Post on 10-May-2020
State of the Environment
Maldives 2011
Ministry of Environment and Energy
Republic of Maldives
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STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2011
MinistryofEnvironmentandEnergy
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WrittenBy
AminathLatheefa
DrAminathShafia
FathimathShafeega
Chapter1:MaldiviansettingupdatedfromSOE2004Contributors
AbdullaShibau
MareerMohamedHusny
AmjadAbdulla
HassanAzhar
AjwadMustafa
MiruzaMohamed
IbrahimMohamed
Zammathkhaleel
AkramWaheed
MohamedShumais
AishathAileenNiyaaz
Photos
AhmedAnwarAbdulAzeez
Gk’sPhotography
MinistryofEnvironmentandEnergy
Layout
JeehanHassanDidi
MohamedAflah
ProofReading
AhmedShareefNafees
TheMinistryofEnvironmentandEnergywouldliketothankthefollowingorganizationswhohaveprovidedtheinformationforthepreparationoftheStateoftheEnvironment2011
MinistryofHealth
EnvironmentProtectionAgency
MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture
MinistryofTransportand
DepartmentofMeteorology
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Foreword
DrMariyamShakeela
MinisterofEnvironmentandEnergy
ThefirstSOEreportoftheMaldiveswasproducedfortheUN
Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small
IslandStatesheldinBarbadosin1994.Todayit iswithgreat
pleasureIampresentingtheSOE2011,thefifthreportofSOE
series. The report addresses the objective of providing an
analyticaloverviewofstateoftheenvironmentfocusingon10
key environmental challenges confronting today. New issues
includingenergy,chemicalandtoxicology,andenvironmental
governance have been included in this issue widening the
informationanddata,andaddressingemergingissues.
Maldives has changed socially, economically and environmentally since SOE 2004, the last
publication. With the first democratic election held in November 2008 the country is going
through a political transition. With the passing of the Decentralization Act in October 2010
islandcouncilsandatollscouncilshavebeen formedpavingway forgrowth tobedistributed
equally between the atolls and the capital. With this change the importance of integrating
environmentprotectionandconservationintodevelopmentdecisionmakinghasbecomemore
importanttoday.Thereporthighlightschangingdrivers,suchaspopulationgrowth,economic
activities and consumption patterns have placed increasing pressure on the environment.
Seriousandpersistentbarrierstosustainabledevelopmentcontinuetopersist.
SOE 2011 highlights landmark developments. In March 2009 Maldives unveiled plans of
becomingcarbonneutralby2020.Todayuseofrenewableenergyisencouragedwithanumber
ofprogramsbeing implementedat thecountry level.Themostrecentdecisions toencourage
use of renewable energy includes waiving import duties on electric and renewable energy
poweredvehicles.Significanteffortstowardsbiodiversityconservationhavealsobeenmadeof
whichdeclarationofBaaAtollasaUNESCOBiosphereReservein29June2011beingamajor
milestone.TheBaaAtollConservationProjectinitiatedin2003isformulatedtodesign,testand
demonstrate a management system that will secure and sustain the rich biodiversity and
ecologicalprocessesoftheAtollforthebenefitofthefuturegeneration.
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SOE2011isthefifthoftheseriesofreports.Theobjectiveistocreateandbroadenawareness
andenvironmental issuesand toprovidedecisionmakersandplannerswithmeaningfuldata
andinformationtomakenecessarydecisions.TheprocessofpublicationofSOEalsohighlights
and identifies several issues in relation to availability, accessibility and management of
environmental information in theMaldives. Although considerable efforts had beenmade to
improveissuesrelatedtocollection,managementandaccesstoenvironmentalinformation,lack
ofacentralizedenvironmentalinformationsystemmakesaccesstoenvironmentalinformation
difficult.Thecompleteabsenceofsomeenvironmentalinformationpertainingtoissuessuchas
chemicalandtoxicologypresentsamajorchallenge,notonlyinevaluatingissuesandtheirstate
but also in assessing risks. A coordinated effort is required among the different sectors to
strengthentheinformationbase.
It is my sincere hope that this analytical overview will stimulate innovative thinking and
increase knowledge of the stakeholders of the environment. And it is also my hope that a
coordinated effort would take place to establish a centralized environmental information
system where scientific and technical literature on environmental topics such as global
warming, climate change, biodiversity and coastal zone management would be available.
Establishment of an environment information system that provides access to such material,
amongothers,isapressingissuefortheMaldivesatpresent.
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TableofContentsAbbreviations..................................................................................................................................................................10
Overview...........................................................................................................................................................................13
Maps....................................................................................................................................................................................20
1. TheMaldivianSetting........................................................................................................................................22
1.1 GeographyandLand.................................................................................................................................22
1.2 Climate............................................................................................................................................................24
1.3 MarineandCoastalAreas.......................................................................................................................26
1.4 Population.....................................................................................................................................................27
1.5 Administration............................................................................................................................................28
1.6 NaturalandCulturalHeritage...............................................................................................................32
2. Socio‐EconomicDevelopment........................................................................................................................34
2.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................34
2.2 SocialDevelopment...................................................................................................................................35
2.2.1 Demographicscenario....................................................................................................................35
2.2.2 Infrastructuredevelopment.........................................................................................................39
2.2.3 Poverty..................................................................................................................................................41
2.3 EconomicDevelopment...........................................................................................................................44
2.3.1 Growth..................................................................................................................................................44
2.3.2 Construction.......................................................................................................................................46
2.3.3 Tourism................................................................................................................................................47
2.3.4 Fisheries...............................................................................................................................................49
2.3.5 Agriculture...........................................................................................................................................52
Appendices.......................................................................................................................................................................55
3. ClimateChange.....................................................................................................................................................57
3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................57
3.2 ClimateChangeImpacts..........................................................................................................................58
3.2.1 Sealevelrise......................................................................................................................................58
3.2.2 Precipitation.......................................................................................................................................58
3.2.3 Temperature.......................................................................................................................................59
3.2.4 Extremeevents..................................................................................................................................61
3.3 VulnerabilitytoClimateChange..........................................................................................................63
3.3.1 Landbeachandhumansettlement...........................................................................................64
3.3.2 Criticalinfrastructure.....................................................................................................................65
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3.3.3 Tourism................................................................................................................................................66
3.3.4 Fisheries...............................................................................................................................................67
3.3.5 Water.....................................................................................................................................................67
3.3.6 Agriculture...........................................................................................................................................68
3.3.7 Health....................................................................................................................................................69
3.3.8 CoralReefBiodiversity...................................................................................................................70
3.4 AdaptationandmitigationtoClimatechange................................................................................70
3.4.1 Needsandpriorities........................................................................................................................70
3.4.2 AdaptationtoClimateChange.....................................................................................................71
3.4.3 Adaptationrelatedinitiatives....................................................................................................71
a)Useoflocallyappropriateadaptationmeasures...............................................................................71
b)SustainableLandManagement.................................................................................................................73
c)SustainableWaterManagement...............................................................................................................74
d)Strengtheningtheinformationbase.......................................................................................................74
3.4.4 AdaptativeCapacity.........................................................................................................................74
3.5 Mitigationrelatedinitiatives.................................................................................................................76
3.5.1 UseofRenewableEnergy..............................................................................................................77
3.6 PoliciesandStrategies.............................................................................................................................77
4. WaterandSanitation..........................................................................................................................................81
4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................81
4.2 Rainwater.....................................................................................................................................................81
4.2.1 Rainwaterharvesting....................................................................................................................82
4.3 Groundwater...............................................................................................................................................84
4.4 Desalinatedwater......................................................................................................................................85
4.5 Waterproductionandcarbonneutrality.........................................................................................86
4.6 WastewaterandSanitation...................................................................................................................87
4.6.1 Resorts..................................................................................................................................................88
4.7 Majorpolicyresponsesandinitiatives..............................................................................................89
5. WasteManagement.............................................................................................................................................92
5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................92
5.2 SituationAnalysis.......................................................................................................................................93
5.2.1 Male’.......................................................................................................................................................93
5.2.2 Intheatolls..........................................................................................................................................95
5.2.3 Existingsituationintheresorts..................................................................................................97
5.3 Healthcareandhazardouswastemanagement............................................................................97
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5.4 WasteandtheMaldivianeconomy.....................................................................................................98
5.5 Wasteandcarbonneutrality.................................................................................................................99
5.6 Regulatoryframework...........................................................................................................................101
5.7 Policiesandstrategies............................................................................................................................102
6. Pollution................................................................................................................................................................105
6.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................105
6.2 AirPollution...............................................................................................................................................106
6.2.1 Indicatorsofairpollution...........................................................................................................106
6.2.1.1Vehicles.................................................................................................................................................106
6.2.1.2ConstructionofBuildings..............................................................................................................108
6.2.1.3RespiratoryDiseases.......................................................................................................................109
6.2.1.4ImportofFuel.....................................................................................................................................110
6.2.2 Transboundaryairpollution.....................................................................................................111
6.3 NoisePollution..........................................................................................................................................112
6.4 Waterpollution.........................................................................................................................................112
6.4.1 Freshwaterpollution...................................................................................................................112
6.4.2 Marinepollution.............................................................................................................................114
6.5 PoliciesandStrategies...........................................................................................................................115
7. ConservationofBiologicalDiversity..........................................................................................................118
7.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................118
7.2 PressurestoBiodiversity......................................................................................................................119
7.2.1 PressurestoMarineBiodiversity............................................................................................120
7.2.1.1Demandforcoral,sandandbranchedcoral..........................................................................120
7.2.1.2Demandforreeffish........................................................................................................................121
a)SeaCucumber.................................................................................................................................................126
b)GrouperFishery............................................................................................................................................127
c)GiantClam........................................................................................................................................................128
d)Sharkfishing...................................................................................................................................................128
e)AquariumFishery.........................................................................................................................................130
f)Baitfishery.......................................................................................................................................................131
7.2.2 Otherpressuresonmarinebiodiversity...............................................................................131
7.3 Pressuresontheterrestrialbiodiversity.......................................................................................131
7.3.1 Removalofvegetation..................................................................................................................131
7.3.2 Invasivepestanddiseases..........................................................................................................136
7.3.3 Invasiveplantspecies...................................................................................................................137
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7.3.4 Useoffertilizers,herbicidesandpesticides........................................................................137
7.4 ConservationofBiologicalDiversity................................................................................................139
7.4.1 Protectedareamanagement......................................................................................................139
7.5 Policiesandstrategies............................................................................................................................141
8. Chemicalandtoxicology.................................................................................................................................148
8.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................148
8.2 Chemicalusage..........................................................................................................................................149
8.2.1 Chemicalusedforagriculturalpurposes..............................................................................150
8.2.2 Chemicalusedforhealthpurposes.........................................................................................154
8.2.3 Chemicalsforhouseholduse.....................................................................................................154
8.2.4 Chemicalsforconstructionpurposes.....................................................................................155
8.3 Disposalofchemicals..............................................................................................................................155
8.4 PoliciesandStrategies...........................................................................................................................156
9. Energy.....................................................................................................................................................................159
9.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................159
9.2 EnergySector.............................................................................................................................................160
9.3 RenewableEnergy...................................................................................................................................162
a)Solarenergy....................................................................................................................................................164
b)WindEnergy...................................................................................................................................................164
c)BiomassEnergy.............................................................................................................................................165
9.3.1 Barriersforrenewableenergydevelopment......................................................................166
9.3.2 Effortstoencouragerenewableenergy................................................................................166
9.3.3 PoliciesandStrategies..................................................................................................................170
10. PostTsunamiStatusofEnvironment...................................................................................................174
10.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................174
10.2 Background.................................................................................................................................................174
10.3 Pre‐TsunamiStatus.................................................................................................................................175
10.3.1 Freshwatersupply........................................................................................................................175
10.3.2 Sanitation...........................................................................................................................................175
10.3.3 Solidwaste........................................................................................................................................176
10.4 ImpactsofTsunami.................................................................................................................................176
10.4.1 Freshwatersupplies......................................................................................................................176
10.4.2 Solidwaste........................................................................................................................................176
10.4.3 Sanitation...........................................................................................................................................177
10.4.4 Islandvegetation.............................................................................................................................177
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10.4.5 CoastalLandForms.......................................................................................................................177
10.4.6 CoastalVegetation..........................................................................................................................178
10.5 Post‐TsunamiRecovery.........................................................................................................................178
10.5.1 Freshwater.......................................................................................................................................179
10.5.2 Solidwaste........................................................................................................................................182
10.5.3 Sanitation...........................................................................................................................................182
11. Environmentalgovernance.......................................................................................................................183
11.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................183
11.2 PoliciesandStrategies...........................................................................................................................184
11.2.1 StrategicActionPlan2009‐2014.............................................................................................184
11.2.2 NationalEnvironmentActionPlan3......................................................................................185
11.2.3 NationalStrategyforSustainableDevelopment2009‐2013........................................186
11.3 Lawsandregulations..............................................................................................................................187
11.4 DisasterManagement.............................................................................................................................188
11.5 Roleofthemainstakeholders.............................................................................................................190
11.6 MaldivesintheInternationalArena.................................................................................................192
11.6.1BiodiversityandConservation.......................................................................................................195
11.6.2ClimateChange......................................................................................................................................196
11.6.3OzoneLayerProtection.....................................................................................................................197
11.6.4PollutionandChemicalrelated......................................................................................................198
11.6.5EnvironmentalGovernance.............................................................................................................199
12. Recommendations........................................................................................................................................201
13 Projects..............................................................................................................................................................205
14. Reference..........................................................................................................................................................230
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Abbreviations
BACP BaaAtollConservationProject
CBD ConventionofBiologicalDiversity
CCA ClimateChangeAdaptation
CCAC ClimateChangeAdvisoryCommittee
CCHDC CentreforCommunityHealthandDiseaseControl
CFC Chlorofluorocarbon
COP ConferenceofParties
DOM DepartmentofMeteorology
DPH DepartmentofPublicHealth
DRR DisasterRiskReduction
EEZ ExclusiveEconomicZone
EIA EnvironmentalImpactAssessment
ENSO ElNinoSouthernOscillation
EPA EnvironmentProtectionAgency
ERC EnvironmentResearchCentre
FISIMFinancialIntermediationServicesIndirectlyMeasured
FRESA FundforRenewableEnergySystemApplication
HCFC Hydrochloroflurocarbons
HDPE High‐densitypolyethylene
GHG GreenHouseGas
GIS GeographicInformationSystem
ICZM IntegratedCoastalZoneManagement
IPCC IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange
IUCN InternationalUnionfor
IWMC IslandWasteManagementCentres
LPG LiquidPetroleumGas
MCS MaldivesCustomServices
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MED MinistryofEconomicDevelopment
MEMP MaldivesEnvironmentManagementProject
MDG MillenniumDevelopmentGoals
MOFA MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture
MFDA MaldivesFoodandDrugAuthority
MFF MangrovesfortheFuture
MHAE MinistryofHousingandEnvironment
MODNS MinistryofDefenseandNationalSecurity
MOHAF MinistryofHealthandFamily
MOT MinistryofTransport
MRC MarineResearchCentre
MSI MauritiusStrategyImplementation
MSL MeanSeaLevel
MTC Somethingrelatedtotransport
MTAC MinistryofTourism,ArtsandCulture
MWSC MaldivesWaterandSewerageCompany
NAP NationalActionPlan
NAPA NationalAdaptationPlanofAction
NBF NationalBiosafetyFramework
NBSAP NationalBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan
NC NationalCommunication
NCHLR NationalCentreforHistoricandLinguisticResearch
NDMC NationalDisasterManagementCentre
NGO NonGovernmentalOrganisation
ODS OzoneDepletingSubstances
OIEP Outerislandelectrificationproject
PPP Public–PrivatePartnership
REDTAP RenewableEnergyTechnologyDevelopmentandApplicationProject
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REIO RenewableEnergyInvestmentOffice
RET RenewableEnergyTechnologies
RWMF RegionalWasteManagementFacility
SACEP SouthAsiaCo‐operativeforEnvironmentProgram
SAICM StrategicApproachtoInternationalChemicalsManagement
SASP SouthAsianSeasProgram
SIDS SmallIslandDevelopingStates
SLM SustainableLandManagement
SLR SeaLevelRise
SME SmallandMediumEnterprises
SNAP StrategicNationalActionPlan
SRES SpecialReportonEmissionsScenarios
SST SeaSurfaceTemperature
STELCO StateElectricLimitedCompany
TRA TransportRegulatingAuthority
TPMP TerminalPhase‐outManagementPlan
UNEP UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgram
UNESCO UnitedNationsEducation,ScientificandCulturalOrganisation
UNCCD UnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertification
UNISDR UnitedNationsInternationalStrategyforDisasterReduction
UV Ultraviolet
WCCM WetlandConservationandCoralReefMonitoringForAdaptatonToClimateChange
WRM WaterResourceManagement
WHO WorldHealthOrganization
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Overview
TheMHEinitiatedthepublicationoftheSOEin1994toassesstheissuesanddevelopmentof
theenvironment.Theaim is tomake theenvironment informationeasilyaccessible toall the
stakeholders of our environment. The publication is a precise reference pertaining to the
environment within the scenario of information available in the country. SOE highlights the
changes that have occurred, socially economically and environmentally.SOE 2011 addresses
Energy,Environmentalgovernance,ChemicalandtoxicologyandTsunamirecoveryinaddition
tothe5keyenvironmentalissuesidentifiedinSOE2004.These5areasareClimatechangeand
sea level rise, Water and sanitation, Waste management, Pollution and Biodiversity
conservation. SOEalsohighlights the socio‐economic statusof the countrywhich emphasizes
theinterlinkbetweenenvironment,economicandsocialissues.
Socio‐economicDevelopment
IntheMaldives,whereonlylessthan1%ofthetotalareaislandsuitableforhumanhabitation,
populationgrowthhas farmore serious consequences thanmanyother countriesworldwide.
PopulationofMaldivesgrowsabout1.76%perannumandhadalarmingly increased inward
migrationtothecapitalcityforbetterlivelihoodcausingmajorenvironmentalimplications.The
Maldives population reached 319,740 by 2010 in which 56% is comprised of children and
youth.Onethirdofthepopulationlivesinthecapital,Male’,whichhasanareaoflessthan2sq.
km. The rest of the population is scattered over approximately 193 islands. The average
population sizeof these islands is900and theaveragehousehold size is6.5. With regard to
humandevelopmenttrends,thecountryrankshighamongtheAsia‐Pacificcountries.However
there isgrowingyouthunemploymentagainst thebackgroundofgenerally lowratesof labor
forceparticipationespeciallyforwomen.
Theecologicallyfragilecoralatollswithapopulationofover300,000peoplescatteredover194
islands is economically dependent on fishing and tourism; both sectors are fragile and
vulnerable to external factors as well as natural disasters. The Maldives’ economic base is
extremelynarrowanddominatedbytourismaccountingover27percentofGDPintherecent
years.Followingthetourismsector,fisheries,constructionandcommerceplayasignificantrole
intheMaldivianeconomybycontributingbetween5–10percentoftheGDPeach.TheAsian
tsunami of 2004 severely affected the Maldivian economy, causing major destruction of
infrastructureandassets,especiallythoseinthetourismandfisheriessector.Changingdrivers
such as population activities and consumption patterns places increasing pressures on the
environmentandseriouspersistentbarrierstosustainabledevelopmentremains.
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ClimateChange
Twodecadeson thescientificevidenceof climatechange isoverwhelming toMaldiveswhere
80%oftheislandsarelessthanameterabovesealevel.Nationalindicatorsandforecastsshow
that extreme events in terms of sea level rise, precipitations temperature and storm events
have theprobabilityofoccurringmoreoften in the future.Majoradaptation related initiative
include replicating locally appropriate coastal protection measures throughout the country.
SLM andWRM are initiated as part of the strategy tomainstream risk planning and climate
changeadaptationintothepolicyandplanningframeworkacrossallsectors.Achievingcarbon
neutrality by year 2020 is the priority and as such promoting renewable energy, energy
efficiencyandphasingofHCFCaremajormitigationrelatedinitiatives.
Thoughattheinstitutionandtechnical levelknowledgewithregardtoclimatechange
riskanddifferentoptiontomanagemayhaveincreasedovertheyears,atthelocallevel
understanding is poor and weak. This has contributed to local development choices and
individual actions that have unwittingly increased the vulnerability of the population and
economicassetstocurrentandfutureclimatechangerisks. TheSAP2009‐2013,NEAP3and
NSDS 2009 of the government provides the contextual background for environment
management, which highlights climate change as an extraordinary environmental challenge
focusingonadaptationanddisasterriskmitigationaspriorityareas.
Maldivescontinuetohighlightthespecialvulnerabilityofthelowlyingsmalldevelopingisland
statestothepredictedclimatechangeandingettingattentiontothisissueintheinternational
arena.Tocallattentiontoclimateanditsimpacttothecountryhadtheworld'sfirstunderwater
Cabinetmeeting in October 2009. A documentary feature filmwhich highlights theMaldives
efforts to combat climate change and rising sea levels is premiered at an international film
festivalin2011.ACCACrepresentingallstakeholdersincludinggovernment,businessandcivil
societywasformedinrecognitionthatclimatechangeiseveryone’sconcernandresponsibility.
WaterandSanitation
The shallow ground water aquifers have been extracted for years and in many islands the
aquifersaredepletedbecausetheextractionofwaterexceedsnaturalrechargethroughrainfall
andalsoduetointrusionofsaltandwastewaterintotheaquifer.Wastewaterincludessewage
water, waste water from industrial activities (including hazardous wastewater) and waste
waterfrompooragriculturalpractices.InMale’,desalinatedwaterhasbeenusedforhousehold
consumptionsince1985.CurrentlyeachhouseholdandcommercialestablishmentinMale’have
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accesstodesalinatedwater. Inthe islands, thesituation isdifferentrelyingonrainwatertoa
greatextent.Rainwaterharvestingisatraditionalpracticeandcurrentlyalmosteachhousein
the islands will have a HDPE tank donated by the government after the Tsunami of 2004.
Rainwater is the primary source of drinking water in 90% of the outer islands with
groundwater being used forwashing, and for other domestic uses. At present government is
encouraging private sector to participate and invest in the provision of water supply and
sanitation services. At the same time, utilities companies have been set up in 6 provinces to
managethedeliveryoftheseservicesintheislands.
WasteManagement
Wastedisposal isanactivity thatcompounds thevulnerabilityof the islands inMaldives.The
primarylandfillinMaldives,Thilafushi,liesinthemiddleoftheoceanand90%oftheislandsin
Maldiveshavetheirwastedisposalsiteswithin100mofcoastlineandontheocean‐wardsideof
the island.There are two collection yards inMale’ andone inVillingili.There is nomunicipal
collectionsystemforhouseholdwaste.InMale’wastecollectioniscarriedoutbyindividualson
bicycle, by individuals using hand cart and by twoprivate operators. Segregation ofwaste is
mostlydoneatthecollectionyardsatThilafushi.Itisuncleartowhatextenthazardouswasteis
identifiedassuchinMaldives.Wastedisposalpracticesvaryamongislandsdependingonaccess
todisposalfacilities,localcustomandgovernment/municipalintervention.Householdsusually
carry theirwaste tocollectionsites.Thesesites canrange fromadesignatedwastecollection
site,seaside(beachside),landreclamationsite,bushes,andback/frontyard.Inaddition,waste
isoftenburntregularlyatthecollectionsiteinsomeislands.
TheEnvironmentProtectionandPreservationAct(Law4/93)istheprimarylegalinstrument
for environmentalmanagement in theMaldives and EPA is the custodian of the law. ADraft
SolidWasteManagementRegulationswerealsoreleasedAugust2009andisyettobefinalized.
