Post on 24-Dec-2014
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OBSERVATION METHODSCHAPTER 11
Anirudh Jindal 22
Karan Juriani 24
Ishant Kathuria 26
Gunjan Khanuja28
Kushal Suneja 30
“YOU SEE, BUT YOU DO NOT OBSERVE.”
~ Sherlock Holmes
SCIENTIFIC OBSERVATION IS SYSTEMATIC
. . . systematic witnessing and/or recording of behavioral
patterns of objects, people, and events without directly
communicating with them – can collect both qualitative and
quantitative data.
. . . systematic witnessing and/or recording of behavioral
patterns of objects, people, and events without directly
communicating with them – can collect both qualitative and
quantitative data.
There are four conditions for scientific observation:
• Serves a formulated research purpose
• Planned systematically• Recorded systematically• Subjected to checks or
controls on validity and reliability
There are four conditions for scientific observation:
• Serves a formulated research purpose
• Planned systematically• Recorded systematically• Subjected to checks or
controls on validity and reliability
OBSERVATIONS
Physical actions
Expressive behaviors
Verbal patterns
Temporal patterns
Spatial relationships & locations
Physical objects
Nonverbal symbols
BEHAVIORS THAT ARE OBSERVED . . .
WHAT CAN BE OBSERVED
Human behavior
or physical
action
• Shoppers movement pattern in a store
Verbal behavio
r
• Statements made by airline travelers who wait in lineExpressi
ve behavio
r
• Facial expressions, tone of voice, and other form of body language
Spatial relations and
locations
• How close visitors at an art museum stand to paintings
Temporal
patterns
• How long fast-food customers wait for their order to be served
Physical objects
• What brand name items are stored in consumers’ pantries
Verbal and
Pictorial
Records
• Bar codes on product packages
OBSERVATION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
Business researchers can observe people, objects, events, or other phenomena using either human observers or machines designed for specific observation tasks
Direct observation is a straightforward attempt
to observe and record what naturally occurs; the investigator does
not create artificial situation.
Contrived observation is observation in which the
investigator creates an artificial environment in
order to test a hypothesis.
Direct versus scientifically contrived observation
Visible observation is situation in which the
observer’s presence is known to the subject.Hidden observation is situation in which the
subject is unaware that observation is taking
place.
Visible versus hidden observation
Mechanical observation is situation in which
video cameras, traffic counters, and other
machines help observe and record behavior.
Human versus mechanical observation
NATURE OF OBSERVATION STUDIES
• Communication with respondent is not necessary
• Data without distortions due to self-report (e.g.: without social desirability) Bias
• No need to rely on respondents memory
• Nonverbal behavior data may be obtained
• Certain data may be obtained more quickly
• Environmental conditions may be recorded
• May be combined with survey to provide supplemental evidence
OBSERVING AND INTERPRETING NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION
DIRECT OBSERVATION
Straight forward attempt to observe and record what naturally occurs
Data like age, gender, race can be easily observed
Produces detailed Records with more accurate data
Observer - Passive Role
Helps keep researchers’ observation consistent
Response Latency - Amount of time it takes to make a choice between two alternatives
Quick decision indicates psychological distance between alternatives
ERRORS IN DIRECT OBSERVATION
Observer Bias : A distortion of measurement resulting from the cognitive behavior
To some extent Subjective in nature
Compromise on accuracy due to factors such as speed of recording details, observer’s memory, writing speed
Not all details recorded
Interpretation of data can be a source of error.
SCIENTIFICALLY CONTRIVED OBSERVATION
Create an artificial situation in order to test a hypothesis or a situation under study
Less time consuming than the observation technique.
Observer has greater control over gathering the data
Observer can Influence the subjects
COMBINING DIRECT OBSERVATION & INTERVIEWING
Interviews conducted after detailed direct observation
Can better explain their actions noticed under the observation technique
ETHICAL ISSUES IN OBSERVATION
Hidden Observations intrudes into the RIGHT TO PRIVACY
More problematic in Private places than in public such as
Trial rooms , Rest rooms, Spas etc
Observation through two way mirrors
Some people might see contrived observation as entrapment
If no permission is taken from the subject:
• Intrusion into privacy• Unethical and Illegal
behaviorIf permission is taken from the subject:
• Un natural responses• Soul purpose of research
being negotiated
The Dilemma
WHEN SHOULD A RESEARCHER FEEL COMFORTABLE ABOUT COLLECTING OBSERVATIONS
Is the behavior being observed commonly performed in
public where it is expected to be observed by others
Is the behavior performed in a setting in which the
anonymity of the person is assured
Has the person agreed to the observations
Yes ?
