OBSERVATION METHODSCHAPTER 11

Anirudh Jindal 22

Karan Juriani 24

Ishant Kathuria 26

Gunjan Khanuja28

Kushal Suneja 30

“YOU SEE, BUT YOU DO NOT OBSERVE.”

~ Sherlock Holmes

SCIENTIFIC OBSERVATION IS SYSTEMATIC

. . . systematic witnessing and/or recording of behavioral

patterns of objects, people, and events without directly

communicating with them – can collect both qualitative and

quantitative data.

. . . systematic witnessing and/or recording of behavioral

patterns of objects, people, and events without directly

communicating with them – can collect both qualitative and

quantitative data.

There are four conditions for scientific observation:

• Serves a formulated research purpose

• Planned systematically• Recorded systematically• Subjected to checks or

controls on validity and reliability

There are four conditions for scientific observation:

• Serves a formulated research purpose

• Planned systematically• Recorded systematically• Subjected to checks or

controls on validity and reliability

OBSERVATIONS

Physical actions

Expressive behaviors

Verbal patterns

Temporal patterns

Spatial relationships & locations

Physical objects

Nonverbal symbols

BEHAVIORS THAT ARE OBSERVED . . .

WHAT CAN BE OBSERVED

Human behavior

or physical

action

• Shoppers movement pattern in a store

Verbal behavio

r

• Statements made by airline travelers who wait in lineExpressi

ve behavio

r

• Facial expressions, tone of voice, and other form of body language

Spatial relations and

locations

• How close visitors at an art museum stand to paintings

Temporal

patterns

• How long fast-food customers wait for their order to be served

Physical objects

• What brand name items are stored in consumers’ pantries

Verbal and

Pictorial

Records

• Bar codes on product packages

OBSERVATION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

Business researchers can observe people, objects, events, or other phenomena using either human observers or machines designed for specific observation tasks

Direct observation is a straightforward attempt

to observe and record what naturally occurs; the investigator does

not create artificial situation.

Contrived observation is observation in which the

investigator creates an artificial environment in

order to test a hypothesis.

Direct versus scientifically contrived observation

Visible observation is situation in which the

observer’s presence is known to the subject.Hidden observation is situation in which the

subject is unaware that observation is taking

place.

Visible versus hidden observation

Mechanical observation is situation in which

video cameras, traffic counters, and other

machines help observe and record behavior.

Human versus mechanical observation

NATURE OF OBSERVATION STUDIES

• Communication with respondent is not necessary

• Data without distortions due to self-report (e.g.: without social desirability) Bias

• No need to rely on respondents memory

• Nonverbal behavior data may be obtained

• Certain data may be obtained more quickly

• Environmental conditions may be recorded

• May be combined with survey to provide supplemental evidence

OBSERVING AND INTERPRETING NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION

DIRECT OBSERVATION

Straight forward attempt to observe and record what naturally occurs

Data like age, gender, race can be easily observed

Produces detailed Records with more accurate data

Observer - Passive Role

Helps keep researchers’ observation consistent

Response Latency - Amount of time it takes to make a choice between two alternatives

Quick decision indicates psychological distance between alternatives

ERRORS IN DIRECT OBSERVATION

Observer Bias : A distortion of measurement resulting from the cognitive behavior

To some extent Subjective in nature

Compromise on accuracy due to factors such as speed of recording details, observer’s memory, writing speed

Not all details recorded

Interpretation of data can be a source of error.

SCIENTIFICALLY CONTRIVED OBSERVATION

Create an artificial situation in order to test a hypothesis or a situation under study

Less time consuming than the observation technique.

Observer has greater control over gathering the data

Observer can Influence the subjects

COMBINING DIRECT OBSERVATION & INTERVIEWING

Interviews conducted after detailed direct observation

Can better explain their actions noticed under the observation technique

ETHICAL ISSUES IN OBSERVATION

Hidden Observations intrudes into the RIGHT TO PRIVACY

More problematic in Private places than in public such as

Trial rooms , Rest rooms, Spas etc

Observation through two way mirrors

Some people might see contrived observation as entrapment

If no permission is taken from the subject:

• Intrusion into privacy• Unethical and Illegal

behaviorIf permission is taken from the subject:

• Un natural responses• Soul purpose of research

being negotiated

The Dilemma

WHEN SHOULD A RESEARCHER FEEL COMFORTABLE ABOUT COLLECTING OBSERVATIONS

Is the behavior being observed commonly performed in

public where it is expected to be observed by others

Is the behavior performed in a setting in which the

anonymity of the person is assured

Has the person agreed to the observations

Yes ?