Tourismwasteisaddressedthroughaseparateregulation,theRegulationontheProtectionand
ConservationofEnvironmentintheTourismIndustry,Law2/99(2008).Theregulationoutlines
stringent waste management requirements for resorts, including source separation. The
Decentralisation Law transferred the responsibility of the waste management of islands to
island councils,whowere elected in February 2011.Male’ city council is responsible for the
managementofwasteinGreaterMale’Area.
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Pollution
Pollution in terms of air quality is more pronounced inMale’ while in the islands in can be
generally termed good, as islands are smallwith sea breeze flushing the airmasses over the
island.InMale’,thecapitalpollutionisoftenstatedasanemerginghealthhazard.Thecapacity
to study the air pollution is limited and air quality standards are yet to be establishedwith
regular monitoring activities. The deteriorating status of air quality is evident through
increasingtrendinlandtransport,importsoffuel,andconstructionrelatedactivities.
Groundwaterpollutioniscommonthroughoutthecountry.Groundwateraquifervariesfrom
islandtoislandandishighlyvulnerabletocontaminationfrominadequatesanitationfacilities
andotherhumanactivities,solidwasterun‐off,overexploitationandsalineintrusionthrough
soil erosion and flooding. The regulatory authorities EPA and TRA develop technical and
financialguidelinesandstandardsforassessmentandmonitoringprocedures.Theenforcement
ofthestandardsandguidelinesaretargetedtowardscontrollingpollution.
ConservationofBiologicalDiversity
The biodiversity or the degree of variation of life within the marine ecosystem is rich and
diversewhiletheterrestrialbiodiversityislimitedcharacterizedbythegeomorphicstructureof
theislands.Thepressuresandthreatsonbiodiversityhavebeeninexistenceoverlongperiods
oftimeandwillcontinuefordecadestocome.Thechallengeisthedifficulttradeoffsinfindinga
balancebetweeneconomicgrowth,socialequityandconservationofenvironment.Extractionof
branchedcoralandsand,overfishingofreefspeciesandreoccurringofcoralbleachingevents
are the major threats to marine biodiversity.Pressures to terrestrial biodiversity are caused
mainlybyremovalofvegetation,diseasestoplantscausedbypests,anduseof fertilizersand
chemicals.Thenegativeeffectsofthesepressuresarecontinuouslymonitoredandminimized
through enforcement of regulations and awareness programs which are set up under the
policiesandstrategiesofMHEandMOFA.Underthislegalprotectedstatushavebeengivento
differentareasandspeciesintheMaldivestonegatethepressuresandthreatstobiodiversity
andonemajor outcomewas thedeclaration of,BaaAtoll as a biosphere reserve in 29 June
2011.TheEnvironmentProtectionandPreservationAct1993providethelegaljustificationfor
the protection of the biodiversitywithMHE,MOFA, andMOTACplayingmajor roles towards
conservationofbiodiversity.
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ChemicalsandToxicology
Thecapacity tostudyandanalysis thesituation inchemicalusage is limitedwithnobaseline
information established, to determine whether chemical usage within the country is an
emerging health issue. Statistics pertaining to the chemicals imported into the country is
unavailable,althoughpriorpermissionfromtheMODNSisrequiredbeforeimportingchemicals
into the country. Rapid developments and urbanization of the country have resulted in an
increase in the import anduse of chemicals and related components.Data on imports reveal
that the inMaldives use of pesticides for agricultural purposes is common and increasing in
ruralislandswhichisacauseforconcern.
Control and regulation of chemicals is split between different organizations. Pesticides are
regulated through theMOFAwhichprocess the requestof importsof chemicals. MFDAalso
playanimportantrole inapprovalofpublichealthpesticides.TheMDNSismandatedbyLaw
4/75, Lawon ImportationofProhibited Items to theMaldives to regulate, amongothers, the
import of dangerous chemicals into the country. Planned efforts towards strengthening the
foundationsofchemicalmanagementincludesadraftbillonpesticideswhichiscurrentlyopen
forpublicconsultation.ThisNationalPesticideActwillbethemajorlegalinstrumenttoregulate
import,useanddisposeall typesofpesticide inthecountry.TheEnvironmentandProtection
and Preservation of Act (Law no 4/93) ofMHE has its provisions on environmentally sound
managementofhazardouswaste,chemicalsandoil.
Energy
In March 2009 the government unveiled plans to make the country carbon neutral. These
measureswere announced in the face of starkwarnings from scientists that rising sea levels
evenbyonemetercouldengulftheMaldivesandotherlowlyingnationsrenderingtheislands
almostentirelyuninhabitable.
Carbon neutrality is planned to be achieved in 2020. With an estimated forecast of energy
demandof85%increase intheMaleregionand77%intheprovincesby2020(Auditreport
2010),theneedforundertakingurgentmeasuresbecomesallmoretheimportant.ForMaldives
to become carbon neutral by the year 2020 the increasing demand for energy need to be
reduced.Thegovernmentappointedataskforcetodeliberateonthevariouspre‐requisitesand
requirements for reducing energy sector carbon emissions in line with overall objective of
carbon neutrality. A roadmap in the energy sector to reduce dependence on fossil fuelswas
developedwhichwasbuildon5 interventions.Theyarepromotinguseof renewable energy,
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becomingmoreenergyefficient,cleanertransportationsystem,,wastemanagementandcarbon
sequestrationandoffsetting.Todayuseof renewable energy is encouragedwithanumberof
national level initiatives being implemented. To encourage use of renewable energy import
dutiesonelectricandrenewableenergypoweredvehiclesarewaived.Atthesametimeimport
dutiesonsolarpanelsandsolarpanelbatteriesusedinmarinevesselsisalsowaived.Regional
utilities companies are planned to purchase electricity produced by renewable energy
companiestothegridattherateRf3.50perunitofelectricity.Topromotedandimplementthe
renewableenergypolicyREIOwasalsoestablished. TheSAP2009‐2013,theNationalEnergy
Policy2009‐2013andNationalEnergyActionPlan2009‐2013ofthegovernmentprovidesthe
contextualbackgroundforenergypolicyofthecountry.
PreTsunamiStatus
Maldivesishighlyvulnerabletoclimatechangeanditsconsequences,whichwasprovenbythe
Asian Tsunami of 26 December 2004 in which 35% of the 198 inhabited islands were
categorizedashighorveryhighimpactedislands.TheTsunamicauseddamageanddestruction
on a nationwide scale in the Maldives. Eighty two people died and 26 are still missing or
presumed dead. Over one‐third of the population was directly affected by the Tsunami, and
some 29,000 people had to leave their homes. All but nine inhabited islands were either
partiallyorwhollyflooded.Seawallswerebreachedonmostislands,causingsevereflooding,
andinsomecasesislandsweresubmergedandremainedsoforfewdays.Theeconomicdamage
and losses were the equivalent of 62 percent of the country’s GDP. Fifty three islands
experienced severe damage to infrastructure and environment. Flooding wiped out power
plants,communicationequipments,contaminatedwatersupplies, irrevocablydamagedjetties,
harbors,causeways,agriculturallandandequipments,andfishingvesselsandequipment.The
Tsunami of 26December 2004, thus, represented the worst natural disaster in the country’s
history.Almost7yearsaftertheTsunami,recoveryworkhasbeenalmostfinishedforsomeof
thesectors.Communitiesimpactedhaverevivedtheirlivelihoods.Reconstructionofhousesand
settlements including redevelopment of public infrastructure are nearly completed. Both
educationandhealthsectorhaverecoveredfromtheimpacts.
EnvironmentalGovernance
ConservationandprotectionoftheenvironmentisessentialforsurvivalfortheMaldivesasthe
challenges facing the country directly impacts the people, economy and the society. Under
environmentalgovernance theroleand functionsof internationalorganization, stateandcivil
society has becomes ever more important today as the country is highly susceptible to the
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effectsofclimatechangewithrisingsealevelsandcoastalerosion.Article22oftheConstitution
of the Maldives states that it is a fundamental duty to protect and preserve the natural
environment of the country for the benefit of present and future generations. The State is to
undertake and promote desirable economic and social goals through ecologically balanced
sustainabledevelopment. Henceenvironmentalrelatedissueshavebeenfeaturedhighonthe
SAP 2009 ‐2013 and sector policy documents such as the NEAP 3 and NSDS 2009‐2013.
SimilarlyovertheyearstheNGOcommunityhasalsoprogressedwith700newNGOsregistered
in the Maldives though comparatively few are regularly active. The challenge for the
government and the civil society is finding a balance between economic growth and social
equityandtheconservationandprotectionoftheenvironment.
Acriticalopportunityforsupportwasthedonorconferenceheldin2010.Theforumwasoneof
themostopportunemomentsforinternationaldonorstoassistthecountryinunderscoringits
commitmentsandfulfillingitspeoples’expectations.OfthefiveprioritiesCCAwasakeyarea.
FundingneedsforclimatechangeandadaptationwasestimatedatUS$175,890,345millionand
washighlightedintheMaldivesDonorConferenceof2010.
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Maps
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Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning
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1. TheMaldivianSetting
1.1 GeographyandLand
TheRepublicofMaldivescomprises1,190small, low‐lyingislandsgroupedinto26atollsthat
togetherformachainover820kilometersinlength,overanareaofmorethan90,000square
kilometers in the Indian Ocean. These islands stretch from latitude 7° 6’35’’N, crossing the
equatorandextendingupto0°42’24’’Sandbetweenlongitudes72°33’19’’Eand73°46’13’’E.
Theislandsareflat,withverylowelevationofhardly1.5metersabovethesealevel.Locatedon
the600km longLaccadivesChagossubmarineridge, thesecoralatollsextend into thecentral
IndianOcean from the south‐west coast of the Indian sub‐continent. TheExclusive Economic
Zone(EEZ),boundariesof theMaldivesaresharedwithSriLankaand Indiaon thenortheast
andtheChagosIslandsonthesouth.
ItisbelievedthattheMaldiveswasformedabout65‐225millionyearsagointheMesozoicEra
(Maniku,1990).ThereismorethanasingletheoryonhowtheMaldiveswasformed,andoneof
themsuggests that theMaldivesgrewabove founderedcontinental crustal segments (Maniku
1990).Gardiner(1902,1903)suggeststhatcurrenterosionandsubsequentlyformedatollsby
thegrowthoforganismsformedthemainMaldivesplateau.
Geographically theMaldives is made up of 26 natural atolls which vary enormously both in
shapeandsize.ThelargestatollisHuvadhuAtollwithanareaofapproximately2800squarekm
(MPND2000)and thesmallestatollThoddooAtollhasanarea in theorderof5.4squarekm
(MHAHE,2001).Thecharacteristicsoftheatolls,reefsandreefislandsvaryconsiderablyfrom
northtosouth.Thenorthernatollsarebroadbanks,discontinuouslyfringedbyreefswithsmall
reef islandsandwithnumerouspatchreefsand faros in the lagoon(Woodroffe,1989). In the
southernatolls, farosandpatchreefsarerarer in the lagoon, thecontinuityof theatollrimis
greater,andlargerproportionoftheperimeteroftheatollsisoccupiedbyislands.
The islands differ depending on location, form and
topography (Woodroffe 1989). The variance of size
among the islands is from0.5 squarekm toaround
5.0 square km and in shape from small sandbanks
with sparse vegetation to elongated strip islands.
While storm ridges are foundat the seaward edges
of many islands, few have swampy depression
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centre.ThelargestislandisGaninLaamuAtollwithanareaof5.16squarekm(MPND2000).
AlthoughadetailedlandsurveyoftheentireMaldiveshasnotbeenconductedyet,thetotalland
area of theMaldives is estimated at 300 square km. The distribution of inhabited islands by
islandsizeisshowninFig1.1andthetenlargestislandsintheMaldivesaregivenintable1.1.
Atoll IslandName Area(km) Population(2006)
1. Laamu Gan 5.166 2502
2. Seenu Hithadhoo 4.673 9465
3. Gnaviyani FuvahMulah 4.200 7636
4. Laamu Isdhoo 2.937 1559
5. Kaafu Kaashidhoo 2.765 1696
6. Seenu Gan* 2.649
7. GaafuDhaalu Gan** 2.636
8. HaaDhaalu Hanimaadhoo 2.595 1184
9. HaaAlifu Baarah 2.488 1203
10. HaaAlifu Filladhoo 2.259 548
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
0‐9
10 ‐1
9
20 ‐2
9
30 ‐3
9
40 ‐4
9
50 ‐9
9
100 ‐1
49
150 ‐1
99
200‐299
300‐399
400 ‐4
99
over 5
00
Number of islands
Area in hectares
Fig1.1Thedistributionofinhabitedislandbyislandssize
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning2011
Table1.1:‐TenlargestislandsintheMaldives
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning2011
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1.2 Climate
TheMaldiveshasawarmandhumidclimate.Theweatherisdominatedby2monsoonperiods:
thesouthwest(rainy)monsoonwhichoccursfromMaytoNovemberandthenortheast(dry)
monsoonwhichoccursfromJanuarytomarchwhenwindsblowpredominantlyfromeitherof
thesetwodirections.Therelativehumidityrangesfrom71%to84%.
The daily temperature of the country varies little throughout the year with a mean annual
temperatureof28.During2009,themeandailyminimumtemperaturerecordedforMale’was
26.3⁰CandthemeandailymaximumtemperaturerecordedforMale’is31.1⁰C.OnMay1991,a
temperature of 36.8⁰Cwas recorded at Gadhdhoometeorological office which is the highest
temperatureeverrecorded in theMaldiveswhile theminimumtemperatureeverrecorded in
theMaldiveswas17.2⁰CwhichwasrecordedattheNationalMeteorologicalCentreon11thApril
1978.
Eightrainfallstationsmeasuretherainfallpatternsthroughoutthecountryanditisevidentthat
therearevariationsinrainfallfromnorthtosouththroughtheatollchainwiththesouthbeing
wetter and the north being drier. In 2010 averagemonthly and annual rainfall forMale’ are
183.4mm and 2201.5mm respectively. During this year July, August and November are the
wettestmonthswhilethedriestisJanuary,FebruaryandMarch.Therehasbeenconsiderable
interannualvariationinrainfall from1407mmto2711mmoverthelast14years. Figure1.2
showsaverageannualrainfallandtotaldurationofsunshineforMale’forthisperiod.
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009
sunshine (hrs)
rainfall (in m
m)
Years
Annual rainfall (millimeters) Total duration of sunshine (hours)
Fig1.2:Annualrainfallandtotaldurationofsunshine1995‐2009
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2010
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On9thJuly2002Kaadedhdhoometeorologicalofficerecordedarainfallof219.8mmwhichisthe
highestrainfalleverrecordedintheMaldiveswithina24hourperiod.
Thecurrentregime in the IndianOcean isstrongly influencedbythemonsoonclimate. In the
regionoftheMaldivesduringtheNorthEastmonsoonperiodthecurrentsflowwestward,and
theyfloweastwardduringtheSouthWestmonsoonperiod.Theoceancurrentsflowingthrough
thechannelsbetweentheatollsaredrivenbythemonsoonwinds.Generallythetidalcurrents
areeastwardinfloodandwestwardinebb.
TheswellsandwavesexperiencedbytheMaldivesareconditionedbytheprevailingbi‐annual
monsoon wind directions and are normally strongest during April‐July in the South West
monsoonperiod.Duringthisseason,swellsgeneratednorthoftheEquatorwithheightsof2‐3m
with periods of 18‐20s have been reported in the region. However, the Maldives also
experiencesswellsoriginatingfromcyclonesandstormsoccurringwellsouthoftheEquator.It
is reported that strongstorms in the southernhemisphere in theareaofWestAustraliawith
directiontowardstheMaldivesoccursduetoswellwavesfromsoutheast.Theswellwavesthe
reachedmaleandHulhulein1987hadsignificantwaveheightsintheorderof3m(JICA,1987).
Localwavesperiodsaregenerallyintherange2‐4sandareeasilydistinguishedformtheswell
waves.
Hydrographically the Maldives is characterized by a seasonal fluctuating mixed layer of
relatively salinewater from the Arabian Sea (360/00) and less salinewater from the Bay of
Bengal (340/00). A rapid downward decrease in temperature to below 20⁰C occurs at 90 to
100m depth. The sea surface temperatures (SST) do not vary much throughout the year.
GenerallytheaveragemonthsSSTrangedbetween28‐29⁰Cwithmaximumtemperaturesrarely
over 30⁰C. The mean monthly SST rises
from low in December/January to high
usually in April/May. The average
seasonalrise isabout1.3⁰C in thecentral
atolls. However during May 1998 the
mean monthly SST was 1.1⁰C above the
highest mean monthly SST (30.3⁰C)
expected inany20yearperiod(Edwards
etal2001).
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1.3 MarineandCoastalAreas
The dominant natural environment of the Maldives is the marine environment. Outside the
atollsthedeepoceancoversalargeareaandtheEEZandtheterritorialwatersoftheMaldives
cover an area of 859000 square km and 115000 square km respectively. The marine
environment insidetheatolls ismadeupof lagoonsandreefsmakingupabout21300square
km(MPHRE,1998).
ThewaterdepthvariesconsiderablywithintheMaldivianwaters.Thelagoonwaterswithinthe
atollshavedepthsrangingfrom30‐80mwiththedepth increasing fromnortherntosouthern
atolls.MostlagoonsoftheatollsopenintotheIndianOcean,andinsomeinstancesthechannels
throughtheatollmarginareasdeepasthelagoonitself.Theoceanfloorfallsabruptlytogreat
depthsmeasuringupto2000mormoreattheoutermarginofthetwoatollchains.However,at
theinnersideofthetwoatollchainstheoceanfloorhaslessdepth.Themainchanneldividing
theeasternandwesternchainofatollsisbetween250and300mdeep.Theeast‐westchannels
thatdividetheatollsaredeeperwithdepthsofmorethan1000.
Atoll lagoonsencloseavarietyof reefstructures including faros,micro‐atolls,patch‐reefsand
knolls.Farosareringshapedreefsemergingduringtidallowwaterwiththeirownsandylagoon
andarimoflivingcoralconsistingofbranchedandmassivecorals.Deepchannelsthatsurround
thesereefsandfarosareuniquetotheatollsofMaldives.Patchesriseto30mabovethelagoon
floor the top ofwhich have robustwave braking corals. Knolls do not reach the surface and
oftensupportprofusecoralgrowth(Naseer,1997).
Theislanditselfissand,andchangestocoralrubbleasthereefedgeisapproached.Theouter
slopesareverysteepandareadowntoabout15miscoveredlushcoralonahealthyreef.The
outer reef slope is characterized a series of reef terraces at depths of 3‐6m, 13‐30m, and a
deeper on at 15m representing past sea level skill strands. Themodern coral growth veneer
overolder reef rockbut theexisting community is constructionaldown toadepthof at least
15m.IntheupperlevelsreefbuildingisbyZooxanthellatecorals.Indeeperzonesreefbuilding
is sometimes by a Azooxanthellate branching corals. Several species Lithophaga, various
Polychaete worms and several species of boring sponges are some of the boring organisms
found in Maldivian corals. Cliona Schmidtii, the blue boring sponge is very common in the
Maldives.
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Ageo‐chemicalanalysisof thereefsemphasized therelativelypristinenatureof theMaldives
marineenvironment.Analysisofcoralskeletonsforcommonheavymetalsshowedvaluesthat
were below detection limits in all cases. Values of extraneous organics in coral tissueswere
foundtobetypicallylowexceptforhydrocarbonresiduesfoundincoralsnearanislandwhich
stores fuel (RiskandSluka,2000).Thewhite sandybeachesand thevegetation foundon the
islandperipheryarehighlyimportantintheMaldivesislandecosystem.Theyformanimportant
protection for the housing and infrastructure near to the shore and are the main source of
incomeforthetourismindustry.70%ofthetouristswhovisittheMaldiveshasbeenidentified
astouristswhovisitprimarilyforbeachholidaying.
Oneof themost seriousenvironmental issues theMaldives islands face isbeacherosion.The
sandatthebeachandtheshorelinearebeingwashedoffatagreaterratethanitisaccretedon
manyislands.Theprocessofcoastalerosionandaccretionisextremelycomplexwiththeinter‐
relationstooceanographic,climatic,geological,biologicalandterrestrialprocesseswithhuman
intervention affecting the growth and the stability of the reefs and island structures. The
prevailingseasonalconditionsmaygraduallyshifttheshapeaswellasthepositionoftheisland
by strong beach erosion and accretion on either side of the island as the beach systems are
highlydynamicinnature.
1.4 Population
Of the total 1192 islands, only 194 are inhabited. The islands are small in size, 33 inhabited
islandshavea landareaofmore thanonesquarekilometers.Theregisteredpopulationasof
December 2009 is 332,992 of which 56% are comprised of children and youth. Percent of
femalepopulationremainsmoreorlessequaltothatofmen.Onethirdofthepopulationlives
inthecapital,Male’,whichhasanareaof lessthan2squarekm.Therestof thepopulation is
scatteredoverapproximately193islands.Theaveragepopulationsizeoftheseislandsis900.
Maldiveshasarelativelyyoungpopulationwithalmost41percentunder15yearsofageand
around3percentover65yearsofage.Withregardtohumandevelopmenttrends,thecountry
rankshigh among theAsia‐Pacific countries. The currentdemographic transitionposes a key
concern to young people, their families, and to the Government. There is growing youth
unemployment against the background of generally low rates of labor force participation
especiallyforwomen.Theremotenessandinaccessibilityoftheislandspresentsachallengein
deliveryofbasicservices.Theconcentrationofthepopulationonthecapitalislandhasalsoled
to problems of overcrowding, the rising cost of living and other social problems such as
narcoticsabuseandgangviolence.
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1.5 Administration
SinceStateof theEnvironment (SOE)2004, therehavebeensignificant changes in legislative
andadministrativestructurewiththechangeofgovernmenton11November2008throughthe
firstmultipartyelection.TheGovernmentembarkedonestablishingalocalgovernancesystem
with the aim of strengthening local democracy and addressing economic and social
development issues arising from highly centralized government. Based on the principles of
decentralizedadministrationlaidoutinChapterEightofthe2008Constitution,governmenthas
aimedtoachievethisthroughtheimplementationofatwo‐foldProgramofRegionalizationand
Decentralization.Regionalizationwasplannedthroughdividingthecountryintosevenregions
withtheaimofachievingefficientandeffectiveservicedeliveryatlocallevels.Clusteringtwo
or more atolls to form a region or province can provide effective and efficient planning,
co‐ordinationandmanagementasameanstofacilitateeffectiveadministrativedecentralization
andacceleratedevelopmentintheislands.Thiswouldinturn,reducethesocial,economicand
developmentaldisparitiesbetweenthecapitalislandMale’andtherestofthecountry.
With passing of Decentralization Act, 184 administrative island divided among 19 atolls are
listeddeclaringSeenuatollasacityunderthenameofAdduCity.Followingthisthecountry's
firstever localcouncilelectionswereheldtoelect188islandcouncils,19atollcouncilsand2
citycouncils.FuvahmulahIslandelected8wardcouncils.Awardcouncilisatthesamerankof
anislandcouncil.ThiswasdonesinceFuvahmulahwasalsoanatoll,havinganatollcouncil.
Thegovernment’sobjectiveistofacilitatepeopleorienteddevelopmentbyempoweringcitizens
andpromotingdemocracyatlocallevelsthroughDecentralization.
Thestrategiesidentifiedtoachievethisobjectiveareasfollows:
1.Developingrepresentativelocalinstitutionsatisland/atolllevel,wherebythepeoplelivingin
theislandsandatollswilltakepartindecidingtheirownaffairs.
