even the Christian millenarian extremists, whom al-Haw?l? crit

icized so sharply as "madmen venturing some stupid stunt that

would end in an unthinkable catastrophe" (pp. 17f./10), have

apparently found their match. To remain within the appropriate

imagery: the apocalyptic horses (Rev. 6) are harnessed by both

sides to their own carriages and prepared for battle against each

other. This points to the political motives underlying the inflat

ed religious rhetoric. At least for al-Haw?l?, the "Day of Wrath"

is not doomsday37 but a day of this-worldly liberation, reckon

ing and revenge. It is not the Mahd? or Jesus who will bring it

about, but the muj?hid?n, the Muslim fighters gathering from all

parts of the world. He clearly separates the question of the end

of the state of Israel from any speculation on matters concern

ing the Day of Resurrection (p. 13/8) and never refers to Islam ic apocalyptical doctrines and traditions.

After September 11, al-Haw?l?'s book may be read as a key text

that provides important clues to the imagery which has guided Bin L?din and his Saudi followers in their militant activism. But

the "Day of Wrath" is also full of sarcasm and conveys a certain

36 Kepel, Prophet and Pharaoh, 154f.

37 To present al-Haw?l? as a ?doomsday prophet", as done by V. & V. Trimondi, Krieg der Religionen, 393ff, is thus misleading, especially when read together with his other

much more positive views of the Americans and their political and religious culture, which they also mention in their overview (see also below). His posture as "one of the heirs of the prophets" in his Open Letter to President Bush is equally misunderstood

by them (p. 396) as they take this reference to a famous Hadit about the scholars as

heirs of the prophets as indicating a claim of prophetical status for himself.




distance to its topic, occasionally leaving the reader with the im

pression of a grim play with the sacred texts of the enemy. At

the end the author confesses that there cannot be absolute cer

tainty about future events but proposes a bet with the Christian

and Jewish fundamentalists about their outcome (p. 130/76). This confirms the essentially political function of his argument. His way of treating biblical prophecy is in perfect accordance

with the largely political and this-worldly character of the wave

of Arabic apocalyptic literature which has been published in re

cent years.38 The recurring expressions of anti-Semitism, dressed

in biblical language, can also be related to the author's frame of

radical views about Israel and America.

In addition to his apocalyptic look at the future al-Haw?l? has

another string to his bow when it comes to America. In more re

cent articles he expressed considerable admiration for the Ameri can theology of Unitarianism that several U.S. presidents adhered

to, and for the historical beginnings of the United States as an

"enlightened monotheist nation". He regrets that they should

have ended up with "an evangelical, Zionist, and crusade gov ernment", and urges the Muslims to strive hard to convert that

nation to Islam.39 He sees much hope for dacwa work among the Americans many of whom he regards as second only to the

Muslims in their serious pursuit of justice.40 His Open Letter

to President Bush already dwelt upon the traditional sympathy of the Arabs for the United States, and on their disappointment with the changes of American politics since the 1970s. Even if al

Haw?l? has maintained his fierce criticism of present U.S. poli cies in the Middle East, his views of the Americans on the whole

appear now much more nuanced. This change is clearly related

38 See Sabine Damir-Geilsdorf, "Das Ende?eine politische Wende? Gegenw?rtige muslimische Erinnerungen an die Zukunft", Orient, 44, 2003, 257-279.

39 Al-Haw?l?, "al-Muwahhid?n min al-Nas?r?", al-Bay?n, no. 204, Sa'b?n 1425/

September 2004, http://al-bayan-magazine.com/bayan-204/bayan-19.htm (20 November,

2005), Engl. Transi. "The Monotheists Among the Christians", http://www.islamscience. com/monotheistsEA2.html (29 November, 2005).

40 Al-Haw?l?, "Nas?ha wa-dikr?", 14.4.1424, http://saaid.net/warathah/safar/5.htm,

"al-Sahwa wa-1-muw?jaha wa-azmat al-tahtit", http://saaid.net/warathah/safar/14.htm (n. d.) both last checked 30 August, 2006).




to his growing critique of a blind and arbitrary Islamic activism which can be noticed in his recent articles. To some extent this

may have resulted from increased political pressure which appar

ently was brought to bear upon al-Haw?l? over the last years.41 It

also certainly follows from a line of historical interest which can

be identified his writings. But "The Day of Wrath" with its fiery message is still available on different web sites, and for both its

Arabic and English versions large numbers of users have been

counted.42 This testifies to its persisting impact upon readers in

and beyond the Middle East.

Appendix

List of books written by Safar al-Haw?l? as available on the web

site http://saaid.net/warathah/safar/(4 September, 2006), with add

ed reference to printed versions which could as yet be identified.

This seems to be the most comprehensive collection. Some are

also available under al-Haw?l?'s own website http://www.alhawali. com (22 September 2006).

- al-Taliq cal? maw?di min kit?b <Fath al-maj?d> (Lectures on Tawh?d,

commenting upon cAbd al-Rahm?n b. Hasan ?l al-Sayh, Fath al

maj?d, itself a commentary upon Muhammad b. cAbd al-Wahh?b, Kit?b al-tawh?d).