Yes ?Yes ?

OBSERVATION OF PHYSICAL OBJECTS

Physical trace data serves as visible record of past events

Important information can be extracted

Response bias is avoided

More correct and accurate information as it is the direct physical object

Examples:

More the wear and tear of books indicates more is the usage and preference for those books.

Garbage Project

CONTENT ANALYSIS

Systematically analyzing the written communication

Observing and analyzing the contents ,messages ,advertisements, newspaper article ,television programmes.

Aimed at collecting information on characteristics of messages

Advertisement content analysis: analyzing the usage of word ,themes and

characters

CONTENT ANALYSIS: EXAMPLES

TRACE ANALYSIS

Researchers collect data on the basis of physical trace and evidence of previous activities of the users

For e.g.: Looking at product wrappers in waste bin

Has disadvantages in terms of generalizability of the result

FMCGs use this quite frequently to have initial idea about the consumption behaviour of their newly launched products

MECHANICAL OBSERVATION

Includes video cameras, traffic counters and machines, which helps us to observe and record behaviour

Sometimes motion picture cameras and time lapse photography are also used

Application in real time: Train passengers and find out their level of comfort

Traffic flows in urban square

Organization of warehouse

TELEVISION MONITORING

Computerized mechanical observation used to obtain television ratings

Used consumer panel & PeopleMeter – a monitoring device

PeopleMeter gathers data about who is watching which program at what time

More than 5000 TV sets were fitted with this device

CLICK – THROUGH RATES (MONITORING WEBSITE TRAFFIC)

Percentage of people who are exposed to an advertisement who actually click on the corresponding hyperlink which takes them to the Company’s website

Way of measuring the success of an online advertising campaign for a particular website

Advertisers incur cost on each click as cost per click

Counting hits suggests the amount of interest website is receiving but these measures are flawed

CTR FLAWS

Hits do not differentiate between lot of activity by a few visitors or little activity by many

visitors

Cant differentiate if a user is clicking multiple times due to some useful thing or just

because he is trying unsuccessfully to find something by looking in several places.

Hits by mistake

Consumer may be unaware of what they are doing while clicking the ad, they might be

looking for something & ended up there

SCANNER BASED RESEARCH

What it is ??

A mechanical method of observation

Use of scanner based consumer panels instead of consumer purchase diaries

How it is implemented ??

Each household is assigned with a bar code card

Scanner machines record purchase information at the billing counter

Background information collected through surveys is also coupled with household code number

Aggregate data is provided to industries for analytics

ADVANTAGES OVER CONVENTIONAL SYSTEM

Actual purchase behavior rather than reported behavior

Improved efficiency

Unbiased data

More extensive data can be recorded

Data can be combined with other factors and be analyzed with powerful analytical software

MEASURING PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS

Mechanical devices have been used to record physiological reactions of consumer to advertising, packaging or other stimuli

The two basic principals for these observations are: Eye Movements towards stimuli which attracts more

Change in Adrenaline level when body is aroused

DEVICES USED

Eye-tracking monitorTracks eye movements with invisible infrared light beams Infrared beam of light locks on pupil to record eye movement across stimuliAnother camera records the pages or screen being viewedData is analyzed in a computer to find out the subject’s interest in an ad

Pupilometer•Observes and records changes in the diameter of subject’s pupils•Brightness and distance of the stimulus from the subject ‘s eyes are held constant•Assumption – Increased pupil size reflects positive attitude

DEVICES USED

Psychogalvanometer•Measures galvanic skin response i.e change in electrical resistance•Change in adrenaline level increases blood flow, perspiration and electrical resistance of the body•Based on assumption that physiological changes accompany emotional reaction to stimuli

Voice-pitch analysis•Gauges emotional reactions as reflected by frequency of person’s voice•Abnormal frequencies in the voice are recorded that are supposed to reflect emotional reaction towards stimuli

LIMITATIONS

No strong evidence supports the argument that physiological change is a valid measure of

future sales, change of attitude etc

Calibration of measuring devices

Expensive

Participants know that they are being observed