2. Bringing the Government closer to the people by delegating and devolving centrally
controlled functions including service delivery functions to the island, atoll/ province levels
throughelectedIslandCouncilsandAtollCouncilsineachprovince,andanelectedCityCouncil
inthecapitalislandMale’.
3. Creating an enabling environment and a vibrant civil society to strengthen governance at
locallevel.
4. Introducing new strategies for financing and sustaining development at all levels through
communityempowerment.
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Island offices
Formulation and implementation of Island Development Plans according Atoll Development Plans and the national policies
Province and Atoll offices
Formulating and implemention of the Atoll Development Plans according to the national policies
Sector Ministries
Formulating policies at the national level
5. Developing local administrations and strengthening links between local functionaries and
nationalauthoritiesasawaytoseekcoordinatednationaldevelopment throughout theseven
regions.
6. Developing an operational framework and a process for planning and managing local
development,basedontheinspirationsofthepeopleinthelocalities.
7.Bringingeconomiesofscalewhichwouldfacilitatemarketdecentralization.
To implement regionalizationanddecentralization thePresidentappointedStateMinisters to
allsevenregions.Communityconsultationworkshopstofamiliarizethepublicwiththeconcept
of regionalization and decentralization are being conducted in all seven provinces. With
implementation of administrative decentralization, the Government envisions the
establishment of a three‐tier sub‐national governance structure,with the sectorministries at
the national level, the Province Offices and Atoll Council Office at the regional level and the
IslandCouncilOfficeattheIslandlevel(Fig1.3).
Province Offices established in each administrative province act as the government
representatives in their respective region. The Province Offices will be responsible for
formulatingandcoordinatingregionaldevelopmentprograminaccordancewiththe lawsand
nationallevelpoliciesandestablishingamechanismforefficientdeliveryofservicesatregional,
atollandislandlevelsinco‐ordinationwithsectorministriesatthenationallevel.TheProvince
OfficewillbeheadedbyaStateMinisterinconsolidationwiththeMinistryofHomeAffairsand
thenewlyestablishedLocalGovernmentAuthoritysupportedbytheappointeddeputiestothe
Fig1.3:Theadministrativestructure
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State Minister. The functions of line Ministries will be carried out by Civil Servants under
Ministers.
The decentralization program has been planned with the vision that people will migrate by
choicetoregionswheremoreprosperityandbetterservicesareavailable.TheGovernmenthas
putinplaceanationaltransportationsystemasameanstoovercomethetransportationbarrier
throughout the nation. Thus, instead ofmeasures for resettlement in other localities through
incentive benefits, measures assisting voluntary migration will, in time, facilitate the
achievement of the policy of population consolidation. Table 1.2 outlines the administrative
regionsbyprovinceandpopulationandTable1.3outlinestheadministrativeatollsbyislands.
Provincelocal
Name
Province Atolls Capital Populationof
Provinceas
ofDecember
2009
MathiUthuru UpperNorth
Province
HaaAlifu,HaaDhaalu,
Shaviyani
HDh
Kulhudhufushi
59768
Uthuru NorthProvince Noonu,Raa,Baa,
Lhaviyani
LhNaifaru 59568
Male’ Male’ Male’ Male’ 56917
MedhuUthuru NorthCentral
Province
Kaafu,AlifuAlifu,Alifu
Dhaalu,Vaavu
Maafushi 29824
Medhu CentralProvince Meemu,Faafu,Dhaalu Dh.
Kudahuvadhoo
18709
MathiDhekuni UpperSouth Thaa,Laamu L.Gan 28120
MedhuDhekunu SouthCentral GaafuAlifu,Gaafu
Dhaalu
GDhThinadhoo 32108
Dhekunu South Gnaviyani,Seenu S.Hithadhoo 39978
Table1.2:AdministrativeRegionsbyProvince
Source:MinistryofHomeAffairs,2011
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AtollName Alternative
AtollName
Inhabited
Islands
Industrial
Islands
Airports Resorts2010
Thiladhunmathi
UthuruBuri
HaaAlifu 14 2 1 7
Thiladhunmathi
DhekunuBuri
HaaDhaalu 13 7 6
Miladhunmadulu
UthuruBuri
Shaviyani 14 5 6
Miladhunmadulu
DhekunuBuri
Noonu 13 4 8
Maalhosmadulu
UthuruBuri
Raa 15 6
Maalhosmadulu
DhekunuBuri
Baa 13 4 10
Faadhihpolhu Lhaviyani 5 8 6
Male’ Kaafu 9 1 60
AriAtholhuUthuru
Buri
AlifuAlifu 8 12
AriAtholhu
DhekunuBuri
AlifuDhalu 10 1 16
FelidheAtholhu Vaavu 5 3
MulakuAtholhu Meemu 8 1 3
NilandhiAtholhu
UthuruBuri
Faafu 5 1 1
NilandhiAtholhu
DhekunuBuri
Dhaalu 7 1 6
Kolhumadulu Thaa 13 5 5
Hahdhunmathi Laamu 11 7 1 4
HuvadhuAtholhu
UthuruBuri
GaafuAlifu 9 1 11
HuvadhuAtholhu
DhekunuBuri
GaafuDhaalu 9 2 1 9
Fuvahmulah Gnaviyani 1 1
AdduCity Seenu 1 1 5
Male’(capital) 1
MALDIVES 184 49 5 185
Note:Resortsincludeexistingandupcomingresorts
Table1.3:Administrativeregions,byAtollsandIslands
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning,MinistryofTourismArtsandCulture.GovernmentGazette,www.gazzette.com.mv,2011
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1.6 NaturalandCulturalHeritage
Naturalheritageisanimportantcomponent,encompassingthenaturalenvironment,including
terrestrial andmarine environmentwith flora and fauna scientifically known as biodiversity.
Themarineenvironmentisrichwith248differentspeciesofcoralsover1100speciesoffishes,
285speciesofalgaebeingrecorded.(MRC2009)Thecountryhasdeclared39protectedareas
of which 25 are marine protected sites, 9 marines species are protected from fishing or
collecting and23birds are alsoprotected (MHE2011). Thesenatural heritages serve as an
importantcomponent in thecountry's tourism industryattractingmanyvisitors fromabroad.
Thousandsofdiversgodivinginthesedesignatedmarineprotectedsites.Lawnumber4/93is
formulated for the protection and preservation of the environment. The law states that
environment of the Maldives is a valuable heritage that has to be preserved for the coming
generations. Under the law protected areas are identified by the Ministry of Housing and
Environment(MHE)andthenecessaryruleandregulationsareformulatedfortheirprotection
andpreservation.
ProtectedareasintheMaldiveslackthenecessaryelementsforeffectivemanagement.Thesites
are protected through legislation with no real funding for outreach and education and
enforcement toprotect them.Alsoduringthe last fewyears,arapidhumanencroachmenton
the terrestrial vegetation, reef andwetland ecosystems of uninhabited islands and inhabited
islands in the Maldives have occurred. Impacts on these islands in the Maldives are
unprecedented, their scale and speed alarming. Harbor dredging, channel blasting with
dynamite and massive reclamation projects modifying the coast and the topography of the
island.Theplacesandvaluesareunderthreatthroughdetrimentalwastemanagementplaces
withalackofunderstanding,skillsorresources.
TodaywiththeimplementationofBaaAtollEcosystemProjectsomepromisingapproachesfor
protectedareamanagementisemerging.Theprojectisbeingimplementedwithsupportofthe
UNDPandtheGlobalEnvironmentFacilitywiththepurposeofdesigninganddemonstratingan
effectivemanagementsystemforatollecosystemconservationandsustainabledevelopmentof
BaaatollwhichcouldthenbereplicatedthroughouttheMaldives.BaaAtollEcosystemprojectis
being implemented integrating cultural values and community participation into natural
resourcemanagementprograms.Baaatollwasselectedasthedemonstrativeatollonaccountof
its globally significant biodiversity. Taking into account the commitment and capacity of the
localcommunityon29June2011theareawasdeclaredasBiosphereReserve.
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TheMaldivesisalsorichinculturalheritage,butthetaskofdiscoveringandpreservingtherich
heritageoftheMaldivesischallenging.NoofficialinventoryofMaldivianculturalheritagesites
and statement of significance exist although it is recognized that a systematic inventory of
Maldivian heritage sites are necessary for its preservation. Limited funding, the cost of
transportationandthelackofqualifiedpeoplearetheconstraintsconfrontingthesector.
The framework on protection and conservation of heritage is split between different
organizations.Bylawmuchoftheresponsibilityfortheculturalheritagemanagementreston
the Department of Heritage within the Ministry of Tourism, Art and Culture (MTAC). The
National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research (NCLHR), which functioned under the
President office from1979was abolished in 2010 and the functions of the Centre related to
culture, tradition and conservation of historic monuments were assigned to the MTAC. The
objectives of reassigning the functions of the Centre include expanding these functions in a
sustainablemanner.
Since2008Male'HukuruMiskiy/enclosingcemeteryandMinaretispartoftheTentativeListin
order to qualify for inclusion in theWorldHeritage List. Generally cultural heritage sites are
under threat through range of pressures including environmental decline, shifts in land use
pattern,demographicchangewithlackofunderstandingandskillsandresourcestomanagethe
site.
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Keyfindings
PopulationofMaldivesgrowsatabout1.76%perannumandthegovernmentgiveshighpriorityforhousingdevelopmenttoalleviatesocialandenvironmentalchallenges.
Maldiveshasanarroweconomybasedrivenbytourismwhichisvulnerabletoexternalshocks.
AbjectpovertydonotexistintheMaldiveshowever,significantdisparityexist Maldivesfacechallengesinaddressingunemployment,especiallyforwomenand
youth.
2. Socio‐EconomicDevelopment
2.1 Introduction
Population, consumption of natural resources and climate change are considered the broad
factors or pressures of environment changes. Collective increase in human requirements had
lead tooveruseofnatural resources forcing climate change.Theworld’spopulationdoubled
duringthepast50yearsandreached6.2billionbymid2010.Duringthisexuberatinggrowth
period,humanshaddegradedtheEarth’secosystemtoanalarminglevel.Theglobalecological
footprint is currently estimated to exceed the Earth's carrying capacity by 20% (Millennium
EcosystemAssessment, 2005).Thismeans thatwe are livingbeyondourplanet'smeans and
that some renewable natural resources are being harvested at rates higher than they can be
replenished.
In theMaldives,whereonly less than1% of the total area is suitable forhumanhabitation,
populationgrowthhas farmore serious consequences thanmanyother countriesworldwide.
Nevertheless,populationofMaldivesgrowsabout1.76%perannum,andinternalmigrationin
searchofbetterlivelihoods,educationandhealthservices,hasleadtoanalarminglyincreasein
settlementinthecapitalresultinginmajorenvironmentalimplications.
The population policy of the Maldives highlights the need for sustainable development
providingdirectrelationshiptohealth,education,genderandenvironmentalissues.Thepolicy
promotes a healthy generation of people who have equitable access to natural resources,
employmentandincome,housingandinfrastructure,educationandhealthservices.
. Maldives has a relatively young populationwith almost a third below 15 years of age and
around3percentover65yearsofage.Withregardtohumandevelopmenttrends,thecountry
rankshigh among theAsia‐Pacific countries. The currentdemographic transitionposes a key
StateoftheEnvironment2011
35 |P a g e
concern to young people, their families, and the government. There is growing youth
unemployment against the background of generally low rates of labor force participation
especiallyforwomen.
2.2 SocialDevelopment
2.2.1 Demographicscenario
Maldivespopulationhasgrownsteadilyduringthepast25yearsandreached319,740in2010.
Thisrepresentsa57%increaseinpopulationsizeoverthe25yearperiod(Fig2.1).
Most environmental problems tend to be aggravated by population size as well as the
populationgrowth.However,theimpactofpopulationsizeandpopulationgrowthisnotdirect
or linear since distinct population groups impinge on the environment in different ways.
Analysis of the existing population records of the Maldives during 1911‐2010, depicts four
significant peaks over the years. The highest peakwas 5.28% in 1958, followed by 3.95% in
1965,3.72%in1972and3.43%in1990(Fig2.2).
Population analysts estimate a 4% growth rate to double the population in 18 years. Recent
statistics compiled by the United Nations,World Population Report (2007),Maldives had an
averagepopulationgrowthrateof1.76%(worldaverage1.17%),ranking70thfastestgrowing
population in theworld.Since1990,demographicstatistics indicatesadecline ingrowthrate
whichcanbeattributedtotheintroductionofmodernpublichealthcareservicesandadopting
modestbirthcontrolprogramsmostlyamongthemoreurbanizedsegmentofthepopulation.
0
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
300,000
350,000
1911
1921
1931
1946
1953
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1974
1977
1985
1990
1995
2000
2006
2010
Fig2.1:‐Population1911‐2010
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning2011
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24000 20000 16000 12000 8000 4000 0 4000 8000 12000 16000 20000 24000
0‐4
5‐9
10‐14
15‐19
20‐24
25‐29
30‐34
35‐39
40‐44
45‐49
50‐54
55‐59
60‐64
65‐69
70‐74
75‐79
80+
Population
Age
group
FemalesMales
‐1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
1911
1921
1931
1946
1953
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1974
1977
1985
1990
1995
2000
2006
2010
Fig2.2:Populationgrowthrate1911‐2010
Source:Census2006&DepartmentofNationalPlanning
Fig2.3:Populationpyramid2010
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning2011
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Since 1990, infant mortality rates have fallen significantly and the country has maintained
almost universal coverage for all vaccines for preventable childhood diseases for over two
decades.Government expendituresonhealth and educationhave increased significantly over
the last two decades. Health expenditures increased from US$24 million in 2000 to almost
US$70millionby2009.
In2006,over thirtypercentof thepopulationwasunder15yearsofage.This figureremains
similar in 2010bydecreasing only onepercentagepoint (Table 2.1). Theprojectedmid‐year
populationestimatesfor2010showsnosignificantdifferenceamongthetwogendercategories
inthedifferentagegroupshavinganaveragesexratio103(Fig2.3).Inbothgender,15‐25age
groupshavethehighestpopulationsizereachingalmost40,000each.
Oversixtysevenpercentofthepopulationfallsundertheworkingagegroupwhichisplacing
extra demand on infrastructure and natural resources. Ensuring food and nutrition security,
housing, employment and educational to the growing population can negatively impact the
country’senvironmenthealth.
Population distribution is the major concern in the Maldives. It is a driver of many
environmentalpressuresinthecountry,includinglossofbiodiversity,congestion,pollutionand
excessivewastegeneration. A significant amountofpeoplemigrates eachyear to the capital
cityforbetterlivelihoodoptions.Since2006,overathirdofthepopulation(Fig3)livesinthe
capitalcitymakingitoneofthehighestdenselypopulatedcitiesintheWorld.Thetotalareaof
Male’ is less than 2 sq. km. The rest of the population is scattered over approximately 193
islandsdisbursedinthearchipelago.
Agegroup Population2006 Population2010
Size Percentage Size Percentage
Under15 93,037 31.1 97,408 30.516‐64 186,904 62.5 215237 67.365andover 16,027 6.4 7,095 2.2Total 295,968 100.0 319,740 100.0
Table2.1:‐Maldivianagestructure2006‐2010
Source:‐Census2006&DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2011
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Theaveragepopulationsizeoftheseislandsis900.Outofthe194inhabitedislands,128havea
population less than a 1000.BesidesMale’ only 2 islands have a populationmore than5000
(table 2.2). Migration within the islands is near to non‐existing. High cost of providing and
maintaininginfrastructureandservicesforawidelydispersedpopulationisnotconsistentwith
No.ofinhabitedislandsbysizeofpopulation
Sizeclass Noofislands
2006 2010
TotalforRepublic 194 194
Lessthan100 5 7
100‐199 11 8
200‐299 18 18
300‐399 18 15
400‐499 20 20
500‐599 18 21
600‐699 12 9
700‐799 11 14
800‐899 12 10
900‐999 6 11
1000‐2000 47 22
2000‐4999 12 36
5000‐9999 3 2
10000andover 1 1
10mostpopulatedislandsintheMaldives
Island Populationsize
Male' 110,897
Hithadhoo 10,123
Fuvammulah 8,167
Kulhudhuffushi 7,484
Thinadhoo 4,751
Naifaru 3,943
Hinnavaru 3,227
Ugoofaaru 3,196
Feydhoo 2,913
Dhidhdhoo 2,687
0
100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
Total population Population (Male') Population (Rural)
2000
2006
2010
Fig2.4:Populationdistribution(2000‐2006)
Source:Census2006&DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2011
Table2.2:No.ofinhabitedislandsbysizeofpopulationandthe10mostpopulatedislands
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2011
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thepromotionofdevelopment that is economically sustainable.Population consolidationand
developingalternativedestinationstothemigrantsisakeyrequirementforsustainabilityand
reducingenvironmentaldegradationfromhumanactivities.
2.2.2 Infrastructuredevelopment
In the past Maldives have invested into social infrastructure while the services and utilities
infrastructure,especiallythetransportationhadbeenlaggingbehind.Toaddressthisshortfall
the new Government in its electionmanifesto pledges identified developing a transportation
network as a priority. The primary aim is to establish a new maritime/land based public
transportation network to increase accessibility and mobility of people and goods by
incorporating existing networks of private and public transportation networks. The network
haspartiallyestablishedintraatoll,interregionalornationallevelferryservices.Thecombined
terminalswhichincludeharbors,jettiesandothercommercialinfrastructureareintheprocess
ofestablishment.
There are five operational airports in the Maldives; two international and three domestic
airports;wherescheduledflightsoperatedailyfromMale’toallthefourairports.Elevenmore
domestic airports are under current development plan and expansion andmodernization of
IbrahimNasirInternationalAirportisunderway.Thetotaloftwowayinternationalpassenger
traffichashitover1.6millionintheMaldives. Morethan80percentofthistrafficistourists
andholidaymakersvisitingthecountry.Thesetouristsaretransportedtotheirdestinationby
seaplanesoperatedfromtheairportandbyspeedboats.Twoseaplanecompanies,operate72
planeswhichcoversasignificantproportionofthetransportationrequirementofthetourism
industry.
Atpresent,Maldiveshas three internationalports,oneat thecapitalMale’ (Male’Commercial
Harbor), one at North (KulhuduffishiRegional Port) and one at South (Hithadhoo Regional
Port).Atpresent,oneineveryfourforeignshipsthatcalltoMaldivianportsaresubjecttoport
state control inspections. The management of ports also give high priority for preventing
environmentalpollutionbyadoptingstrictpolicies tostopanyvesseldumpingordischarging
intoanyharbor, lagoon,orintoanypartofthewatersoftheRepublicofMaldivesanytypeof
refuse,bunkeroil,sewageandnoxioussubstancesoranymaterial.
Theprovisionofadequateandaffordablehousingacrossthecountryisakeypledgeofthenew
administration. In this regard, the government is seeking private sector participation in
building10,000newhousingunitsacrosstheMaldives.Bytheprovisionof7000housingunits
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and related social infrastructure in the seven provinces, the Government aims to ease the
congestion in the capital city Male’. The housing units is developed using the neighborhood
conceptwithmajor social infrastructure likemosques, parks and green areas, schools etc at
walkingdistance.
Social infrastructure in termsofhealthandeducationarewelldistributed innumberswithin
the country. More than 195 health and 310 education institutions are in existence however,
quality and level of service are not up to the expectation. At island levelmost children have
accessonlytoprimaryleveleducation.Poorqualityteachers,lackofsupportingmaterialsand
facilities, poor quality classrooms, and poor child nutrition hamper the delivery of quality
education in outer islands. At the same time, over 10,000 studentswho complete secondary
education every year, require postsecondary and vocational education. Unemployment in the
country isnear4.4percentwithwomenandyouthrepresenting the largest share. Providing
suitable skills training is essential to replace expatriate laborwhich, at present, accounts for
nearly a quarter of the labor force. Recently the government has embarked on a vocational
trainingprogramtoprovideskillsfor8600peoplecoveringthemajorsectorstoreplaceatleast
20%oftheexpatriatelaborforce.Upgradingquality,scopeandrelevanceofpostsecondaryand
tertiary education including vocational education are main human resource development
challengesfacingtheMaldives.
Similarly, the existing health infrastructure suffers fromweak support services due to acute
shortageofhumanresourcecapacity.Corporatizingthehealthservicestoprovidequalityhealth
to all citizens is a major policy change that the new government had adopted however, its
impactwillbefeltinthemediumterm.
Harbordevelopment is amajor intervention in thenewdevelopmental agendaof the current
government.Theprogram is expected to contribute to furtherdiversificationof the economy
andimprovetheresilienceof islandandatolleconomies.Currently68harborsaredeveloped,
out of which 78 percent is completed by the new government administration. Harbor
infrastructure development in the islands also aims to promote commercial activities
surroundingtheharborsinanefforttogenerateeconomicactivitiesatislandandregionallevel
toprovidemeaningfulemploymentopportunities,particularlytotheyouth,atislandlevel,and
therebycreatemeansforincomegenerationbypromotingSMEs,tradeandentrepreneurship.
Adetaillistofexistinginfrastructureisprovidedinappendix1.1ofwhichthemostsignificantis
theexistinghotelinfrastructureintheMaldives.
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2.2.3 Poverty
MaldiveshasachievedtheMillenniumDevelopmentGoal(MDG)1toeradicateextremepoverty
andhunger.Considering theMDGincome levelofonedollarperpersonperdayasreference,
very low levels of absolute and relative poverty can be observed in theMaldives. Therefore,
manycharacteristicsofpovertyfoundintherestofSouthAsiaarenotevidentintheMaldives.
Despite achieving the MDG goals, the concentration of poverty among particular population
groupsisofconsiderableconcern.Itrequirespublicinterventionsaimedatgreaterequityand
redistribution of the gains of economic growth. There is a need to have more relevant and
appropriate strategies forpoverty reduction,becausepoverty in theMaldiviancontextdiffers
from that ofmany other countries,with poverty issueswhich is often related to hardship or
remotenessoftheislandsandlackofservicesintheatolls.
ThepreliminaryresultsofarecentsurveyconductedbytheDepartmentofNationalPlanning
(DNP)reveals that theoverallpovertyhasdeclined in theRepubliccomparedto thestatus in
2003.Theanalysisused8incomepovertylinestocalculateheadcountratioandthepovertygap
ratio.Table2.3providesthepovertylinesandthepercentageheadcountratiowhichindicates
theproportionofthepopulationthatlivesbelowthepovertyline.