Yes ?Yes ?
OBSERVATION OF PHYSICAL OBJECTS
Physical trace data serves as visible record of past events
Important information can be extracted
Response bias is avoided
More correct and accurate information as it is the direct physical object
Examples:
More the wear and tear of books indicates more is the usage and preference for those books.
Garbage Project
CONTENT ANALYSIS
Systematically analyzing the written communication
Observing and analyzing the contents ,messages ,advertisements, newspaper article ,television programmes.
Aimed at collecting information on characteristics of messages
Advertisement content analysis: analyzing the usage of word ,themes and
characters
CONTENT ANALYSIS: EXAMPLES
TRACE ANALYSIS
Researchers collect data on the basis of physical trace and evidence of previous activities of the users
For e.g.: Looking at product wrappers in waste bin
Has disadvantages in terms of generalizability of the result
FMCGs use this quite frequently to have initial idea about the consumption behaviour of their newly launched products
MECHANICAL OBSERVATION
Includes video cameras, traffic counters and machines, which helps us to observe and record behaviour
Sometimes motion picture cameras and time lapse photography are also used
Application in real time: Train passengers and find out their level of comfort
Traffic flows in urban square
Organization of warehouse
TELEVISION MONITORING
Computerized mechanical observation used to obtain television ratings
Used consumer panel & PeopleMeter – a monitoring device
PeopleMeter gathers data about who is watching which program at what time
More than 5000 TV sets were fitted with this device
CLICK – THROUGH RATES (MONITORING WEBSITE TRAFFIC)
Percentage of people who are exposed to an advertisement who actually click on the corresponding hyperlink which takes them to the Company’s website
Way of measuring the success of an online advertising campaign for a particular website
Advertisers incur cost on each click as cost per click
Counting hits suggests the amount of interest website is receiving but these measures are flawed
CTR FLAWS
Hits do not differentiate between lot of activity by a few visitors or little activity by many
visitors
Cant differentiate if a user is clicking multiple times due to some useful thing or just
because he is trying unsuccessfully to find something by looking in several places.
Hits by mistake
Consumer may be unaware of what they are doing while clicking the ad, they might be
looking for something & ended up there
SCANNER BASED RESEARCH
What it is ??
A mechanical method of observation
Use of scanner based consumer panels instead of consumer purchase diaries
How it is implemented ??
Each household is assigned with a bar code card
Scanner machines record purchase information at the billing counter
Background information collected through surveys is also coupled with household code number
Aggregate data is provided to industries for analytics
ADVANTAGES OVER CONVENTIONAL SYSTEM
Actual purchase behavior rather than reported behavior
Improved efficiency
Unbiased data
More extensive data can be recorded
Data can be combined with other factors and be analyzed with powerful analytical software
MEASURING PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS
Mechanical devices have been used to record physiological reactions of consumer to advertising, packaging or other stimuli
The two basic principals for these observations are: Eye Movements towards stimuli which attracts more
Change in Adrenaline level when body is aroused
DEVICES USED
Eye-tracking monitorTracks eye movements with invisible infrared light beams Infrared beam of light locks on pupil to record eye movement across stimuliAnother camera records the pages or screen being viewedData is analyzed in a computer to find out the subject’s interest in an ad
Pupilometer•Observes and records changes in the diameter of subject’s pupils•Brightness and distance of the stimulus from the subject ‘s eyes are held constant•Assumption – Increased pupil size reflects positive attitude
DEVICES USED
Psychogalvanometer•Measures galvanic skin response i.e change in electrical resistance•Change in adrenaline level increases blood flow, perspiration and electrical resistance of the body•Based on assumption that physiological changes accompany emotional reaction to stimuli
Voice-pitch analysis•Gauges emotional reactions as reflected by frequency of person’s voice•Abnormal frequencies in the voice are recorded that are supposed to reflect emotional reaction towards stimuli
LIMITATIONS
No strong evidence supports the argument that physiological change is a valid measure of
future sales, change of attitude etc
Calibration of measuring devices
Expensive
Participants know that they are being observed