- Sarh <al-Aq?da al~Tah?wiyya> (Long commentary on the creed of

the early Hanafi scholar at-Tah?w?, d. 321/933). -

al-Intif?da wa-1-Tat?r al-judud (dated 1 Safar 1424/4 April 2003)

(On Israel, America, and the Second Intifada). -

al-:Alm?niyya..nas'atuh? wa-tatawwuruh? wa-?t?ruh? fi l-hay?t al-isl?miyya al-mu?sira. (A study on the origins of secularism and its influence

upon the Islamic world). - Ris?la min Makka./an ayyi say3 nud?fic7?(Reply to the Open letter of the American Intellectuals, 2001).

41 The biographical account of his student, Hadir S?lih Sanad (http//saaid.net/

waratha/safar/02.htm, see above n. 12), mentions a ban from teaching which was im

posed on him in recent years. 42

Http://saaid.net/Warathah/safar (30.8.2006) indicates a number of 10.412 reads for the Arabic version since 12.8.1424/9.10.2003 when it was first placed on this

site. For the English version available under http://www.as-sahwah.com/viewarticle.

php?articleID=9088c (22.9.2006), 23.060 reads are given.




- 42 muh?dar?t mufarraga [sie] li-l-sayh Safar al-Haw?l? (Collection of

lectures). - 43 muh?dar?t mufarraga [sic] li-l-sayh Safar al-Haw?l? (Collection of

lectures). - Z?hirat al-irj?3 f? l-fikr al-isl?ml (His Ph. D. thesis: a theological and

historical critique of the Murji'a and of related tendencies in Islam, directed against all those who separate belief and practice in Islam,

including many contemporary scholars and religious movements). -

al-Quds bayna l-wacd al-haqq.. wa-l-wacd al-muftar? (al-Q?hira: Mak

tabat al-Sunna, 1414/1994). (A political and theological study on the truth of the prophecies transmitted by Jews, Christians and

Muslims concerning Jerusalem). - Yawm al-gadab hal bada3a bi-intif?dat Rajaba! (2000/2001, before 11

September). - Wasatiyyat ahl al-sunna wa-l-jamaa (Short lecture on the middle

position taken by the Ahl al-sunna wa-l-jam?ca in religious issues). -

Manhaj al-As?cira fi l-aq?da (A theological critique of the As'arite

school). -

Muqaddima f? tatawwur al-fikr al-garb? wa-1-had?ta (On Europe and

the roots of her long-drawn struggle against religion and belief) -

Bay an li-l-umma can al-ahd?t wa-hit?b il? Bus (2001, after 11 Septem ber, including the Open Letter directed to President Bush).

- al-Im?n wa-naw?qiduhu (Dogmatic tract on belief and its deficien

cies). -

al-Qawmiyya (Lecture on Nationalism). - al-Muslim?n wa-dir?sat al-mustaqbal (Lecture on sound and unsound

ways and methods of studying the future). -

Mujaddid millat cAmr b. Luhayy wa-d?ciyat al-sirk f? h?d? l-zam?n.

(Polemic against the prominent Hij?zi scholar Muhammad cAlaw?

M?lik?, one of the co-founders of the Muslim World League, and

his book Sif?3 al-fu?d bi-ziy?rat hayr al-ib?d). - Sarh <Ris?lat tahk?m al-qawan?n> li-l-sayh Muhammad b. Ibrah?m (rahimahu

ll?h). (Extensive commentary on a fatw? of the former Mufti of Saudi

Arabia, Muhammad b. Ibrahim ?1 as-Sayh, on man-made laws and

their necessary accordance with the sari a, dated 1380/1960). -

Kasf al-gumma can culam?3 al-umma. Ris?la min al-sayh Safar al-Haw?l?

il? al-sayh cAbd al-Az?z b. B?z (n.l. [Saudiarabia], Dar al-Hikma,

1412/1991) (Long pamphlet addressed to the leading Saudi scholar; critique of the decision to grant the Americans a military base in

the country, and complaint about the erosion of the Islamic char

acter of the Saudi state). - Al-Radd cal? l-hurafiyy?n (Muhammad 'Alaw? M?lik?) (another polemic against Muhammad cAlaw? M?lik? blaming him for his Sufi opinions).

- Malhamat al-S?m (Long poem on Syria and its glorious role in the

defence of Islam and of Jerusalem, mentioning in particular Sal?h

al-Din's victories and Ibn Taymiyya's writings and activities). - Also the following important article from another web source:




"Al-Muwahhid?n min al-nas?r?. Us?luhum..w?qicuhum..mu?n?tuhum",

al-Bay?n, Sacb?n 1425/Sept-Oct. 2004 http://albayan-magazine.com/

bayan-204/bayan-19.htm (29 November 2005); English version: "The Monotheists Among the Christians", http://www.islamscience.com/mono theistsEA2.html (29 November 2005).



Reichmuth_The Second Intifada and the Day of Wrath

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