Goalandtarget Indication Baselin
e1990
Population
(%)
Target1.A
Havebetween1990and
2015theproportionof
peoplewhoseincomeis
lessthanonedollaraday
1.1Proportionofpeoplebelow$1PPPperday 24 1
‐ProportionofpopulationbelowMRF7.5perday 49 3
‐ProportionofpopulationbelowMRF10perday 59 8
‐ProportionofpopulationbelowMRF15perday 74 21
1.2Povertygapratio
‐ProportionofpopulationbelowMRF7.5perday NA 1
‐ProportionofpopulationbelowMRF10perday NA 2
‐ProportionofpopulationbelowMRF15perday NA 6
1.3Shareofpoorestquintileinnationalconsumption NA 6
MDG.1:‐ERADICATEEXTREMEPOVERTYANDHUNGER
Source:Statisticalyearbook2010
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Headcountratio(%)
Povertyline Republic Male'(Capital) Atoll(Rural)
2003 2010 2003 2010 2003 2010MRF4.34 0.16 0.39 0 0.1 0.22 0.53
MRF7.5 2.75 1.23 0 1.63 3.76 1.04
MRF8.13 3.2 1.63 0 2.14 4.38 1.38
MRF10 5.02 2.31 0.11 2.67 6.83 2.14
MRF15 18.93 7.05 0.42 6.45 25.73 7.33
MRF18 24.86 9.94 1.41 9.01 33.47 10.39
MRF21 32.56 12.86 4.19 10.24 42.98 14.13
MRF22.83 40.01 14.96 10.72 11.37 50.77 16.69
Theresultsindicatethatpeoplelivingbelowthepovertylinesin2010(incomparisonto2003)
in the capital is increasing within all poverty lines while that in the rural islands has
significantlyreduced.Thesignificantimprovementofheadcountratiointheatollsisattributed
totheoverallenhancementofpovertystatusinthecountry.Adetailbreakdownofthepoverty
situationin2010atregionallevelindicatesthatpeoplelivingunderthepovertyline;MRF22.83
(povertylineathalfthemedianofexpenditure)isthehighestintheNorthfollowedbyCentral
SouthandUpperSouthprovince.CentralandNorthCentralprovincesclosertothecapitalinthe
dynamictourismzonereportedthehighestimprovementintheheadcountstudy.
Povertygapindicatorwasusedtoidentifytheincidenceanddepthofpoverty. Comparisonof
theresultsof2003and2010indicatesthatoverallpovertygapreducedinthecountry.Thereis
a significant reduction in the poverty gap in the Atollswhile the opposite is observed in the
capitalwherepovertygapisslowlyincreasinginallpovertylines(Table2.4).Breakdownofthe
poverty gap results regionally in 2010 shows that the gap is highest in the North Province
followedbySouthCentralandSouthProvince.
Table2.3:Headcountratioforpovertylines2003‐2010
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2010
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Povertygapratio(percentage)
PovertyLines Maldives Male'(Capital) Atolls(rural)
2003 2010 2003 2010 2003 2010Rf4.34 0.020 0.002 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.002
Rf7.5 0.005 0.004 0.000 0.002 0.006 0.005
Rf8.13 0.007 0.005 0.000 0.004 0.009 0.005
Rf10 0.013 0.007 0.000 0.007 0.018 0.008
Rf15 0.044 0.020 0.001 0.020 0.060 0.020
Rf18 0.074 0.031 0.002 0.030 0.100 0.032
Rf21 0.104 0.043 0.005 0.039 0.140 0.044
Rf22.83 0.125 0.050 0.010 0.045 0.167 0.053
Thestudyshowsthattheincomeinequalityisrisinginthecountry(Gini2003=0.38and2010
=0.44).Both in thecapitalMale’and in the islandspovertygap is increasing. Ginicoefficient
increased from 0.35 in 2003 to 0.45 in 2010 for Male’. Similar pattern is observed for the
islandswith Gini rising from0.32 to 0.41. Inequality is slightly higher in the capital in both
2003 and 2010. However inequality betweenMale’ and Atolls has decreased during 2003 &
2010.
TheGovernmentintroducednewpoliciesforpovertyreductionbyintroducingsocialassistance.
Theirmodeofassistance/servicedeliverystillleavessectionsofthepopulationvulnerableto
poverty.ConsiderablepercentoftheMaldivianpopulationisstillstrugglingtorecoverfromthe
impactsofthe2004tsunamithatcausedlarge‐scalelossofincomesandassets.Environmental
risksofglobalwarming leading toa rise insea levelsand increasing fiscaldeficitsareamong
other risks that may be concerns in the Maldives. At an individual level, health risks and
joblessnessisreportedtobeofgreatconcernleadingtopoverty.Healthshocksarereportedto
cause the largest and most frequent shocks to household incomes. Special focus on social
assistance to child and youth populations is needed, given their increasing vulnerability and
riskswith regard tounemployment anddisaffection, aswell as the issuesof drug abuse, and
growingviolenceandabuse.
Table2.4:Povertygapratio2003‐2010
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2010
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2.3 EconomicDevelopment
2.3.1 Growth
TheMaldiveseconomicbaseisextremelynarrowanddominatedbytourismaccountingover27
percent of GDP in the recent year. Following the tourism sector, fisheries, construction and
commerceplayasignificantroleintheMaldivianeconomyeachsectorcontributingbetween5–
10 percent of the GDP. Despite the risky narrow economic base, during the past decades,
impressive economic growth rates were recorded in the Maldives except in the times of
exogenousshocks.TheMaldivesisnowoneofthewealthiestcountriesintheregioninincome
percapitaterms.RealpercapitaGDPstoodatapproximatelyUS$2,800in2009.
The Asian Tsunami of 2004 severely affected the Maldivian economy, by causing major
destructionofinfrastructureandassets,especiallythoseinthetourismandfisheriessector.The
impactofthetsunamidisasterreducedrealGDPgrowthby‐4.6%in2005.
Investments for tsunami recovery and rapid revival of the tertiary sector particularly the
tourismwhichgrewbyover42%in2006ensuredstrongGDPgrowth.RealGDPgrowthrates
rose from ‐4.6 in 2005 to reach a record high of 18% in 2006 before slowing to more
conventional rates of under5% in2009. TheGDPgrowth rate continued toplunge in2010,
howeverisexpectedtostabilizeat2009ratein2011.
In2009,duetotheglobalcrisis,GDPgrowthwasreducedmorethantheexpectedof1.3%.This
wasmainlyduetotheturbulencesinthetourismsectorwhichreduceditsgrowthrateto0.5%.
Inaddition, the construction sector growth ratesdecreased to24.2 in2009 fromearlierhigh
rangingfrom20%.Similarly,thetransportandcommunicationandgovernmentadministration
‐10
‐5
0
5
10
15
20
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
%
Mil MRF
GDP Growth rate
Fig2.5:GDPandgrowthrate(2004‐2011)
Source:MMAApril2011statistics(at1995constantprices)
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experiencedadeclineinrealgrowthrates in2009,comparedtoearlieryears,growinginreal
terms only by 1.1 and 12.5% respectively (United Nations, 2007) . However, the latest GDP
estimatesofNovember2010,realGDPisestimatedtohavegrownby4.8percentin2010,due
tostrongerthanexpectedperformanceofthetourismsector.Meanwhile,thepaceofgrowthis
projected to bemoderate at 4.0 percent in 2011 supported by continued buoyant growth in
tourismandrelatedsectorssuchasconstruction,transportandcommunications.
GDP contribution by sector is provided in appendix 2.2. The primary industry represents
agriculture,fisheriesandcoralandsandminingofwhichfishingisthemajoreconomicactivity.
Theprimarysectordepictsanunstabletrendduringtheperiod2004‐2010,whichexperienced
negativegrowthratessince2006.Thesecondarysectorincludesmanufacturing,electricityand
watersupplyandconstruction. In2009,thesecondarysectorshowednegativegrowthmainly
due to the short falls in the construction industry.Major players of the tertiary industry are
tourismfollowedby,transportandcommunication,wholesaleandretailtradeandgovernment
administration.In2006,thetertiarysectorgrowthratepeakedreaching21.3%andplungedto‐
0.6in2009.
Tourismsector'scontributiontoGDPremainsthestrongestwith26percentattheendof2009.
In2010 thesectorgrewby9.2percentrebounding fromthenegativegrowthof ‐5.2 in2009.
Transport and communication sector contributed to GDP modestly at around 20 percent in
2010 and its growth remained positive at 2.5 although it declined to 1.1 percent in 2009.
Wholesaleandretailtraderepresentingthedistributionsectorcontinuedtogrowandexpanded
duringtheperiod.Thissectoriscloselylinkedtomajorsectorsoftheeconomysuchastourism
andconstructionandtheireconomicactivitiesdrovethesectorsgrowth.Thesectorcontinues
tocontributeabout3.8percentofGDPsince2004todate.
The expansionary fiscal andmonetary policies of the past Government, inherited huge fiscal
debts to the current Government since its election in October, 2008. Efforts to reign in this
deficitandtheassociatedcoststotheeconomyarecurrentlybeingexacerbatedandmademore
difficultbytheworldeconomicandfinancialcrisis.
As a percent of GDP, public debt levels have almost doubled from 55 percent in 2004 to an
estimated 97 percent in 2010. Public debt service as a percent of government revenues are
projected to more than double between 2006 and 2010 from under 15 percent to over 30
percent.TheIMFrecentlyclassifiedthecountryas‘athighrisk’ofdebtdistress.
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InflationinMaldivesisontherise,mainlyduetothemonetizedfiscaldeficitin2008.According
totheestimatesoftheannualpercentagechangeinthemovingaverageoftheConsumerPrice
Index, inflation stands at 12.3 percent as at end of December 2008 (MMA website). Major
categoriescontributingtoinflationincludesoaringfood,transportation,andhousingprices.
Despite the impressive growth of the past, the mounting fiscal deficit and the concomitant
resourcegap,thecrisisfromdoubledigitlevelsofinflationhurtingthepoorandtheimpactof
the global recession is currently having a knock on effect on the government revenues. The
gross reserve for 2009 was calculated to be at US$386.1 million, which is equivalent to 4.3
monthsof import (MMAwebsite).Theadverseeconomicconditionshavealso impactedupon
employmentandhouseholdincomesduetolesserpay,enforcedleaveandsomelayoffs.
2.3.2 Construction
Theconstructionsectorcontinuedtoremainrobustduring2004‐2008owingtotheincreasein
developmental activities by the tourism sector as well as public sector infrastructure
developmentprojects.Asaresult,thevalueaddedtothesectorroseby16percentbytheendof
2008.Theindustrywashardhitduringtheyear2009andgrowthratefellto‐29.2.
The construction sector’s performance, asmeasured through the share of commercial bank’s
credittothesector,registeredatwelvemonthimprovementof54percentattheendof2008
compared to an annual improvement of 107 percent in 2007. As for construction related
imports, the total value of imports of construction materials increased by 13 percent from
‐40
‐30
‐20
‐10
0
10
20
30
40
0.0
100.0
200.0
300.0
400.0
500.0
600.0
700.0
800.0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
MRF million
GDP GDP Growth rate
Fig2.6:ConstructionsectorcontributiontoGDP(2004–2010)
Source:Statisticalyearbook,2010,DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2010
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$172.3million in 2007 to $194.9million in 2008, compared to 42 percent annual growth in
2007(MMAwebsite).
2.3.3 Tourism
Tourismsector is themain sectorof theeconomywhichcontributesovera thirdof theGDP.
Tourismsectorisvulnerabletoexogenousshocksandtheaftermathofthe2004Asiantsunami
whichhitthesectorhardbyreducingitscontributiontotheGDPbyaboutone‐third.However,
thesectorrecoveredremarkablywithgrowthreboundingstronglyin2006.Similarly,tourism
sector was increasingly affected by the volatile global economy during the past few years.
Followedby an outstandingperformance of double‐digit growth, during the year 2006 and a
moremoderategrowthin2007,thesectorobservedasteadydeclinein2009(graph2.7).
The tourist arrivals registered a significant growth in 2006 while it slowed down in 2008,
mainly due to a fall in arrivals from main source markets in Europe. A similar trend was
observedinthegrowthtrend.Thetouristbednights,whichisdirectlyrelatedtoarrivals,was
somewhatbetterthanarrivalsgrowthtrendpartlyreflectingtheincreaseintheaveragestayof
atouristvisitfrom8.3daysin2007to8.6daysin2009.
Duringtheperiodthenumberoftouristresortsincreasedfrom87to97.Similarly,thenumber
ofcityhotelsincreasedfrom8to14whilethenumberofyachtmarinasremainedunchanged.A
decliningtrendwasexperiencedinnumberofguesthouses(28in2005,and22in2009)while
safarivesselsincreasedfrom113to145from2005.Theaverageoccupancyrateincreasedby
5.8 percent from 2005 – 2009, which peaked during the 2007 showing an increase of 18.4
percent compared to thatof2005.Theoccupancy rate increasedby0.3percent from2005–
‐40
‐20
0
20
40
60
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
MRF million
GDP GDP Growth rate
Fig2.7:TourismsectorcontributiontoGDP(2004–2010)
Source:Statisticalyearbook,2010,DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2010
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2009,depictingthehighestin2009.Withtheincreasingtrendinthetotalnumberofregistered
resorts,hotelsandsafarivesselsinthecountryattheendof2009,thetotalbedcapacityroseby
4480bedsbytheendof2009.
Withregardstotheutilizationofbedcapacitywhilethetotalnumberofregisteredbedcapacity
of the industryexpanded,while thenumberofbeds inoperation increasedby7.1percent to
20,137in2009.Thisindicatedonaverage,registeringanannualincrementofabout1000beds
duringtheperiod.However,thecapacityutilizationincreasedfrom69to82percentfrom2005
to2008despitetheslowgrowthintouristarrivals(fig2.8).
Maldives is a popular long‐haul destination for European travelers contributing near three
quarters of the total arrivals.With the rise in global fuel prices to record levels in 2008 and
reflecting the slowing of most European economies, the growth performance of European
marketdecreasedto‐0.4in2009comparedto2007.Thegrowthratewasexceptionallysluggish
by countries such asUK and Italywhichwere among the hardest hit countries by the global
financial crisis and were officially in recession by the end of 2008. However, other major
marketsfromEuropelikeRussia,recordedarobustgrowth,followedbymoderateperformance
by Switzerland and France. The Asian market contributes about 23% of the total arrivals.
Growth of the Asianmarket remainsmoderate at 6.9 percent at the end of 2009 due to the
strong performance of the fast growing Chinesemarket, although the scenario for the Asian
market remained sluggish in 2008. New and emerging markets in the Maldives includes
AmericaandtheMiddleEast inwhichthegrowthwasrecordedas4.7and3.5respectivelyat
theendof2009(Fig2.9).
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Year
Operational bedcapacity (nos)Registered bedcapacity (nos)
Fig2.8:Touristbedcapacityutilization(2005–2009)
Source:MinistryofTourism,2010
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2.3.4 Fisheries
The fisheries sector continues to remain imperative to the Maldivian economy. It is an
important sector in terms of foreign exchange earnings as fish and fish products account for
almost98percentoftotaldomesticexports.Thesectorprovidesakeysourceofemployment,
bothdirectlyandindirectly,averagingabout15percent.DespiteitsimportancetotheMaldivian
economy fisheries sector has been experiencing a prolonged set back since 2006 and its
contributiontoGDPhadbeendecliningsteadily.Thefisheriessectorgrowthratewasworsened
intheyear2007and2009duetothecontinueddeclineinfishcatchandrisingfuelprices(Fig
2.10).
‐30
‐20
‐10
0
10
20
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
MRF million
GDP GDP Growth rate
‐ 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0
2007
2008
2009Year
Thousands
Middle EastOceaniaAmericasAfricaAsiaEurope
Fig2.9:Touristarrivalbynationality(2007–2009)
Source:MinistryofTourism
Fig2.10:FisheriessectorcontributiontoGDP(2004‐2010)
Source:Statisticalyearbook,2011,DepartmentofNationalPlanning2011
StateoftheEnvironment2011
50 |P a g e
Fig 2.11 depicts the distribution of fishermen and the fishing vessels within the country.
Accordingtothe2010statistics,Maldiveshas14,423fishermanand610vesselsarelicensedfor
fishing.
Fisheries sector experienced a declining in trend in total fish landing since 2005. Total fish
landingdecreasedby26percentin2009from158thousandMetrictonsin2005,to117Metric
tons.Decreasedfishlandingsareattributedtoeconomicalandenvironmentalfactors.Maldivian
fishermanstillgoesoutfishingonsingledaytripsreturningbacktotheislandbydusk.Majority
ofthefishingvesselsarelargeinsizewithhighpoweredengineswhichisnotcosteffectivedue
to high fuel prices andother operational costs involved. Thus, the fishing effortwas reduced
overtheyears.MorerecentlyMaldiveshasraisedconcernsovertheincreasedactivitiesinthe
IndianOceanwhichisclaimedtohavecontributedtothereducedthefishstockandhencepoor
catch. Furthermore , the recent climate change phenomenon’s which caused warmer sea
temperaturesisbelievedtohavepushedthefishdeeperthanthefishermancancatchbyusing
poleandlinecatchingsystems.
0
50
100
150
200
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
thousand mt
Years
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Malé
HA
HDh Sh N R B Lh K
AA
Adh V M F
Dh Th
L
Ga
GDh
Gn S
No. of fisherman No. of licensed fishing vessels
Fig2.11:No.offishermanandfishingvessels‐2010
Source:MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture2011
Fig2.12:Fishlanding(2004‐2009)
Source:MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture2010
StateoftheEnvironment2011
51 |P a g e
The total volume of fish export and its earnings in table 2.7 indicate an overall reduction in
earningsexceptforthereeffish.Totalearningsfromexportsoffishandfishproductsestimated
MRF 17.1 billion in 2006, 13.5 billion in 2007 and 15.9 billion in 2008. The overall earnings
reduced by 20 and 7 percent in 2007 and 2008, respectively compared to that of 2006.
Similarly, during the same period the earnings from fresh or chilled tuna fell by 11 and 5
percent.Volumeoftunaexportfellby33percentin2008comparedtothatof2006.However,
due to the favorable global tunaprices during2008, tuna export earnings reducedby only 1
percent.Reef fish landingandexport trendwaspositive though thequantity isveryminimal.
Volumeofreeffishexportincreasedby6.76percent,theearningsby18.6percentfrom2006to
2008.Thecannedfishsectorperformedthepoorestduring2006–2008.Volumeandearnings
fromcannedfishexportfellby59and39percentrespectively(table2.5). Exportearningsdo
notreflectthevalueoftotalnationalfishproductionasthevalueoffishlocallyconsumedisnot
takenintoaccount.Thepoliciestoaddresstheissueofloweconomicbenefitisdirectedtowards
facilitatingbusinessdevelopmenttradeandexportpromotions,regulatingthemarkettoensure
changesinbuyingpricesoffishatinternationalmarketandenhancingregulatoryframework.
Fishandfishproduct Quantity(MetricTons) Value(F.O.BMRF'000)
2006 2007 2008 2006 2007 2008
Freshorchilledtuna 8,992.17 7,535.70 6,919.56 440,207.29 392,992.23 417,829.11
Freshorchilledreef
fish
317.00 318.01 340.10 16,424.12 18,768.18 20,178.86
FrozenFish 86,103.21 46,342.31 49,351.76 856,996.14 628,545.75 875,466.77
Cannedfish 4,727.14 3,684.51 1,940.21 146,263.39 137,920.80 88,726.35
Salteddriedfish 2,914.73 2,389.24 2,269.96 31,893.93 20,880.12 18,199.66
DriedFish 5,699.30 5,095.43 3,711.83 112,946.92 98,514.52 92,852.15
Tuna(inbrine) ‐ 0.53 0.01 ‐ 6.38 0.12
LiveReefFish 436,485.0
0
425,739.0
0
408,767.0
0
18,895.87 13,823.74 18,442.56
SeaCucumber(Dried) 87.87 112.95 84.01 12,707.46 10,945.97 7,891.33
SeaCucumber(Live) ‐ 50.00 ‐ ‐ 0.32 ‐
FishMeal 2,946.93 2,248.74 1,490.28 20,244.42 13,431.57 13,204.79
OtherMarineProducts 1,483.27 435.24 592.93 53,079.36 21,315.47 38,727.55
OtherMarineProducts
(litres)
9,580.50 3,469.00 14,801.20 330.53 77.13 419.95
Total 1,709,989.44 1,357,222.19 1,591,939.20
Table2.5:Exportandearningsfromfishandfishproducts(2006‐2008)
Source:MaldivesCustoms,2009
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52 |P a g e
2.3.5 Agriculture
Theshareofagricultureinthenationaleconomyhasalwaysbeenrecordedaslowandstagnant
(fig2.13).However,recentanecdotalevidencessupportthefactthatthesectorisstrengthening
asproductioneffortsandoutputdeliveredtothemarketareincreasing.Agricultureisstillthe
principalpreoccupationandsourceoflivelihoodforalargenumberofpeopleparticularlythose
wholiveintheislands.Agriculturesectorhadamajorimpactofthe2004Asiantsunamiandthe
sectors growth fell from4.3 percent in 2005 to ‐0.5 percent in 2005. Since, then the sector's
recovery issteadyandasof2010growthhadreached1.7percent.Partly,agriculturesector's
contributions to GDP are depicted low due to the rapid growth of other sectors. Moreover,
agricultural statistics are poorly covered as, the landings inMale’market is only used as the
production figures. Direct sale to resorts and trade between islands are not included in the
agriculturalstatistics.Itisestimatedthatathirdoftheproductionisrepresentedbythedirect
trade and it is not included in the current data collection system. Unreliable data distort the
macroaswellasthemicro‐economicscenariooftheagriculturesector.
Agricultureisrecognizedasasupplementarysourceofcashandfoodinmorethan76inhabited
islandsandcommercialfarmingiscarriedoutextensivelythroughoutthecountry.Thesectoris
crucialtoaddressMDGgoalofpovertyalleviationandthenationalproblemofhighmalnutrition
andfoodinsecurity.
Farming is currently practiced 76 inhabited islands and 600 uninhabited islands leased as
‘varuva’(traditionalleasingsystem)wherebytheleaseholdersgointosemicommercialtypeof
‐1
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
50
100
150
200
250
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
MRF million
GDP GDP Growth rate
Fig2.13:AgriculturesectorcontributiontoGDP(2004–2010)
Source:Statisticalyearbook,2010,DepartmentofNationalPlanning2011
StateoftheEnvironment2011
53 |P a g e
farming ventures and 60 islands leased for 21 years for commercial farming. In the 76
inhabited islands over 7500 are registered as farmers of which most of them are marginal
producinginanarealessthanahectare.Atotalareaof1025hectaresisleasedforcommercial
farming;howeverfewfarmersusethefullpotentialoftheavailableresources.
Developmentsinlocalproductionsintermsofearningsfromagriculturalcommoditiestradedto
theMale’marketandvalueofimportbillsiscomparedinfig2.16.
As depicted in fig 2.14, the earnings from 15 agricultural crops increased by 32% in 2009
compared to that of 2004. Farmers compete with imports from neighboring countries and
struggle to fetch goodprice for the local crops.Hence, as depicted in fig 2.17, comparison of
2009 imports and local production data for 15 major crops indicates that local production
exceeds importby23%nevertheless, theearningsare3%less thanthevalueof imports.The
scenarioisworstin2010inwhichproductionincreasedby13percentandtheearningswas40
percent less than the import. Thismaybedue the competitiveness in cost of production and
alsoduetotheabsenceofawell‐organizedandregulatedsupplychain.
‐
1,000.00
2,000.00
3,000.00
4,000.00
5,000.00
6,000.00
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
(Hundred Thao
usand )
Local production (Earnings MRF) Import Expenditure ( MRF)
Fig2.14:Importexpenditureandearningsfromagriculturecommodities
Source:Statisticalyearbook,2010
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To address the issue of value chain and marketing system for the agriculture sector,
empowering theprivate sector, enablingand facilitativebusinessenvironment,public‐private
partnershipandpromotingmicro‐enterprisesandSME’sareconsideredaspolicydirectivesfor
theMinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture.
‐
200.00
400.00
600.00
800.00
1,000.00
1,200.00
1,400.00
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
(Hundred Thao
usand )
Quantity (Kg) Value (MRF)
Fig2.15:QuantityandEarningsofhorticulturalcropsgrownintheMaldives
Source:MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture,2010
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55 |P a g e
Appendices
EconomicInfrastructures NumberExistingAirports 4FutureAirports 11FishingActivityislands 56AgriculturalActivityislands 76ExistingAirports 4FutureAirports 11SeaplaneServices‐TransMaldivianAirways 31SeaplaneServices–MaldivianAirTaxi 41PlannedTransit/AirportHotels 9PlannedCityHotels 9BankofMaldivesPLCBranches 19AgriculturalActivityislands 76FishingActivityislands 56Fisheries&AgriculturalTrainingCenter 2Picnicislands 9FutureResort‐tobeopened2011 18ExistingResort 98FutureResort‐Contractsigned 31Harborsandjetties 68HealthandSocialInfrastructure TertiaryHealthCare(Atoll&RegionalHospitals) 32HealthCentre 158HigherSecondary(A‐level) 34AtollEducationCentre 20SecondaryEducation 117SingleSessionSchools 114DivisionPoliceHeadquarters 7PoliceStations 42TeacherResourceCenters 21FamilyandChildrenServiceCenters 19
MaldivesPostLimited‐Branches 26MaldivesNationalUniversity‐Campuses 02Hostels&RegionalVocationalTrainingCentres 02ZoneStadiums 05DefenseForceHeadQuarters 02YouthCentres 14FireStations 05Utilitiesandservices Desalinationplantinoperation 29SanitationProjects‐completed 22SanitationProjects–underconstruction 04ElectricityprovidedbySTELCO 07Islandswhererenewableenergyisused 09ElectricityprovidedbyUtilityCompanies 25
Appendix2.1:InfrastructureintheMaldives
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanningwebsite,InfrastructuremapofMaldiveMarch2011
StateoftheEnvironment2011
56 |P a g e
Industry/Economicactivity 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Primary
Agriculture 203.6 204.3 205.1 206.6 208.9 211.6 214.9
Fisheries 595.8 590.1 461.7 426.5 374.1 352.5 336.5
Coralandsandmining 49.5 52.1 53.4 54.5 52.5 52.7 53.3
Secondary
Manufacturing 593.6 680.2 703.2 722.8 694.2 703.0 708.9
Electricityandwatersupply 363.4 409.0 446.5 476.5 497.1 515.7 541.0
Construction 417.3 502.8 603.2 701.3 496.4 509.6 559.0
Tertiary
Wholesale&retailtrade 336.0 357.1 387.3 403.5 392.1 410.9 425.9
Tourism 1798.5 2559.7 2800.0 2883.9 2733.2 3127.8 3371.7
Transport&communications 1456.5 1725.4 1868.8 2043.8 2082.0 2163.1 2255.5
Financialservices 261.9 286.5 298.8 306.8 301.4 312.2 320.0
Realestate 574.5 594.8 610.0 623.9 623.6 643.2 660.8
Businessservices 222.4 233.3 238.9 243.5 240.4 246.6 250.9
Governmentadministration 1212.7 1380.3 1596.3 1814.5 1943.2 1909.9 1912.5
Education,health&socialservices 148.5 151.7 154.5 157.4 160.3 163.5 166.9
FISIM ‐308.0 ‐376.2 ‐399.4 ‐418.9 ‐397.8 ‐423.6 ‐442.6
Memorandumitems
NominalGDP(MRFmillion) 6357.0 6935.0 7348.0 7650.8 8201.0 8863.2 9938.7
NominalGDP(US$million) 540.1 589.2 624.3 625.1 640.7 690.8 776.5
GDPpercapita(inUS$atcp) 1840.2 1933.8 1986.4 2020.9 2117.7 2262.1 2439.3
GDPdeflator(percentchange) 2.0 1.7 1.1 0.6 0.6 ‐0.4 2.4
CPIInflation ‐1.4 3.0 ‐1.2 0.7 1.5 ‐2.5 3.9
Appendix2.2:GDPatbasicprice(inMillionsofMRF,at1995constantprices)
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanningwebsite,InfrastructuremapofMaldiveMarch2011
StateoftheEnvironment2011
57 |P a g e
Key findings: National indicators and forecasts show that extreme events in terms of SLR, precipitations
temperature and storm events have the probability of occurring more often in the future. Major adaptation related initiative include replicating locally appropriate coastal protection
measures throughout the country. SLM and WRM are initiated as part of the strategy to mainstreaming risk planning and climate change adaptation into the policy and planning framework across all sectors.
It is estimated that Maldivians emitted 1.3 million tons of carbon dioxide in 2009 (Becitizen
2010). Achieving carbon neutrality by year 2020 is the priority and as such promoting renewable energy, energy efficiency and phasing of HCFC are major mitigation related initiatives.
3. ClimateChange
3.1 Introduction
Maldivesislowlyingarchipelagowithmoreseathanlandwithlessthan1%ofthetotalareais
landsuitableforhumanhabitation.Morethanhalfofthepopulationofthecountryliveswithin
100metersofthecoastlinemakingtheentirenationhighlyvulnerabletoSeaLevelRise(SLR)
duetoclimatechange.
Climate change, driven by the increasing concentration of Green House Gases (GHG) in the
atmosphere, poses serious, wide‐ranging threats to Maldives. Intergovernmental Panel on
ClimateChange(IPCC),FourthAssessmentReport(2007)statesthattemperaturerisesofabout
0.2°C per decade is projected for the next two decades under all Emission Scenarios. It is
estimatedthatSLRwillbe18to38cm(7to15inches)inalowscenarioand26to59cm(10‐23
inches)inahighscenario.
Climate change is overwhelming toMaldiveswhere80%of the islands are less than ameter
above sea level. National predications and forecasts of climate change indicators in terms of
SLR, precipitation, temperature and extreme events are reviewed to understand the current
status the predictions and the severity of the climate change (table 3.1). The forecast shows
increasingtrendswiththeprobabilityof theextremeeventsoccurringmorefrequently inthe
future.
StateoftheEnvironment2011
58 |P a g e
3.2 ClimateChangeImpacts
3.2.1 Sealevelrise
Global sea level is projected to rise under all scenarios of IPCC Special Report on Emission
Scenarios(IPCC2001)withanaveragerateof increaseof5mm/yearwithinarangeof2 to9
mm/year.Duringthe20thcenturytheglobalmeansealevelrose10to20mmattherateof1to
2mm/year.Between1990to2100sealevelsriseisprojectedtorisewithintherangeof9to88
cm.
ThenationalprojectionsrevealthatthatthemaximumhourlySLRof7mm/yearisaratefarin
excess of the observed local and global trends in mean sea level. A long term trend of an
increaseof 1.7mm/year isobservedwithforecastspredictingthattheprobabilityofevents
such as hourly sea level of 70 cm abovemean sea level are to occurmore frequently in the
future.
3.2.2 Precipitation
Global average water vapor concentration and precipitation are project to increase (IPCC,
2001),whileamarginaldeclineinprecipitationisprojectedfortheIndianOceanRegion.(Nurse
andSem,2001)
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59 |P a g e
In line with this projection in Maldives no significant long term trends are observed daily,
monthly, annual or maximum daily rainfall. Figure 3.1 outlines the available data on annual
rainfall for the period 1995‐2009 which shows that annual rainfall has ranged from 1407
millimetersin1905to2711millimetersin2006.Similartootherindicatorsrainfallprojections
intermsofextremelyhighdailyrainfallsoccurringmoreoftenispredictedforthefuture.
3.2.3 Temperature
Elevenofthetwelveyearsbetween1995‐2007rankedamongthetwelvewarmestyearinthe
recordofglobalsurfacetemperaturesince1850(IPCC2007).Anincreasingtrendfrom1.4to5.8
percent is predicted for the period 1990‐2100 (IPCC, 2001), while for the Indian Ocean the
average increase is predicted at 2.1 percent for 2050 and 3.2 for the 2080 (Nurse and Sem,
2001). Figure 3.2 outlines the annual average of daily maximum andminimum temperature
between1995‐2009.According to thedata the temperatureranges from25.8 to31.1degrees
Celcius.
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
rainfall (m
m)
Years
Fig3.1:‐Annualrainfall1995‐2009
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2011
StateoftheEnvironment2011
60 |P a g e
Indicator Status
Sealevel Increasingat1.7mm/year
Maximumhourlysealevelrise7mm/year
Anhourly sea level of 70cmaboveMSL is currently a100‐year event and
willlikelybeatleastanannualeventby2050
Precipitation Nosignificantlongtermtrendsareevidentintheobservedrainfallpattern
Dailyrainfallof160cmisrarewithareturnperiodof17years
Anextremedaily rainfallof180cm iscurrentlya100yeareventandwill
occurtwiceasoftenby2050
Anextreme threehourly100mmrainfall is rareand is25yeareventbut
willbetwiceascommonby2050
Temperature
Annualmaximum
dailytemperature
Projectedtoincrease1.5Cby2100
Maximumtemperatureof33.5iscurrentlya20yeareventandhasareturn
periodof3yearsby2025
SeaSurface
temperature
AnincreasingtrendinSeaSurfaceTemperature(SST)observed
The annual mean SST trends at Hulhule’ and Gan are 0.2±°C and 1.1 to
25.2
25.4
25.6
25.8
26
26.2
26.4
26.6
29.8
30
30.2
30.4
30.6
30.8
31
31.2
31.4
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
temperature (Degree Celcius)
Temperature (Degree Celcius)
Years
Annual average of daily maximum temperatureAnnua average of daily minimum temperature
Fig3.2:‐Annualaverageofdailymaximumandminimumtemperature1995‐2009
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2011
StateoftheEnvironment2011
61 |P a g e
1.6°C/decaderespectively
During May 1998 mean monthly SST was 1.1C above the highest mean
monthlySSTexpectedinany20yearreturnperiod
Extremeevents–
stormsurge
Maximumstormsurgeheight isreportedat1.32mwithareturnperiodof
500years.Ifcoupledwithhightide,itcouldgenerateastormtideof2.30m
Islandinthenortheastcouldfacestormtidesof2.3m
Sealevelrisewouldcauseregulartidalinundationsinmostislandsevenat
the medium prediction. The high prediction could cause inundations in
almost all islands. A storm surge at high prediction could cause a 3.18m
wavethatcouldinundateeventhelargestofislands.
Extremeevent–
windgusts
Windgustof60knotshasreturnperiodof16yearsand will reduce to9
yearsby2025
Category 3 cyclone for the Northern Maldives with a 500 year return
period
Erosion 41islandhavereportedseverebeacherosioninyear2009
NationalAdaptationPlanofAction(NAPA),reportsthatforMaldivesthereisarelativelyhigh
confidenceinprojectionsofmaximumtemperature.Theannualmaximumdailytemperatureis
projectedtoincreaseby1.5percentbytheyear2100.AccordingtoSingetal,2001;Khanetal,
2002,increasingtrendinSSThasbeenobservedinMaldives.Noteworthyisthefactthatduring
May1998meansmonthlySSTwas1.1degreesCabovethehighestmeanmonthlySSTexpected
inany20yearreturnperiod(Clarketal,2001)
3.2.4 Extremeevents
Inadditiontoregularmonsoonalwindgeneratedflooding,extremeeventssuchasstormsurges
andcyclonicstormsarealsopredictedevents.Inacountrywhere90%oftheislandsareatan
averageheightof1.5metersaboveMeanSeaLevel(MSL)forecastsofstormtidesforpredicted
Sea Level Rise (SLR) shows many islands can be submerged. Islands in the north east of
Maldivesarepredictedasmorevulnerable forsuchdisasters.The probablemaximumstorm
surge tidebyregion for thenortheastern islandsstormtidesof2.30meters ispredicted.The
highpredictionforecastswavesof2.41–meters3.18meterswithapossibilityofinundatingall
islands in theMaldives.WithmediumSLRpredictionsstormtidesof1.86‐2.78meterscanbe
Table3.1:Summaryofnationalindicatorsofclimatechange
Source:NationalAdaptationPlanofAction,2007,StatisticalYearbook,2010
StateoftheEnvironment2011
62 |P a g e
generatedsubmergingmost islandsof the country.Cyclonic stormshavealsooccurred in the
pastandprobabilityofsucheventshappeningexists.Predictedreturnperiodsofwindgustof
60knotshave increased from16years to9yearsby2025.Category3cycloniceventshavea
returnperiodof500yearsfortheNorthernMaldives.
STRONGTIDALWAVESHITMALDIVES:On15thMay, 2007 and for four subsequent
days,powerfulswellshitmanyislandsthroughouttheMaldives.AccordingtotheDepartment
ofMeteorology, theswellsweregeneratedbywavesbetween10‐15 feet fromadissipated
polar storm3,500miles southwest ofMaldives, off the coast of SouthAfrica. This climatic
phenomenonoccurseachyearthroughouttheMaldives.Thetideswerehigherthanusualand
thedegreeoffloodingalmostunprecedented.Whilethereisnoscientificevidenceyetthatthe
phenomenonisduetoglobalwarmingsuchevidenceseemstosuggestthatitmightbe.Atotal
of 88 island on 18 atolls were affected .The five island most severely affected were Fares
Maathoda,Rathafandhoo,Nadalla,Madavelli andFiyori. Fortunately therewereno fatalities
but1649wereevacuatedfromtheirhomestocommunityfacilities,familiesandfriendsonthe
island in the immediate aftermath. Six sectorswere assessed: infrastructure, health,water
andsanitation,livelihood,environment,andemergencyreliefneeds.Observationsonthefive
islandsdocumentedsubstantialfloodinganderosion.Damagetotheharborsandquaywallsof
theislandshasalsobeenobserved.Themaximuminundationmeasuredwasinexcessof5feet
ontheislandofFares‐Maathodaandtheminimumfloodedislandvisitedwasaboutlessthana
foot.Allbasic serviceshavebeen impactedsuchaselectricity,waterandseweragesystems.
Thegroundwaterqualityassessmentsshowthatthewaterhasbeencontaminatedinallthe
five islands. The total coliform count aswell as the faecal coliformcount is higher than the
referencerangeoftheguidelines.Anumberofhouseswereobservedtohavebeendamaged
byflooding.Longertermconsequencesarelikelytobestructuraldamagetowallsandfloors;
butmoreextensivedamagecausedby infiltrationofsalinewater is likelytohaveweakened
foundations, leading to theneed for repair and reconstruction.The saltwater intrusionhas
damaged crops and trees, visible immediately and it is foreseen that further damage will
become apparent Home gardens and othermeans of livelihood such as fish processing are
certaintorequirelongertermrecoveryintervention.Itwasevidentfromtheobservationfrom
alltheislandsthatlivelihoodsofthecommunitiesinthelongtermwillbeaffected.
Source:NationalDisasterManagementCentre,2007
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63 |P a g e
3.3 VulnerabilitytoClimateChange
Withaboutthree‐quartersofthelandareaofMaldivesbeinglessthanameteraboveMSL,the
slightestriseinsealevelwillproveextremelythreatening.NAPAidentifiesthehighrisksectors
andassociatedvulnerabilitieswhicharereviewedintable3.2.
Highrisk
vulnerablesectors
SectoralVulnerabilities
Land,Beachand
HumanSettlement
Infrastructure, human settlements and facilities located on or
nearthebeachaffected
Habitability threatened due to reduction in island size or
completeinundation
Critical
Infrastructure
Airport, ports,harbours, power, water and sewerage systems
locatedatanelevationofabout1.5metersabovesea leveland
incloseproximitytothecoastlineathighrisk
Overwaterstructuresthreatenedbycompleteinundation
Tourism Accelerated beach erosion, degradation of coral reefs, and
bleachingwillallhaveimpactsonincomesfromtourism.
Saltwaterintrusionwillaffectthevegetation
Fisheries Live bait fishery, tuna fishery and reef fishery coral reefs
affectingfoodsecurity
Changesinfishproductionaffectstourismsector
HumanHealth
Salinizationoffreshwatersupplies
Sewageandwatersystemsaffectinghumanhealth
Heatstresswithoccurrenceofdisease
Waterresources Salinizationaffectqualityoflife,soilandvegetation
Rainwaterstoringfacilitiesaffected
Changesinrainfallandincreasedevaporisation
Agricultureand
FoodSecurity
Limited agricultural land, with poor soil vulnerable to heat
stressonplants,changesonsoilmoistureandtemperatureloss
CoralReef
Biodiversity
Coralreefswhicharehighlysensitivetochangeintemperature
Reefsmaynotbeabletokeeppacewiththepredictedsealevel
rise
Table3.2:Highrisksectorsandassociatedvulnerabilitytoclimatechange
Source:NationalAdaptationPlanofAction,2007
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64 |P a g e
3.3.1 Landbeachandhumansettlement.
The low elevationwith over 80% less than 1m aboveMSL and small size of the islands are
inherentcharactersofthecountrymakingMaldiveshighlyvulnerabletoclimatechangeandsea
levelrise.Land isscarce in thecountrywhich ismadeupofover1192coral islandsofwhich
96%oftheislandsarelessthan1squarekm.Thetotallandareais235squarekilometersand
176 squarekilometer isutilized forhuman settlement andassociateuses. The coral islands
thatmakeuptheMaldivesaremorphologicallyunstablewithbeachesdynamicwithsubstantial
seasonal changes. Settlement footprints lie close to the sea with 44% of the settlement
footprintsofallislandswithin100mofcoastline.Intermsofpopulationandhousing42%and
47%arewithin100mof the coastline respectivelyplacing thepeopleathigh risk to climate
changeandsealevelrise.Intheabsenceofscientificdataobservedevidenceonsevereweather
eventsandstormsurgeconsolidatethisfact.Table3.3outlinestherecentrecordedevents.
Year Details
2000‐2005 90inhabitedislandshavebeenfloodedatleastonceayear
2000‐2005 30inhabitedislandhavefloodedregularly
15‐18May
2007
Swellsof10‐15feetaffected88islandsdamaging500housesaffecting1600
people
Aug2011 FloodinginHuvadhooAtollandAdduAtoll
ThevulnerabilityandthehighriskassociatedwithclimatechangeandSLRexacerbateswhen
coupled with other pressures such as use of unsuitable designing structure and housing
material.Coastalerosionisveryfrequent.Moreoverpopulationisincreasingandovercrowding
issignificantwith34islandhavereachedtheircarryingcapacitywhile17islandswillexhaust
the existing land by 2015 (Shaig, 2006). Analysis of the cause and effect of vulnerability to
climate change reveals that with population increase demand for housing justifies land
reclamation. Land reclamation requires suitable coastal infrastructure and harbors (Fig 3.1)
Land reclamation is also associatedwith removal of coastal vegetation and sandmining, reef
blastingdredging.Poorlydesignedcoastalinfrastructurewithsewagedisposalandsolidwaste
disposal affects thehealthof the reefs results in the imbalanceof reefswhichhas the critical
functionof protecting the coast.As such the vulnerability increasedas the causes andeffects
multiplies.
Table3.3:Availablerecentrecordedevidenceofsevereweatherevents
Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment2011,DisasterManagementCentre2011
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3.3.2 Criticalinfrastructure
Scarcity of land forces critical infrastructure such as airports, ports, harbors, resort, and
associate infrastructure such as power generation, water production and sewerage system,
environmental services and utilities to be located close to the coastline. Due to the natural
geographyoftheislandall infrastructureareatalowelevationat1.5maboveMSLandsome
areoverwaterstructures.Theaverageheightofthecausewaysandbridgesis1.6metersabove
MSL.Generallyadaptationandmitigationhasnotbeenincorporatedintodecidingthelocation,
design and construction of infrastructure. Vulnerability increases in terms of frequent
inundation which can virtually obliterate the critical infrastructure damaging the economy,
threateningthesafetyandsecurityofthepeople.
The effects of climate change and its impacts on critical infrastructure are already felt as
revealedfromthepastexperiences(table3.4).
year Details
1987 DamageworthUS$4.5milliontoMaleInternationalAirport
2004 DamageworthUS$230milliontoMaleInternationalAirport
2004 Damage worth US $ 20.3 million to transport and communication
infrastructure
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Ha HDh Sh N R B Lh K AA ADH V M F Dh Th L Ga GDh
Numbers
Atolls
harbours reclamation
Fig3.3:‐Harborandreclamationprojectscompletedfrom2006‐2010
Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment,2011
Table3.4:Availablerecentrecordedevidenceofdamagetocriticalinfrastructure
Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment2011,DisasterManagementCentre2011
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3.3.3 Tourism
Tourism is the main economic sector with forward and backward linkages to construction,
transport, communication, agriculture, transport and other local economic sectors. The
vulnerabilitytothesectorliesinthesmallsize,lowelevationandgeographicaldispersionofthe
islandswhiletheattractionoftheresortsliesinthemarinebiologicaldiversity,tropicalclimate
and small island environment. The resorts are located in uninhabited island based on the
concept of one resort one island. The increasing frequency and severity of extremeweather,
sea‐level rise and acceleratedbeach erosion, degradation of coral reefs (includingbleaching),
leadingtoinundationandfloodingarelikelytoreducetheattractivenessoftourismsector.
More than90%ofall resorts infrastructureand99%ofall touristaccommodationarewithin
100mofcoastline.Theaveragewidthofatouristresortis190mwhile6.3%ofresortislands
havewidthlessthan200mand88%havelessthan300m(Shaig2006).Thesefiguresillustrate
direct risks to the tourism sector. Indirect impact detrimental to the tourism sector includes
damage to other critical infrastructure such as airports, ports, harbors and other utilities
infrastructure. Likewise negative effect to the fisheries sector, agriculture sector, water
resourcesandhumanhealthwillalsoaffectthetourismsector.Over99percentofthetourists
arrivebyairandmostof theproductsare imported throughaircargoorships throughports
and harbors. Certain reef fish species such as lobsters and other reef fishes are exclusively
fishedtomeetthedemandsofthetourismsector.Theimpacttothetourismsectorwilloccurto
individuals, communities, enterprises and sectors dependent on the tourism sector. Adverse
affectswillimpactonthetouristexperience,health,safetyandthetouristdestination.
Statistics and other information recorded reveal that the effects of climate change and its
impactsonthetourismsectorarealreadyfelt(Table3.5).
Typeofimpact Details
Beacherosion 45percentoftheresortsreportsbeacherosion
Saltwaterintrusion Oftenreported
Coralbleaching Occurredin1977,1983,1987,1991,1995,1997,1998
Livecoralcoverreducedto5%aftertheevent
Damagetocoralreefofpopular
sharkdivingspot
1995‐1996lossofrevenueofUS500,000
DamagesfromTsunamiof2004 ExcessofUS$300million
Table3.5:Availablerecentrecordedevidenceofdamagetothetourismsector
Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment2011,DisasterManagementCentre2011
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3.3.4 Fisheries
The fisheries sector is highly vulnerable as tuna is attuned to biophysical conditions of the
pelagicenvironmentparticularlyElNinoSouthernOscillation(ENSO)andassociatedchangesin
SST. Also as tuna fishery is part of the wider Indian Ocean tuna fisheries climate induced
changeswill affect the tuna fishing industry ofMaldives.Moreover the tuna fishing industry
depends on live bait which depends on a healthy coral reef for survival. These habitats are
highlyvulnerabletochangesinSSTandotherclimatechanges.Reeffisheryisalsoanimportant
industry supplying fresh reef fishes to the tourist resorts and exporting some species to
overseasmarket. Already the fisheries sector has reported decline in fish catchwith climate
changeanditsassociatedimpactsasoneofitsreasons.Specificimpactsrecordedareoutlined
intable3.6.
Typeofimpact Details
1998 Coralbleachingcauseddeclineoflivebait
1998 Coral bleaching caused the disappearance of two reef fish
species
3.3.5 Water
Watershortages fromthe islandsarereportedduringrecentyears.Between2004‐2010,each
yearonaverage,81 islandshavereportedwatershortages and over3000tonsofwaterare
provided each year costing over Rf 2 million( Fig 3.2). Water supply is likely to be
exacerbatedbyfutureclimatechange.Surfacefreshwaterislackingthroughoutthecountryand
the traditional practice of relying on shallow wells for drinking water does not exist today.
Freshwatersuppliesarealsothreatenedbysaltwaterintrusionduetostormsurgeandsealevel
rise. Thisaffectthequalityof lifeaspeopleoftheatollsdependongroundwaterforbathing,
and washing. Salt water intrusion also affects the soil and vegetation causing impacts to
agricultural and terrestrial vegetation. The fresh water aquifer is already stressed due to
increasedindemandforwaterandfacestheriskoftotaldepletionifdryperiodextends.
Rain water is the main source of drinking water in the islands. A marginal decline in
precipitation is projected for the Indian Ocean region which has the potential to impact on
rainwaterharvestingacrossallislands.Today90%ofthedrinkingwaterisrainwaterwhilein
Table3.6:Availablerecentrecordedevidenceofdamagetothefisheriessector
Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment,2011
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Male100percentofthepopulationhaveaccesstopipeddesalinationwaterwhilein38islands
followingthetsunamidesalinationwaterissuppliedbytheGovernment.
3.3.6 Agriculture
Agriculturesectorisalreadyconstrainedintermsoflimitedcultivableland,poorqualityofsoil.
With these limitation and high import dependency contribution to GDP is low and declining.
WithsuchascenarioattheforefrontfoodsecurityinMaldivesisvulnerabletoclimatechange
impactsonagriculturesectorofother
countries as well. The critical impact
path ways include heat stress on
plant, changes in soil moisture, and
temperature loss of fertility of soil
througherosionoffertiletopsoil,less
wateravailabilityforcropproduction,
changes in height of water table,
salinizationoffreshwateraquiferand
lossoflandthroughsealevelrise.
Recentrecordedincidenceswhichindicatethevulnerabilitytosectorareoutlinedintable3.7.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Number of islands
Tons of water
Years
Total in tons
No of islands
Note:Datafor2010notavailable
Fig3.4:‐Numberofislandswithwatershortageswiththequantityofwaterprovided2005‐2011
Source:DisasterManagementCentre,2011
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Typeofimpact Details
2003 7%ofthepopulationexperiencesfoodcrisisandforhalfofthis
populationitlastedfor10days
2004 Damage to field crops, trees, agriculture tools, infrastructure
land and water resources, timber and forestry. Damage
estimatedatRf84million
2007 Seainducedfloodingcausedsaltwaterintrusionto33islands
causingsignificantdamagetoagriculturesector
3.3.7 Health
High incidences of water and vector borne diseases have been attributed to climate change.
Vectorbornediseases reported inMaldives includeoutbreaksofdengue fever, scrub typhus,
and Chikungunya. Morbidity due to diarrhea and acute respiratory diseases caused by
inadequate access to safe water and sanitation are also reported. Evidence also shows that
people in theatollsaremorevulnerable todiarrhealdiseases in theatolls thanMale’and the
disparity is more pronounced in children under five years. The number of cases of acute
gastroenteritis cases can also be attributed to climate change related water borne diseases.
Climate related communicable diseases such increase in the conditions of the skin,
subcutaneous tissue and eye has close linkages with climate change caused by increase in
exposuretoUltraviolet(UV)radiation.
The health sector is confronted with a lot of constraints even without the vulnerability to
climate change risks. This includes high level of malnutrition in children, accessibility and
qualityofhealthcarehighpopulationandlowlevelsofincome.Extremeweatherandeffectsof
climate changewill exacerbate the already overburdened sector. In such a situationmedical
evacuation is almost impossible.The climate change impactson fisheries andagriculturewill
affect the food security affecting thenutritional status of the population. Increase in flooding
andstormsurgescausingseainducedflooding,arelikelytoexacerbatetheshortandlong‐term
effectsonhumanhealth.
The recorded incidences of the dengue outbreak associated with ENSO events indicates the
vulnerabilityofthehealthsectortoclimatechangeimpacts.
Table3.7:Availablerecentrecordedevidenceofdamagetotheagriculturesector
Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment2011,MinistryofFisheries,AgricultureandMarineResources,2011
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Typeofimpact Details
1979 Dengueoutbreakoccurred
1983 Dengueoutbreak
1988 Dengue outbreak with 2054 cases and 9 deaths of children
under10
1998 Dengueoutbreakwith1750cases
2005 Dengue outbreak, increase in gastro enteritis by 50% from
10000to15000
3.3.8 CoralReefBiodiversity
Twomajoreconomicactivitiestourismandfishingarereefbased.Coralsarehighlysensitiveto
changes in temperature, with bleaching incidences forecasted to increase with the rise in
temperature.Table3.6outlinestheavailablerecordedcoralbleachingevents.
3.4 AdaptationandmitigationtoClimatechange
3.4.1 Needsandpriorities
Inresponse,toclimatechangeanditsimpacts,strategicprioritiesofthecountryaretomitigate
thecausesandadapttotheconsequencesofclimatechange(Fig3.3).
Climate Change Strategic Priorities
Mitigation
GHG inventoryEmission reduction
Interventions
Adaptation
Vulnerability Assessment
Climate Resilent Development
Table3.8:Availablerecentrecordedincidencesofvulnerabilitytohealthsector
Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment,2011,DisasterManagementCentre,2011
Fig3.5:StrategicPrioritiesforClimateChangeanditsImpacts
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3.4.2 AdaptationtoClimateChange
Priorityisgiventointegratingclimateriskconsiderationsintoislandlanduseplanning,coastal
protection and coastal development given the high degree of physical exposure of island
populationsandeconomicassetstoclimate‐changeinducedwindandwavedamageandshort‐
andlong‐termflooding.Benchmarkforadaptationandresiliencebuildingtoclimatechangeare
provided through a number of vulnerability and risk assessments. Disaster risk profiles and
detailedislandriskassessmenttohighriskhazards,suchastsunamis,swellwaves,andrainfall
floodingwasprepared fordifferent islands.ReportonGaafuDhalAtollThinadhoo,GaafuAlif
Atoll Viligili, and Thaa Atoll Vilufushi prepared in 2009 emphasized that SLR is the greatest
threattotheMaldives,withtherecommendationsstressingtheneedtoexplore“softer”options
such as improved settlementplanning and early‐warning systems thatwould allowadjusting
approachbasedonevents,whilereducingtheimpactofnaturalhazards.Thestudiesrevealed
the cost of adaptation is high and recommended a “wait and see” approach for the physical
protectionmeasures,particularly in lightof thegreatexpenserequired toprotectagainst sea
level.Intheshorterterm,a‘noregrets’approachisrequiredtoestablishbestpracticesinhigh
impact coastal and terrestrial developments, better land use planning and building socially
resilientsettlements,whiletimeisusedtoitsmaximumadvantagetoallowforgreateranalysis
and understanding of the likely impacts of SLR, as well as technological advances and
developmentofinnovativeapproachestoprotecttheislands.
3.4.3 Adaptationrelatedinitiatives
Buildingontheassessmentsmaininitiativesthatarebeingimplementedincludes
1. Useoflocallyappropriateadaptationmeasures
2. SustainableLandManagement(SLM)
3. SustainableWaterManagement(SWM)
4. Strengtheningtheinformationbase
a)Useoflocallyappropriateadaptationmeasures
Demonstratinglocallyappropriatedadaptationmeasuresforfloodinganderosioncontrolisto
be demonstrated initially in 4 islands in 4 different atolls, which have a total population of
14,200and42,000,respectively.Bytheendoftheprogram,atleast50%ofhouseholdsinthe4
islandsand10%ofthepopulationineachofthe4atollswillbebetterprotectedfromclimate
change impacts as a result of the adaptation measures. This is planned to be replicated
throughoutthecountry.
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Underthisprogrambaselineinformationonadaptationactivitiesandadaptationoptionsthat
arecurrentlybeingusedandwhichmaybesuitableforreplicationisidentifiedbysurveying40
islands including 25 residential islands 12 resort islands and 2 infrastructure islands. Useful
baseline informationpertaining to relativeeffectivenessandcostof adaptationmeasuresand
the factors thatmightaffectperformanceand thepotential implementationofsoftadaptation
measures and major barriers and constraints and opportunities at the island level were
revealed from the study providing the way forward. Table 3.9 provides a summary of the
findings.
Categories HardMeasures SoftMeasures
Usage Widelyusedininhabitedislands ExplicitlyUsedinResort
Types Seawall,breakwaters,Groynes Beachreplenishment,
artificialreeftemporarysea
wallsandgroins,coastal
vegetationrestoration
Impacts Generallyeffectbuthavecaused
unwarrantedeffectsonbeach
system
Highlysuccessful
Keyissues Poordesign,poorconstruction,
unsuitabletositeconditionand
overdesign
Lackofawareness,limitation
inmitigatingimmediate
severeerosionandperception
ofineffectiveness
Opportunities Shorttermsolutions Lowcost.Familiaritywith
method,benefitsoverthe
longterm
Requirement Designfaultsneedtoavoided
andcorrected
Trainingprogramand
demonstrationprojects
Existingguidelinesreviewed
andnewguidelinesformed
Awarenessbuilding.Soft
measureneedtointroduced,
Trainingprogramand
demonstrationprojects
Existingguidelinesreviewed
andnewguidelineformed
Table3.9:ComparisonofadaptationtechniquesusedinMaldives
Source:CompiledfromSurveyofClimateChangeAdaptationMeasuresinMaldives,MinistryofHousingandEnvironment,2011
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The survey has revealed that hard techniques such as building sea walls, breakwaters and
groyneswidelyusedininhabitedislandsarepoorindesignandunsuitableforsiteconditions.
Though it does provide short term solutions design faults need to be corrected and training
programanddemonstrationprojectsandnewguildlinesneedtobeformulatedtomaximizethe
benefits.Perception regarding the effectiveness of the soft methods such as beach
replenishment, groynes and sea walls with low costs need to be changed through increased
awareness as a long term solution. Noteworthy is that in terms of the effectiveness against
controlling the causes of erosion artificial reefs is the only effective option used in the study
islands.Othermeasuresaremainlyusedtoaddresstheconsequencesoferosion(MHE2011).
The finding of the study will contribute to appropriate cost‐effective coastal management
underthebroadumbrellaofadaptationtoclimatechange
b)SustainableLandManagement
TheGovernment’s goal also includemainstreaming climate risk planning and climate change
adaptation into thecountry’sdevelopmentpolicyandplanning frameworksacrossallsectors.
Specificareas targetedatpresent include landuseplanning forcoastalprotectionandcoastal
development. The key policy is to overcome the intersectoral coordination gaps, by
strengthening and providing an enabling environment for future decentralized planning, by
integratingclimateriskreductionmeasuresintokeynationalpoliciesonenvironment,landuse,
decentralization,privatizationanddisaster risk reduction.Thiswork is tobedone in tandem
withdetailed technical guidelinesonclimateresilientcoastalprotection, coastaldevelopment
andland‐useplanningrelevanttotheMaldiviancontexttoassistplanners,decision‐makersand
technical specialists to evaluate climate risks when making development and investment
decisions.
TheSLMprogramincludestechnicalcapacitybuildingintheformoftrainingtostaffatnational,
atolland island levelandfarmsand localcommunity inpracticalaspectsof landmanagement
andagriculturalbestpracticesandworkshopsandconsultationwithcommunities to increase
theunderstandingandawarenessoflanddegradationandimplicationandthevalueofSLM.
To strengthen the policies and regulatory framework status reports on land use and land
degradation with a development of national land use plan with a computerized geographic
informationGISincludingacadastrallandusedatabaseandregistryandaprogramtomonitor
andevaluatelandusageisplanned.Thedevelopmentofalegalandregulatoryframeworkfor
landusemanagementisapriorityassuchthedraftrecommendationtorevisethelandlawand
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the regulatory frameworkhasbeen formulated.Targets tobe achieved include integrationof
SLMintomacro‐economicpoliciesandappropriatesectorpoliciesandactionplans.
c)SustainableWaterManagement
Plansareunderwaytodevelopanintegratedwaterresourcemanagementprogramdeveloping
a nationalwater and sanitation policy,Water Act and regulation andmonitoring framework.
The final outcome is formulating of a strategy andmechanism for implementing. Part of the
intervention includes initiative to increase the resilience through integrated freshwater
resources.At the onset Mahibadhoo (Alifu Dhaalu Atoll), Ihavandhoo (Haa Alifu Atoll) and
Gadhdhoo(GaafDhaalAtoll) representingdifferentgeographical locationsacross thecountry,
which are densely populated and have a flat topography varying between 0‐0.5mMSL have
beenselected.
d)Strengtheningtheinformationbase
Findingopportunities forstrengthening thescientific informationbasewithregard toclimate
change isanongoingprocess.Strategieshavebeen formulatedtoaddressknowledgegapson
climatechangeeffectontheMaldives.AclimateriskinformationsystemlinkedtoNationalGIS
is to be established with plans to allow universal access to different datasets needed to
adaptation planning. Also information and the lessons learnt from the demonstration of
prioritizedadaptationoptions for floodinganderosioncontrol isalsoplanned tobeanalyzed
and disseminated. A direction is also on the way to enhance knowledge which quantifies
climate change impacts, and adopts a clear and logical structure, with climate and impacts
modeling,vulnerabilities,risksandeconomiccosts,aswellaspotentialresponses.Theplanisto
provideupdatedtoolsfordecision‐makingunderuncertainty,especiallyforvulnerableregions.
3.4.4 AdaptativeCapacity
ThecapacityofthecountrytoadapttoclimatechangeandSLRdependsontheabilityinterms
ofdecisionmaking taking into consideration the institutional, technical andhuman resources
capacity and the available financial resources. Specifically NAPA and Technical Need
Assessment(TNA)highlightsthatlackoftechnicalcapacity,financialandhumanresourcesand
lack of commonunderstanding andmechanism to coordinate climate change issues asmajor
constraints.Suchissuescontinuetopersistovertheyears.
Fromhistorical perspectiveMaldives has not beenprone tomajor natural disasters and as a
resulttheneedtodevelopexpertiseindisasterreductionbecameapriorityatlaterstage.One
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of themajor constraints confronted is the limited knowledge and technical know‐how about
climate risk management and climate adaptation generally across all sectors. Oceanographic
meteorological information is still inadequate with 3 stations to measure SLR and 5
meteorologicalstationstomeasureonlythebasicparametersrequiredforweatherforecasting.
Consequentlytheinformationgenerationisminimalwithrecordedandpublishedinformation
rangingfromrainfall,sunshine,temperature(minimumandmaximumtemperature),humidity
andwinddirection.Withrainfallpatternvaryingoverdifferentlocationstheneedtoestablish
morestationstostudyrainfallpatternsandtheirspatialpatterncontinues.
Thereisashortageofskilledandprofessionalstaffwithintheenvironmentsector.TheClimate
ChangeDepartmentoftheMHEandtheNationalDisasterManagementCentre(NDMC)isweak
intermsoflimitedstaffandthelimitedinformationwithintheseorganizations.Overtheyears
efforts towards limiting such constraints have been ongoing. Mapping of the Maldives was
initiated in 2010 using a survey aircraft to do the aerial photography. In addition, local
bathymetry and reef parameters are being collectedwith help of divers.Work is ongoing to
strengthenthescientificinformationbaseinvolvingtrainingandinstallationofGIS.
Thoughknowledgeattheinstitutionandtechnicallevelwithregardtoclimatechangeriskand
optionstomanagemayhaveincreasedovertheyears,atthelocallevelunderstandingispoor
andweak. Thishascontributedtolocaldevelopmentchoicesandindividualactionsthathave
unwittingly increased the vulnerability of the population and economic assets to current and
futureclimaterisks.Overtheyearsthenaturalislandresilienceandthelocaladaptivecapacity
are being reduced unintentionally due to unsustainable practices in the areas of land use,
coastal protection and development increasing the physical vulnerability to climate changes.
Due to lack of capacity these practices have not been systematically addressed in the
development planningprocessmultiplying the vulnerability. Unsuitable design of the houses,
landreclamation,clearingofcoastalvegetationandinlandwetland,unsuitabledrainagesystem
areall altering island topographyand thepatternof coastal erosionandaccretion.Moreover,
methods of controlling erosion and flooding rely on coastal engineering and hard physical
structuresuchasseawallsandgroinsareexpensiveanddifficulttomaintainareperceivedto
bebetterthanthesoftmethods.(MHE,2011).Assuch,thelackofcapacitytoadaptcontinuesin
termsoffinancialandtechnicalcompetence.
The challenges of administering, financing and distributing public services, critical
infrastructure and other development benefits equitably across nearly 200 geographically
dispersed, inhabited islands continues. Decentralization introduced in 2010 through the new
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constitution of the Maldives requires the government to devolve many of its planning and
decision‐making functions to the atolls and islands. With decentralization, atoll and island
councilsformed,atollandislanddevelopmentplansneedtobeformedinaccordancewiththe
sectorpolices.Yet technical,professionalandadministrativecapacityconstraints, constitutea
seriousbarriertoeffectiveimplementation.
The underlying weakness in the policy framework and weak intersectoral coordination
continues along with limited institution and individual capacity with gaps in technical
knowledgeandknowhowandmajorfinancialconstraints.Withsuchconstraintsattheforefront
adaptingtoclimatechangeandincreasingresilienceofthevulnerablesystemsagainstclimate
hazardsandriskisextremelychallenging.
3.5 Mitigationrelatedinitiatives
Climate change mitigation or action to decrease or reduce the potential effects of global
warminginvolvesreducingtheGHGortheirsources. TheAuditReportofBecitizenestimated
thatMaldivians emitted 1.3million tons of carbon dioxide in 2009 via electricity generation,
transport,waste and fishing.The totalworksout at4.1 tonsperMaldivian compared to23.5
tonsperpersonperyearintheUnitedStates.InMarch2009Maldivesunveiledplanstomake
the country carbon neutral .At the institutional level efforts are made to implement the
endeavorofbecomingcarbonneutral2020(Fig.3.6)
Interventions
Renewable energy
Solar, Wind and Biomass
Energy efficiency
Cleaner tranportation
Waste Management
Carbon Sequestration and Offsetting
Fig3.6:‐Keyareasofinterventionforachievingcarbonneutralitybyyear2020
Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment2011
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3.5.1 UseofRenewableEnergy
Underrenewableenergyuseofwindsolarandbiomassenergyistobeencouraged.Thedetails
oftheuseofrenewableenergyaregivenchapter9.
3.6 PoliciesandStrategies
TheStrategicActionPlan(SAP)2009‐2013,NationalEnvironmentalActionPlan(NEAP)3and
National Sustainable Development Strategy (NSDS) 2009 of the government provides the
contextual background for environmentmanagement, which highlights climate change as an
extraordinaryenvironmentalchallengefocusingonadaptationanddisasterriskmitigationasa
priorityareas.Thepoliciesandstrategiesofadaptationanddisasterriskmitigationarebeing
mainstreamedintopolicymakingandprogramminginallareas.
The principal planning document of the government SAP 2009‐2013 has outline the
governmentpledgesintermsofpoliciesandstrategieswithintheplanperiod.NEAP3outlines
theprinciplesofenvironmentmanagementwithanemphasisoncoordinationandcooperation
from all sectors towards the goal of integrating environmental aspects into the goals of and
actionsofallsectors.TheNAPAlaysthegroundworktomitigateandadaptstoitsimpactinan
efforttomakeMaldivesresilientandadaptabletotheimpactofclimatechange.Implementation
of the priority program depends on the capacity to implement and on the support from
internationalcommunitytoagreatextent.
At the centre of efforts to address climate change on the international stage is the United
NationsFrameworkConventionforClimateChange(UNFCCC).MaldivesratifiedtheUNFCCCin
November 1992. Maldives gives high importance to climate change and was one the first
country to sign the Kyoto Protocol which is the international agreement linked to the
Convention.Theprotocolwas ratifiedby theMaldives inDecember1998.UnderUNFCCC the
firstNational Communicationwas submitted in 2001. To understand the vulnerability of the
Maldives to this challenge, a vulnerability assessment was undertaken in 2001 and was
presented in the FirstNational Communication of theMaldives to theUNFCCC. Based on the
findingoftheFirstNationalCommunicationoftheMaldives,NAPA,TNA,NationalCapacityand
Self Assessment have been formulated. The target is to submit the second National
Communication at Conference of the Parties (COP) 18 and is listed as a program area in the
national agendawhich is currently in its initial stage. As a follow up of the second National
Communication NAPAwill be reviewed and is also listed as upcoming program areas at the
nationallevel.
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A Climate Change Advisory Committee (CCAC) representing all stakeholders including
government, business and civil society was formed in recognition that climate change is
everyone’s concernand responsibility.CCAC functions throughmutual respectandconsensus
buildingamongallstakeholderstodevelopintegratedpolicyandprograms.
Atpresentthegovernmentismeasuringtheprogressofthepoliciesandstrategiesoutlinedin
the SAP 2009‐2012. The current program areas in relation to adaptation and mitigation
initiativesareoutlinedintable3.11and3.12.
Strategy/Objective Actions/Program/Activities CurrentStatus
Increasecommunity
resilienttoclimate
change
1.Locallyappropriatecoastal
protectionandfloodmeasures
developedforimplementationin
inhabitedislands
2.Nationaladaptationstrategies
andprogramsreviewedand
NAPAimplemented
3.CurrentResilientIslands
Programme(RIP)reviewedand
revised
Civilsocietyengagementin
combatingclimaterisks
increased
Islandsinwhichcoastal
protectionmeasuresare
implementedtoprotecthuman
settlements,increased
Locationswhereappropriate
wastewatertreatmentprocesses
areimplementedtoavoidclimate
changerelatedriskstofresh
wateravailability
FinalReportoutliningthelocally
appropriatecoastalprotection
measuresformulated
Projectlaunched
Projectlaunched
Someworkshopconducted
Projecttobesubmittedto
NationalPlanningCouncil
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Adaptationand
Mitigationresponseto
beacherosion
strengthenedanda
systemdevelopedto
assistcommunities
wherelivelihoodand
propertyareaffectedby
beacherosion
1Developguidelinesfor
settlementplanningandcoastal
modificationtopreventerosion
2.Identifyviablealternatives
(morecostefficientsofter
measuresforpreventionof
coastalerosionandguidelines
forsettlementplanningand
coastalmodificationtoprevent
erosion)
3.Settlementsprotectedagainst
coastalerosion,increased
4.Nationalcoverageunderearly
warningsystem,increased
Surveyofexistingsoftcoastal
adaptationmeasuresconducted
andreportformulated
IntermsofmitigationinitiativeandparticularlyinrelationstoCarbonNeutralPolicytheaction
areaandthecurrentstatusisillustratedintable3.12
Objective/Strategy Actions/Programs/Activities CurrentStatus
Establishlegal
FrameworkandAction
Plantargetingcarbon
neutralityby2020
establish
1.NationalEnergydemandandsupplystudies
2009
2.CarbonAudit
3.EnactEnergyBill
4.ImplementationoftheInvestmentPlan
Completed
Completed
Billdrafted
Developincentive
schemetoencourage
businessesoffering
renewablesourcesof
energy
1.PublishaDhivehiVersionofEnergyPolicy
2.ImplementationoftheEnergyPolicy
3.Prepareaschemetoprovideincentives
Translationdrafted
Businessesengagedin 1.Prepareanactionplantoengagethepublic
Table3.11:Policiesprogramsandstatusadaptation2009‐2012
Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment.2011
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establishingand
servicingalternate
renewableenergy
systemincreased
andprivatepartnersinrenewableenergy
sector
Adoptandincrease
appropriatewaste
managementpractices,
Advocateclimate
changeissuesand
importanceand
advantagesof
becomingcarbon
neutral
1.ProvinciallevelAwarenessProgramme
Provinciallevel
AwarenessProgramme
EnvironmentalCamp
3workshop
completed
ObligationsUnder
UNFCC
1.SecondNationalCommunication Developing
preparatoryproject
documenttoseek
funding
Table3.12:PoliciesProgramsandStatus‐mitigation2009‐2012
Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment.2011,DepartmentofNationalPlanning2011
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4. WaterandSanitation
4.1 Introduction
InMaldives,freshwatercomesfromtwomainsources;theshallowgroundwateraquifersand
rainwater. Theshallowgroundwateraquifershavebeenextractedforyears. Inmanyislands
the aquifers are depleted because the extraction of water exceeds natural recharge through
rainfallandalsoduetointrusionofsaltandwastewaterintotheaquifer.Wastewaterincludes
sewage water, waste water from industrial activities (including hazardous wastewater) and
frompooragriculturalpractices.
InMale’, desalinatedwater has been used for household consumption since 1985. Currently
eachhouseholdandcommercialestablishmentinMale’haveaccesstodesalinatedwater.Inthe
islands,thesituationisdifferent. Intheislands,relianceonrainwater isgreatandrainwater
harvestingisatraditionalpractice.CurrentlyalmosteachhouseintheislandswillhaveaHigh
Density Polyethylene Tank (HDPE) donated by the government after the Tsunami of 2004
.Rainwater is the primary source of drinking water in 90% of the outer islands with
groundwaterusedforwashing,otherdomesticusesandagriculture(MHE,2011).
4.2 Rainwater
Maldives has two distinct seasons; the dry season and the wet season. The dry season, also
known as the northeast monsoon extends from January to March and the wet season, also
knownasthesouthwestmonsoonfallsonmid‐MaytoDecember.Duringwetseason,Maldives
KeyFindings
AlargepartoftheMaldivianpopulationdependsondesalinatedwaterfordrinkingpurposes
Currently51islandshavedesalinationplantswithacapacityof10litresperday.However,28areoperational
Since2005,governmenthasbeenprovidingdrinkingwatertoislands.ByMay2011,68islandshadbeenprovideddrinkingwater
Energyfordesalinationmayrepresentthehighestincreaseinelectricitygenerationinthefuture.
AdequatesanitationsystemsareinstalledingreaterMale’areaandafewislandsonly
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0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
mm
H.Dh Hanimaadhoo
Hulhule
L. Kadhoo
G.Dh. Kaadedhoo
S. Gan
experiencestorrentialrain.Central,SouthernandNorthernpartsoftheMaldivesreceiveannual
averagerainfallof1924.7mm,2277.8mm,and1786.4mm,respectively.Thehighestrainfallever
recorded in theMaldiveswithin 24hourperiodwas219.8mm, recordedon9th July 2002at
KaadedhdhooMeteorologicalOffice.
Thegraphbelowshowsthetotalrainfallfortheyears2005to2010.Duringthesefiveyearsthe
highestrainfallwasrecordedin2006and lowest in2008.Amongthemeteorologicalstations,
thehighest rainfall recordedvaries fromyear toyear.However, rainfall for S.Gan shows the
leastvariationandforL.Kadhooshowsthemostvariation.
4.2.1 Rainwaterharvesting
Whilerainwateristhemainsourceofdrinkingwaterintheislands,thefactthatMaldivesdonot
experiencerain throughout theyearnecessitated thepracticeof rainwaterharvesting. In the
islands roof of the house or other
establishmentsareretrofittedtocollectwater
through a simplepipe system, intohousehold
orcommunalstoragetanks.Astudyconducted
byUNEPin2005estimatedthatalmost75%of
the population used water from these
rainwater storage tanks. As seen in the
aftermath of the Indian Ocean Tsunami of
2004, the rainwater storage facilities at the
Fig4.1:‐TotalRainfall,2005–2010
Source:DepartmentofMeteorology,2011
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timewereveryvulnerabletofloodingandhighwaveincidences.Tsunamidamageassessments
by theMaldivesWater andSanitationAuthority revealed that ahighpercentageof rainwater
storagetanksand/orcatchmentareasweredamagedontheworstimpactedislands.
Evenwithrainwaterharvesting,drinkingwatershortageisacommonoccurrenceintherecent
history. For example, water shortages were reported by 30% of the population in the 2004
VulnerabilityandPovertyAssessment(MPND,2004).Asrecentlyas2011(byMay)68islands
had reported drinkingwater scarcity and government supplied drinkingwater up to 3919.5
tons.Table1showsthegovernmentexpenditureondrinkingwatersince2005.
Year Noofislands Total(tons) Totalexpenses(MRF)2005 91 2728 24552002006 86 2805 22440002007 82 2694 20205002008 74 2088 15660002009 86 7469 7280472.32010 NotAvailable2011 68 3919.5 2192390
Fig4.2:‐PublicandPrivateRainwaterStorageCapacity,2011
Source:Reproducedfrom:AnAssessmentofRainwaterCatchmentandStorageCapacityintheMaldives,MHE,2011
Note:Expensesincludecostofpurchasingwateraswellaslandandseatransport
Table4.1:Supplyofdrinkingwatertoislands,2005–2011(May)
Source:NationalDisasterManagementCentre,2011
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Thechartbelowshowswatersupplied to islandsand total rainfallbyyearand indicates that
waterprovisionstoislandsdonotrelatetothetotalrainfallduringaparticularyear.
4.3 Groundwater
In Male’, after desalinated water was introduced, people do not drink groundwater, as
groundwater is not fit for consumption.But a certainpercentageuse groundwater for other
domestic purposes such as washing. However, in some islands ground water is used for
drinkingaswellasforallotherdomesticpurposes.Intheislands,groundwaterisalsousedfor
irrigationinagriculture.
Freshgroundwater isascarceresourcebecausethefreshwateraquifer liesamere1to1.5m
below the surface and is nomore than a fewmeters thick.Where groundwater is used for
householdorotherconsumptionpurposes,forinstanceintheislands,waterisextractedfrom
shallowwells.
Thicknessofthegroundwateraquiferintheislandsisdeterminedbynetrainfallrecharge,size
oftheislandandpermeabilityofthesoilcolumn(NAPA2007).Asaresult,longdryperiodswill
leadtodepletionofthefreshwateraquifers.Globalwarmingandthepredictedconsequentsea
level risewill furtherexacerbate thesituationwith thepossibilityof saltwater intrusion.For
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Water supplied to islands (tons)
Total Rainfall (mm)
Fig4.3:‐Watersuppliedtoislandsandtotalrainfallbyyear,2005–2009
Source:DepartmentofMeteorology;MHE2011
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instance,ClimateRiskProfileofMaldives(2006)statedthatthemeansealevelrisefrom1990
‐2005wasunexceptionallyhighandthat‘suchexceptionallyhighsealevelsareassociatedwith
short‐termflooding,acceleratedcoastalerosionandsaltwater intrusion intogroundwater’(p
4). Saltwater intrusion will not only impact the supply of freshwater but also affecting the
tropicalvegetationduetoitsimpactonthesoil.Thiswillhavenegativeimpactsonthefledgling
agricultureindustry.
Sometimes,asstatedabove,intheislandspeopleextractfreshgroundwaterfordrinking.This
hasbeenfoundtoincreasethevulnerabilityofthepopulationtowaterbornediseasesbecause
mostislandshaveseptictanksnottoofarfromthegroundwaterwell.Sometimesseptictanks
and associated parts in the system are broken or damaged due to sludge buildup or other
processes.Forexample,tsunamicausedseptictanksinmanyislandstobecomedamaged.This
leadstotheleakageofsewageandwastewatertothegroundandultimatelythewaterlens.
4.4 Desalinatedwater
With increasing population in Male’, the city’s freshwater aquifer was over extracted to the
extent that an alternate freshwater supplywasprovided in1985.The governmentbegan the
service free of charge with public water pipes. Presently, every domestic and commercial
establishmenthaveaccesstodesalinatedwaterthroughpipeddesalinatedwatersuppliedona
meteredbasis.
Census2006reportedthatatotalof35%oftheMaldivianpopulationhasaccesstodesalinated
water. This includes every household in greater Male’ region (including Villingilli and
Hulhumale’)whichhavepipeddesalinatedwater suppliedon ameteredbasis, through a city
wide distribution pipe system. This service is provided by Male’ Water Sewerage Company
(MWSC). InMale’area,waterconsumptionhassteadily increasedascanbeseenby the table
below.
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009Male' 1,669.70 1,969.40 2,147.40 2,444.50 2,880.60 3,275.10Villingilli 87.61 94.46 132.75 153.44Hulhumale' 63.95 63.95 79.81 138.17
Table4.2:DesalinatedwaterdistributioninMale’area,2004‐2009(In'000metrictons)
Source:StatisticalYearbook2010,DNPirs
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MWSChascompletedtheinstallationofwatersupplynetworkinthreeotherislands,namelyK.
Thilafushi,K.Maafushi,Hdh.KulhudhufushiandGdh.Thinadhoo(MHE2011).Otherislandsthat
haveaccesstodesalinatedwaterasearlyas2004include,Sh.KomandooandR.Kandholhudhoo
(SOE2004).Currently51islandshavedesalinationplantswithacapacityof10litresperday.
However,28areoperational.While68islandshadrequestedforwaterbyMay2011,ofthose
islands which had operational desalination plants, only the following islands requested for
drinkingwaterin2011.Subsequently,waterwastransportedtotheseislandsbysea.
This may indicate that islands with operational desalination plants may not require water
provisions.However,moreinformationsuchascostbenefitanalysisofwaterprovisionversus
costofoperatingadesalinationplantneedstobecollectedtobeabletoformpolicyresponses.
4.5 Waterproductionandcarbonneutrality
DemandfordesalinatedwatersupplyinMale’hasincreasedtremendouslyandatpresentmore
than 10,000m3 per day is produced for distribution. Carbon Audit Report 2009, report that
undergrowingpopulationandgrowingpercapitawaterconsumption,energyfordesalination
represents the highest increase in
electricity generation in the future.
The report further states that energy
requirements for desalination will
increase by 441%, from4,307 toe of
diesel in 2009 to 22,259 toe in 2020.
This rise comes from both a higher
population and a higher consumption
per capita, notably in Male Greater
Area(CarbonAudit2009).
Atoll Island Population(2006) PlantCapacity(daily) Watersupplied(tons)
R Alifushi 2450 10Ton 127.5B Hithaadhoo 1221 10Ton 47.5L Isdhoo‐Kalaidhoo 1559 10Ton 75GA Villingili 3180 30Ton 111GA Maamendhoo 1373 10Ton 97.5GA Kolamaafushi 2568 10Ton 60GDh Gadhdhoo 1439 10Ton 35
Table4.3:IslandswithoperationalDesalinationplantswhorequestedforwaterin2011(May)
Source:NationalDisasterManagementCentreandMHE
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The MWSC, the only company who provides desalinated water in Male’ Greater Area, have
developedenergyrecoverysystemsfornewdesalinationplantswhichwillprovide50%energy
savings. In addition, in the State Electric Company (STELCO), water for the power station is
produced from the exhaust heat from the power station. The exhaust heat is fed into anME
desalinationplantwithadailyproductioncapacityof150tonsperday(STELCO2011).
Mineral water imports show a declining trend. This may be due to the fact that water
productionlocallyhasincreased(waitingforstats).
4.6 WastewaterandSanitation
Male’ Greater Area (Villingilli and Hulhumale’) has 100% sanitation coverage while the
percentageislessthan1fortherestofthecountry(MHE,20111).
Theprevailingsystemsofseweragedisposalinmostislandsareonsitesanitationsystemsusing
septic tanks and soak‐pits (See Box A for further information).These systems are causing
various environmental health problems and contamination of groundwater due to unsafe
disposalofsewageandwastewater.Theposttsunamienvironmentassessmentconductedby
UNEP in 2005 found that microbial contamination of groundwater supplies was a serious
chronicproblemthatpre‐existedthetsunami.
Government of Maldives with assistance from external agencies and the private sector is
workingtoimprovethesanitationfacilitiesintheislands.Seweragesystemshavebeeninstalled
in 27 islands from 2005 ‐2011 (May 2011). During the period, 2009 – 2011 (May 2011) 13
sewerage systems have been completed in different islands2. The new systems consist of
1ThisinformationisobtainedformtheEvaluationFrameworksubmittedtotheDepartmentofNationalPlanningduringtheprocessofpreparingtheM&EframeworkfortheStrategicActionPlan
2Seefootnote1
Year Quantity(Ltr)2005 3,156,309.582006 2,839,478.982007 3,383,826.952008 3,176,168.312009 2,407,541.692010 2,009,558.00
Table4.4:ImportsofMineralWater
Source:MaldivesCustomsServices,2011
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seweragenetworkforthewholeisland,withpumpstations,sewagetreatmentfacilitiesandsea
outfalls.
4.6.1 Resorts
Severallegalinstrumentsprovideforenvironmentalprotectionintouristresortdevelopments
and operations. The most pertinent of which is the Regulation on the Protection and
Conservation of the Environment in the Tourism Industry passed in 2006. The Regulation
essentiallyprohibitsuseof groundwater in resorts, fordrinkingor anyotherpurposes.This
Regulationalsoprohibitsdischargeofanychemicalstotheground.
More specifically, Section 6 of the Regulation on the Protection and Conservation of the
Environment in the Tourism Industry, every resort is required to have a desalination plant
registeredwiththeEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).Itfurtherrequiresthatdailylogsof
water quality are recorded andmaintained. Under this regulation, resorts also need to have
storageofwatersupplysufficientfor5days.
SanitationsystemsinMaldives
On most islands, sanitation depends on pour‐flush latrines and cistern flush toiletsconnected to septic tanksand, toa lesserextent,holes inbackyards.The septic tanksaretypically a combination of small scale pre‐sedimentation tanks and soak pits fromwhichsewage migrates freely through the highly porous island soil and contaminatesgroundwatersupplies.Theseunitsareoftenpoorlyconstructedandmaintainedduetotheunavailabilityofmaterialandskilledlabour.Mosthavealsobeenlocatedtooclose(lessthanone metre) from groundwater wells, thus providing additional sources of water supplycontamination. The remaining septic systems are connected to small‐bore sea outfalls.These systems are generally not well designed and maintenance is often deferred. As aresult,theyoftenmalfunctionandconveyrawsewagedirectlyintothemarineenvironment.
Although Male’ has an adequate sanitation system, a sewage treatment system is non‐existent.Sewagetreatmentintheislandsislimitedtothesedimentationtanks,whichcanhold 1m3, provide an average familywith suitable capacity for approximately 200 days,after which they require maintenance and sludge disposal. Most tanks are sealed withconcreteandare locatedunder topsoil,makingregularmaintenancenearly impossible. Inaddition, the surfaces of the tanks are too small to provide adequate retention time andsettling.Asaresult,mostoftheuntreatedsludgedischargesdirectlyintosoakpitsand,fromthere, into groundwater resources. Further, when de‐sludging is done, the sludge isdisposedofintheopenseaorburiedsomewhereintheisland.
ReproducedfromUNEP2005
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According to the Regulation on Protection and Conservation of Environment in the Tourism
Industry,sewagefromresorts,hotelsandguesthouseshavetobedisposedinamannerthatis
least harmful to the environment. Data on desalination plants and sanitation systems in the
resortsarenotaccessibleatthispoint,thusthissectionislimitedintheinformationprovided.
4.7 Majorpolicyresponsesandinitiatives
Sector policies and strategies are outlined in the SAP, which is the operational plan for the
Government’sManifesto.Asisthepolicyofthecurrentgovernment,thesectordevelopmentis
undertakenunderaheavyprivatizationeffort.Thus,governmentisencouragingprivatesector
toparticipateandinvest intheprovisionofwatersupplyandsanitationservices.Atthesame
time,utilitiescompanieshavebeensetupin6provinceswhowillmanagethedeliveryofthese
servicesintheislands.Atpresent,11watersupplyprojectsand38sewerageprojectshavebeen
tenderedthroughMinistryofFinanceundercontractorfinancescheme.Theseprojectsarenot
yet implemented. InadditionawaterpurchaseagreementhasbeensignedbetweenSouthern
UtilitiesLimitedwithan international companywhichwill deliver installationofdesalination
plantswithwatersupplynetworkandseweragesystemwillinAdduCityandFuahmulah(MHE
2011).Thetablebelowgivesdetailedinformationonthestatusofpolicyandstrategies.
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Objectives/Strategy Programmes/Activities CurrentStatus FuturePlansAccesstosafedrinkingwaterimproved,includingvulnerablegroups
1.1. Waternetworkdeveloped 7islands Allislands1.2. Rainwaterstoragecapacity
onislandsimprovedAllislandshave2500litresprovidedtoeachhousehold
‐
1.3. TsunamiaffectedIslandsonwhichdesalinationplantsinstalledandfunctioning
85%ofallislandshavedesalinationplantsinstalled
AllTsunamiaffectedislands
Drinkingwatersafetymeasuresimproved
2.1. Adrinkingwatersafetyplandeveloped
Plandrafted Implement
2.2. Waterqualitytestingfacilitiesincreasedinouteratolls
none 10%in2011
Emergencywatersupplyresponseimproved
3.1. Outeratollswherefacilitiesdevelopedwithwaterstocksforuseduringemergencies/disastersincreased
35%ofinhabitedislands
Utilitycompaniesnowmandated
3.2. Establishmentofwaterstocksinthedesignated7regionsofthecountry
‐ ‐
Accesstosanitationfacilitiesimproved
4.1. Islandswithimprovedseweragefacilitiesincreased
27islands Allislands
Effectiveoperationandmaintenanceproceduresestablishedforwatersupplyandsanitationsystem
5.1. Localcouncilsandutilitiesengagementinoperation,maintenanceandmanagementofwatersupplyandsewerageincreased
Localcouncilsinplace
5.2. Watersupplyandsanitationprojectsoperationalisedwithrenewableenergysources,increased
‐ ‐
PrivateSectorInvestmentinthewaterandsanitationsectorincreased
6.1. Anincentiveschemeestablishedforpromotingprivatesectorinvestment
‐ ContractorFinanceschemedeveloped
InstitutionalCapacitycoveringtechnical,legalfinancialandhumanresourceneedsstrengthenedtoenhancesectorperformance
1.1 RegulatoryCapacitiesinlegal,technical,financialandhumanresourcesstrengthened
7professionalsworkingnow
15
1.2 Structures,systemsandfunctionsofresponsibleagenciesandcapacityofstaffstrengthened
Reviewandrevisesinstitutionalsystems/structurestomainstreamGESIBuildcapacityofstaffonGESImainstreaming
1.3 Developmentofresearchfacilitiesspecializedinwaterandsanitationfield
20(Bach.OfEnvironmentalManagement,MEMP,initiatedin2010)
20(Bach.OfEnvironmentalManagement,MEMP,expectedtoendin2010)
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1.4 AlternativewatersupplyschemesforAgriculturalandIndustrialactivitiesmadeavailable
none 5
CommunityandCivilSocietyparticipationinthewaterandsanitationsectorenhanced
1.5 Islandsandatollswhereprivatesector/civilsocietyengagedwithwaterandsewerageincreased
none 20(Awarenessprogramsonwaterandsanitationmanagement(focusedonaspectsofskillsandknowledgeforwomen))
Waterresourcemanagementimproved
9.1 Aninventoryofnaturalwatercatchmentareas
Nodata Collectdata
9.2 Assessfreshgroundwaterquantityinallislands
Inadequatedata Carryouthydrologicalsurveys
9.3 Mechanismtomonitorthewaterresourcequalityintheislandsdeveloped
Nomechanism Mechanismdeveloped
EnforcementofWaterandSanitationActofMaldives
10.1 WaterActorWaterLegislationdrafted
WaterActDrafted(MoUsignedwithMWS&D,SriLankaandGoMfortechnicalassistance
TheActimplemented
10.2 Drinkingwaterqualitystandardsdeveloped
Draftstandardsavailable
10.3 Watertariffsystemdevelopedforislands
‐ Tariffsystemdeveloped
Table4.5:PolicyprogramsandStatus,2011
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2011
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5. WasteManagement
5.1 Introduction
It was estimated that 298Kton of waste was
generated in Maldives in 2009. Data on solid
waste are limited and possibly underreported,
StatisticsonsolidwasteindicatethatinMaldives
solid waste comprise of domestic waste,
industrial waste, construction debris, plastic,
glass, scrap iron, saw dust and wood. Liquid
waste generated in the Maldives also includes
hazardous wastes such as asbestos, oil/fuel,
fertilizers,pesticidesandhealthcarewaste.
Wastedisposal,whether solidorotherwise,posedifferentproblems forMale’ regionand the
restoftheinhabitedislandsinthecountry.SolidwastegeneratedinMale’,Vilingili,Hulhumale’,
IbrahimNasirInternationalAirport,mostofthewastesgeneratedinresortsofMale’atoll,few
resorts in other atolls and some inhabited islands, assisted by resorts are transported to
Thilafushidumpsite. Other inhabited islandseitherdumporburn theirwaste somewhere in
theirownislandsorperipherywhetheratadesignatedwastemanagementcentre,thebeachor
ownbackyard.Onsomeinhabitedislandssolidwasteisdiscardedonadesignated(occasionally
enclosed) area on the beach, while on others most of the trash is burned. However, some
KeyFindings
Wastevolumehasbeenincreasingwithincreasingpopulationand
developmentactivities
ThereissomerecyclingdoneatwastecollectionfacilitiesinMale’and
Thilafushi,someoftherecycledwaste,mostlyironandandPETPlastics,are
exportedbyprivateexporters
ThereareIslandWasteManagementCentresin134islandsbutmostarenot
operational
Emissionsfromwastesareestimatedtorepresent15%ofGHGemissions.
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inhabitedislandscontinuetohaveproblemsoflitteringanddumpinginnon‐demarcatedareas.
Although this practice is less now since many islands have waste management centers
established, a process expedited after the Tsunami of 2004. Additionally after the
decentralizationprocesseachIslandorCityCouncilismandatedtomanagesolidwasteintheir
jurisdictions.
5.2 SituationAnalysis
Wastedisposal isanactivity thatcompounds thevulnerabilityof the islands inMaldives.The
only designated primary landfill in Maldives, Thilafushi‐ which was initially just an open
dumpsite, lies in the middle of the ocean. Currently, the island (formed of waste) has other
industrial activities going on such as cement packing etc and only part of the island is
designated a dumpsite. In addition, 90%of the islands inMaldives have theirwaste disposal
siteswithin100mofcoastlineandontheocean‐wardsideoftheisland(MHTE,2009).
5.2.1 Male’
Major sources of waste in Male’ are domestic waste, industrial waste, construction and
demolitionwaste,organicandnon‐organicwaste.SolidwastesgeneratedinMale’alsoinclude
hazardouswastessuchasasbestos,oil/fuel,andhealthcarewaste.
Thewaste generated inMale’ are first taken to the collectionyards.Thereare two collection
yardsinMale’andoneinVillingili:twoyardsinMale’areoneforconstructionanddemolition
wasteandoneformunicipalsolidwaste(SOE,2004).Thereisnomunicipalcollectionofwaste.
Wastecollectioniscarriedoutbyprivatepartiesandistransportedbybicycle,byhandcartand
also by two private operators providing collection and transport to collection yards. In each
case,collectionfromhouseholdsispredominantlybyexpatriatelaborers,whoworkafterhours
inthissector.Inthatsense,majorityofthehouseholdsandcommercialestablishmentsinMale’
payforwastedisposalexplicitly.
From the collection yards,waste is transported in dump truckswhich take thewaste to the
municipalwastedumpsiteatThilafushionabarge. Municipalwaste is transportedby large
staticcomposterunitswhilecommercialanddemolitionwasteistransportedbytippertrucks.
In 2009, approximately 123,549 tonnes of waste was transported to Thilafushi from Male’
region.This representsabout20percent increase from2004.CarbonAudit (2009)estimated
that79%ofthewastegeneratedinMaldivesistransportedtoThilafushi.
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Table5.1showssomestatisticsthatindicatethatwastegeneratedinMale’hasnotconsistently
increased,whichissurprisinggiventhatanecdotalevidencesuggeststhatresidentpopulation
andconstructionactivitieshasincreasedinMale’.
Typeofwaste 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Total 103,548 100,298 110,281 109,400 111,955 134,722 123,549
Industrial 42,944 33,055 38,901 43,648 40,179 52,791 47,881
Construction
debris
38,880 28,390 34,160 40,070 32,702 50,600 45,210
Domestic 60,604 67,243 71,380 65,752 71,776 81,931 75,668
Non‐organic 31,703 42,651 53,060 34,853 41,097 46,788 39,249
Organic 28,679 24,240 18,176 30,366 30,583 34,482 35,609
Plastic 7 222 119 533 75 640 412
Glass 215 130 25 ‐ 21 21 398
ScrapIron 1,062 789 438 726 1,193 70 22
Oil&Fuel 4 78 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐
SawDust 2,354 3,078 246 662 2,522 ‐ 479
Wood 645 720 4,057 2,190 3,762 2,121 2,170
Waste is not formally segregated at any originating site, whether households or commercial
sites.However, at the collectionyards,waste is segregated to someextent.Reusablewaste is
kept aside, which are then taken away by middle men representing exporters. Mostly
segregationofwasteisdoneatthecollectionyardsinThilafushi.Segregatedcategoriesinclude
paper, plastic, boxes, tins, aluminum, electronicmaterials, High‐density polyethylene (HDPE)
plastic,vegetablebaskets,woodenboxes,fibre,usedoil,drybatteries,coconuthusks,furniture
andtiles.
Mostofthewasteisburntopenlyandtheresidualashandunburntwasteisdumpedintoan
area of the lagoon with bund walls and land filling is done. While the inevitable odour and
smoke fill the atmosphere, the resulting litter, such as plastic bags, packaging and paper are
fillingthemarineenvironmentandleadstoleachingofenvironmentallydamagingsubstances.
Table5.1:WastetransportedtoThilafushifromMale’,2003–2009(tonnes)
Source:StatisticalYearbook2010,DepartmentofNationalPlanning2010
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Thepotentialofrisktohumanhealthandtheimpendingrisktothenaturalenvironmentofthe
area,especiallyunderwater,fromtheimproperlydisposedwasteisimmense.
5.2.2 Intheatolls
Solidwaste generated in the atolls varies from atoll to atoll from time to time. For instance,
where there is a lot of construction activity going on, construction debris would be high. In
islandslikeR.Alifushi,woodandsawdustwouldbehighbecauselotofboatbuildingactivities
would be going on throughout the year. Additionally, in islands practicing commercial
agriculturesuchasThoddu inAlifAtoll,a lotofagriculturalwaste isgenerated.Nevertheless,
generallyinallislandsdomesticwastewouldbehighest.Householdlevelwastesegregationis
donesofarasbackyardcompostingisdemandedbyindividualhouseholds.Somecommunities
thatdependonfirewoodmaysegregatewood,coconutsandothercombustiblewaste. Insuch
cases,organicwastedoesnotendupwithmunicipalwaste.
Waste disposal practices vary among islands depending on access to disposal facilities, local
custom and government/council intervention. Households usually carry their waste to
collectionsitesandusuallywomenareresponsibleforthetask,whopushawheelbarrowtothe
site. These sites can range from a designatedwaste collection site, seaside (beachside), land
reclamationsite,bushes,andback/frontyard(livingarea).Table5.2suggestssomeburningin
thehouseholdanduseofawastedisposalmachine.Inaddition,wasteisoftenburntregularlyat
thecollectionsiteinsomeislands.
Table5.2showthatalmost61percentoftheatollhouseholdsdumpgarbageintothedesignated
site(garbagecompound).Almostequalnumberofhouseholdsdumptheirsolidwasteintothe
bushesorburns it inthe livingarea. Insomeatolls,asignificantpercentagedumpsthewaste
intotheseaside,whichhasimplicationsforimpactonthemarineenvironment.Further,thesaid
garbage disposal site would usually be located in close proximity to the seaside/ beach
compoundingtheproblem.
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Total
househol
ds
Garbag
e
compo
und
Sea
side
Land
Reclam
ation
site
Throwi
ng it
into the
bushes
Buryin
the
living
area
Burn
in the
living
area
Use a
waste
disposal
machin
e
Not
stated
Atolls 32087 60.8 10.2 0.6 12.5 0.6 12.5 0.4 2.4
HA 2425 63.3 10.0 0.0 20.2 0.6 4.6 ‐ 1.2
HDh 2988 55.4 0.3 0.8 39.3 0.6 3.3 ‐ 0.4
Sh 2099 32.8 10.2 2.7 51.7 0.4 1.8 0.0 0.4
N 1811 61.6 8.9 1.8 19.2 0.4 7.2 ‐ 0.9
R 2538 92.8 1.0 ‐ 0.1 ‐ 5.7 0.0 0.4
B 1552 93.1 0.5 ‐ 1.3 0.1 3.3 0.2 1.5
Lh 1449 73.6 21.0 0.2 ‐ 0.1 3.6 0.3 1.2
K 1526 84.0 0.1 ‐ 9.4 0.2 1.2 0.5 4.5
AA 774 77.6 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.9 18.7 0.1 2.1
ADh 1060 74.9 ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.3 6.9 8.1 9.8
V 260 82.3 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 12.3 0.4 5.0
M 793 84.5 3.0 0.1 8.2 0.1 2.1 0.1 1.8
F 567 90.8 0.2 ‐ ‐ 0.4 5.8 0.2 2.6
Dh 768 80.2 0.1 ‐ ‐ 0.3 1.4 0.3 17.7
Th 1454 75.0 17.2 0.1 0.4 0.3 2.8 0.2 4.1
L 1970 19.5 52.5 0.7 18.9 0.5 4.0 ‐ 4.0
GA 1472 34.4 45.0 0.3 2.6 1.8 13.4 0.1 2.3
GDh 2145 45.5 14.0 0.1 6.7 1.5 30.5 0.0 1.7
Gn 1332 40.0 0.3 1.6 2.8 1.4 51.0 0.1 2.9
S 3104 47.5 1.3 0.7 2.5 0.7 45.8 0.2 1.3
Afterthetsunamiof2004,theAustralianRedCrossandCanadianRedCrossundertookarange
ofreconstructionanddevelopmentactivitiesand79IslandWasteManagementCentres(IWMC)
were constructed throughout theMaldives, Some of the IWMCs are still functional. However
somewereneverusedorceasedbeingusedinashorttimeoncethecentreswerefullofwaste.
TheestablishmentofIWMCshadadirectimpactonoverallislandcleanlinessinmostcases,and
was instrumental inplacingwastemanagementon theagendaatan Island level.Thecurrent
Table5.2:WaysofDisposalofWasteintheislands,2006
Source:Census2006,DepartmentofNationalPlanning2007
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situationastotheestablishmentofIWMCsareshownintable5.3.Therearenow134IWMCsin
theMaldives,coverageofapproximately66%ofislands,althoughthepercentageofpopulation
able to access awaste facilitywould bemuch higher given population distributions (UNOPS
2010).
5.2.3 Existingsituationintheresorts
In general, waste practices on resort islands are decidedly better than those on inhabited
islands. The resort islands, as a result, appear clean. Combustible waste is incinerated and
kitchenwasteisdumpedoffshoreintotheopenseainaccordancewiththeregulationsofMOT
on deep‐sea disposal ofwaste.Waste that cannot be reused or incinerated is transported by
boattothecountry’scentraldumpsiteatThilafushi.
Awastesurveywasconductedin21resortsinNorthandSouthAriAtollin2009andfoundthat
alltheresortsinNorthandSouthAriAtolltransporttheirwastetoThilafushiforfinaldisposal.
Atourismsourceofwastethatisoftenoverlookedisthewastefromsafariboats.ResortinAri
atollreportedthattheycleanupwastesfromsafariboatsfromtheirbeaches.
5.3 Healthcareandhazardouswastemanagement
ItisuncleartowhatextenthazardouswasteisidentifiedassuchinMaldives.Themainsources
of hazardouswasteon the islands arepower stations, oil/fuel supply storage areas, fertilizer
andpesticidestorageareas,farmingactivities,andhospitalwaste.Hazardouswasteishandled
anddisposednodifferentlythanotherformsofsolidwasteexceptsomehealthcarewaste.The
resortislandstransporthazardouscomponentstothelandfillsiteatThilafushi,whichstoresoil,
batteries,accumulatorsandotherhazardouswaste.
Health carewaste generated inMaldives comes fromhealthcare facilities set up inMale’, the
islandsand theresorts. InMale’, thereare two facilitiesoperatedby thegovernment, Indhira
GandhiMemorialHospitalandahealthcentre.Thereisoneprivatehospitalandseveralprivate
clinics. In addition, there are government operated (from 2008 operated by health
corporations)6regionalhospitals,13atollhospitals,60healthcentresand26healthposts.All
registered hospitals are required to incinerate the waste they produce. However, this is not
practicedinmanyhospitalsandwasteotherthansharpsandinfectiousmaterialsaredisposed
ofalongwithotherwaste.Inallhealthcarefacilitiesintheislands,sharpsandinfectiouswastes
areburnedandburiedwhichisanenvironmentallyunfriendlypracticeaswellasbeingahealth
hazard.
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5.4 WasteandtheMaldivianeconomy
Wasteistheby‐productofeconomicactivity.Wastecanbegeneratedatdifferenttimesduring
themateriallifecycle:whenrawnaturalresourcesareextractedorharvested;whengoodsare
manufacturedorservicesprovided;andwhengoodsarepackaged,transported,andconsumed.
Somewaste reflects the economic activities going on in a society. The volume of the certain
waste may also indicate the extent of these activities. So for example a high volume of
constructiondebrisinagivenyearmeansthatconstructionsectorwasmoreproductiveinthat
year. In this regard, the graphbelowshows that constructionactivitieshave increased in the
countrywithindustrialwasteshowsasimilartrend.
InThilafushi island,where60%of the country’swaste is stored, but also in other inhabited
islands, some of the waste still goes directly to sea and threatens the quality of the local
environment(waterandmarineresources).Inadequatesolidwastedisposalhaveimplications
foraffectingthehealthofthevulnerablereefsystemofMaldives.MHE(2011)statesthatsolid
waste disposal into the coastal vegetation is a major contributor to the degradation of the
vegetationbeltinsomeislandsnamely,Dh.Kudahuvadhoo,Ga.Kolamaafushi,Sh.Funadhooand
N.Velidhoo.Thismaybethecaseinmanyislands.Similarly,poorsolidwastedisposalincreases
theriskofvectorbornediseases,becausevectorbreedingsitesarecreated.
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Industrial Construction debris Domestic Non‐organic Organic
Fig5.1:‐Trendsinhighvolumewaste,inMale’,2003–2009
Source:Statisticalyearbook,2010,DepartmentofNationalPlanning
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5.5 Wasteandcarbonneutrality
Waste is a source of greenhouse gas emission (through methane emissions resulting from
decompositionofwaste) . CarbonAuditReport (2009) report of two sourcesof emissions to
assessthegreenhousegasesemittedfromwasteintheMaldives:open‐burning(asisthecasein
Thilafushior insome islands)andsolidwastedisposal.Noemissions forwastedumping into
seaweretakenintoaccount.In2009,90%oftheGHGwereemittedfromThilafushiandother
landfills.TotalGHGemissionsfromwasteopen‐burninganddisposalamountedto217ktCO2eq,
outofwhich75%areCH4emissions,21%CO2emissionsand4%N2Oemissions.Intotal15
percentofthe1.3MTofcarbondioxideemittedwerefromwastein2009.(CarbonAudit2009).
15%isaconsiderablepercentageofGHGemission,especiallysincethatrapidgrowthofboth
thepopulationanddevelopmentactivities(suchasconstruction)areexpectedinfutureaswell.
Insearchofoptionstoreducewasteanditsbyproducts,awastetoenergy(WtoE)studywas
conducted by Environment Research Center (ERC) in 2007. The study revealed that while
quantitiesofwastegeneratedinindividualislandswereinadequatetosupportpotentialWtoE
solutions, WtoE options maybe financially viable, if waste from neighboring islands are
integrated.Soforexample,accordingtothisstudy,sufficientwastequantitiesaregeneratedin
SouthernAtollsofAdduandFuhamulah.
Thesamestudyalso foundthat therewereseveralpotentialapplications/products thatcould
be addressed throughWtoE solutions such as electricity generation to displace use of fossil
fuels;conversiontoalternatefuelssuchasgas(Syngas)orcharcoal(pellets),whichcandisplace
theuseoffirewoodorotherfuelsusedforcooking,dieselfuelusedforindustrialprocesses;use
of the generated energy to produce potable water, ice, etc; use of ash (a by‐product of the
combustionprocess)toproduceconcreteblocksandslabswhichcanbeused inconstruction,
etc.However,basedonstakeholder feedbacks, themost relevantandappropriateneedshave
beenidentifiedaselectricitygenerationanddesalinationofwatertomakeitpotable.Ingeneral,
theWtoEstudyreported,thereispotentialofgenerating91%fuelfromthewasteavailablein
Maldives.ThefinancialanalysisinthestudyshowedthatcostsassociatedwithWtoEsolutions
are justified for reasonably large quantities of waste (greater than 15 tonnes per day). For
smallerquantitiesitmaybemoresuitabletosimplyincineratethewaste.
Subsequently, the ERC conducted a detailed study in 2008 to assess the viability of waste
incinerationinMaldives.Thereportstatedthatgiventhelackofrevenuestreamsexpectedfrom
incineration,operatinganincineratorcanprovetobeahugefinancialburdenoveraperiodof
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time. Unless, the heat produced by the incinerator are used for other useful purposes like
electricitygenerationorseawaterdesalinationtomakeitviablefromeconomicpointofview(1
kg ofwaste can generate upto 0.5 kwh of electricity + 0.5 litres ofwater or 1 litres of fresh
water). WtoE solutions will help in reducing dependence on fossil fuels, help in providing
adequatedrinkingwaterandwillalsoreducetheGHGemissions.
Otherexamplesofwastebeingused inasimilarwaywasreportedbyMHE, in2011,ontheir
report,SurveyofClimateChangeAdaptationMeasuresinMaldives.Thereportstatesthatwaste
had been used in ad hoc reclamation measures in islands such as Sh. Funadhoo and AA
Bodufolhudhoo.The survey also revealed that ‘theuseof constructiondebris topermanently
reclaim erosion hotspots is wide spread practice in the inhabited islands surveyed’. In this
regard, of 26 inhabited islands thatwere eroding, 19 islands had some section of the island
protectedbyconstructionwasteandoccasionallygreenwaste.Infact,amongthese19islands,
thismethodisusedasasolutiontoconstructionwastedisposalratherthanastrueadaptation
measure(MHE,2011)
Therearesomecompanieswhoexportrecycledwaste.
Material QuantityExported2009(tons) Quantity Exported
2010(tons)
Ferrous
Metals
6237.23 9,675.94
CastIron 388.5 0
Copper 134.62 273.11
Aluminium 87.4 131.86
Zinc 0 0
Plastics 0 35.00
Cardboard 0 0
WasteOil 195 57.20
The EconomicandTechnicalFeasibilityStudyforaNationalRecyclingStrategy (Medina, 2008)
producedatableofmaterialsthatwerepotentiallyrecoverableonadailybasisandstatedthat
in general terms a Material Recovery Facility (MRF) would be a feasible option as a central
Table5.3:Recyclingexportsbymaterial,2008and2009
Source:MaldivesCustomsService2011
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processingandexportoperation.Table5.4calculatesthefullresourcestreamsineachcategory
(100%recovery)togiveageneraloverviewofresourcequantities.
Material Quantity
(T/day)
Quantity(T/A)
Organic 45.4 16,571
Paper 1.7 620.5
Cardboard 1.41 514.65
PET 3.3 1204.50
MixedPlastics 2.27 828.55
AluminiumCans 1.36 496.4
SteelCans 2.13 777.45
Glass 1.24 452.6
However,Medina (2008) also stated thatMale’smunicipalwaste does not appear to contain
enough recyclable material to attract and support public‐private partnerships (PPPs) for
individualrecyclablecommoditiesbasedonanexportmarketscenario.
5.6 Regulatoryframework
TheEnvironmentProtectionandPreservationAct(Law4/93)istheprimarylegalinstrument
for environmental management in the Maldives and EPA is the custodian of the law. The
followingsectionsspecificallyaddresswastemanagement:
Section37‐Standards,Classificationandidentificationofhazardouswasteandmaterials
Section38‐ClassificationofhazardousWaste
Section39‐SolidWasteManagementStandards
TheMHE has responsibility for the preservation and protection of the environment. A Draft
SolidWasteManagementRegulationswerealsoreleasedAugust2009andisyettobefinalized.
Oneof themost importantprovisions in thedraft regulations is theemphasison licensingof
wastemanagementactivitiessuchascollection,transport,storageanddisposal.
Table5.4:EstimatedWasteGenerationofRecoverableInMaldives
Source:TheTechnicalFeasibilityStudyforaNationalRecyclingStrategy(Medina,2008)
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Tourismwasteisaddressedthroughaseparateregulation,theRegulationontheProtectionand
ConservationofEnvironmentintheTourismIndustry,Law2/99(2008).Thisoutlinesstringent
waste management requirements for resorts, including source separation. Each resort must
have an incinerator, compactor andbottle crusher. Foodwaste is permitted for sea dumping
providedwastedoesnotwashontoanyshoreline.Incineratorscannotbeusedtoburnplastics,
andallwastemustbedisposedoffinamannerthatisleastharmfultotheenvironment.
TheDecentralisationLawtransferredtheresponsibilityofthewastemanagementofislandsto
island councils,whowere elected in February 2011.Male’ city council is responsible for the
managementofwasteinGreaterMale’Area.
5.7 Policiesandstrategies
Managementofsolidwastehasremainedoneofthemostpressingenvironmentalissuesinthe
Maldives. The National Solid Waste Management Policy for the Republic of the Maldives
published in 2008 focused on establishing and activating waste management governance,
creatingwasteproducers’duties,establishmentofwastemanagementinfrastructure,activating
the waste management system; and influencing consumer choices and waste management
practices. Subsequently, theNationalFramework forSolidWasteManagement in theMaldives
adoptedbytheGovernmentin2008,istheoverarchingframeworkforallwasteinitiativesand
directions.
The Waste Management Corporation is a newly formed Government Enterprise with the
mandateofwastemanagementoperationthroughoutthenation.Intermsofwastemanagement
theactionareaandthecurrentstatusisillustratedintable5.5.
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Objectives/Strategy Programmes/Activities CurrentStatus
Asolidwastemanagement
systemtopreventadverse
impactonhumanhealth
andenvironmentthrough
economicallyviableand
locallyappropriate
approaches,implemented
1.1.AWasteManagementAct
enacted
1.2.Developmentoffirstdraft
ofwastemanagement
Regulatoryframework,
Regulatoryframework
drafted
1.3Stakeholderconsultation
andreviewingthedraft
framework
Completed
1.4Finalizationofwaste
managementact
Tobefinalized
PolicyandRegulatory
FrameworkforPPPin
WasteManagement,
developed
2.1Developmentofwaste
managementRegulatory
framework
PPPincooperatedinthe
reg.framework
Facilitationforisland
communitiestomanage
theirwastemanagement
3.1Trainingsforisland
communities
Completedinsome
islands
3.2Trainingsforisland
communities/Handoverof
WMequipments
Completedinsome
islands
Islandwastemanagement
centresmanagedbyisland
communitiesincreased
4.1Allislandshavingwaste
managementfacilities
114 completed
ProvincialSolidWaste
Managementfacilities
establishedforrecoveryand
recycling,facilitated
5.1Selectionofsites
Northprovinceselected
underMEMPproject
5.2Surveyinganddeveloping
site
Surveyingconducted
Designofthesite
developed
5.3Establishmentofsitein
NorthProvince
Preparatoryworkgoing
on
5.4BuildawastemanagementfacilityinThilafushiwithanengineeredlandfillandGassificationplantaswellas
ContractbetweenMale’
CityCouncilandTatva
GlobalRenewable
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invesselcomposters.
EnergyMaldives
Limitedsigned
Provincialwastemanagement
centresfunctional
6.1Allcentresfunctional Thilafushionly
functional
Peopleandtheenvironment
protectedfromhazardous
wasteandchemicals
7.1ANationalChemicals
RegulationFramework,
guidelinesandinformation
systemdeveloped
7.2Includingchemicals
managementintheEnvact
Draftprepared
7.3DevelopingaChemical
profileofMaldives
SAICMproposal
preparedforfunding
theproject
7.4NAPofconventions
developed
7.5 Guidelineofchemical
handlingprepared
Acommunicationsystem
fortimelyupdated
notificationofmovementof
hazardouswaste,meeting
internationalstandards
developed
8.1Reportingofinternational
conventionsstrengthened
Annualreporting
8.2AnnualReportingof
internationalconventions
strengthened
Annualreportingdone
8.3Guidelinefortrans
boundarymovementof
hazardouswasteprepared
8.4Updatednotificationto
conventions
Table5.5:Policies,Programsandstatus‐managingwaste2009‐2012
Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment.2011,DepartmentofNationalPlanning2011
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Keyfindings: Indicatorsoflocalairpollutionshowsincreasingtrendintermsofvehiclesin
operation,constructionofbuilding,importsoffuelandrecordedcasesofrespiratorydiseases.
Qualityofthegroundwateraquifervariesfromislandtoislandandishighlyvulnerabletocontaminationfrominadequatesanitationfacilitiesandotherhumanactivities,solidwasterun‐off,overexploitationandsalineintrusionthroughsoilerosionandflooding.Groundwaterpollutioniscommonthroughoutthecountry.
Waivingimportdutiesfromrenewableenergypoweredvehiclesisanoteworthydevelopmentwhichhasthepotentialofcontributingtowardsacleanerenvironment.
6. Pollution
6.1 Introduction
Pollution in terms of air quality is more pronounced inMale’ while in the islands in can be
generally termed good, as islands are smallwith sea breeze flushing the airmasses over the
island.InMale’,thecapitalpollutionisoftenstatedasanemerginghealthhazard.Thecapacity
to study the air pollution is limitedwith no regularmonitoring activities until 24 December
2011.On24December2011EPAbeganpublishingairqualitymonitoringdata.Theparameter
ofmajorconcerncurrentlyisparticulatematter(PM10)Withlimiteddataonthemeasuresofthe
level of pollution indicators of pollution are used to determine the level of pollution. The
deteriorating status is evident through reviewof certain indicatorsofpollution such trend in
land transport, importsof fuel, and construction relatedactivities.These activities generates
particulatesofsootanddustwhicharecirculatedintotheatmospherecreatingpollutantsinthe
formofsolidparticles,liquiddroplets,orgaseswhichcreatearangeofhealthissues.
Intermsofwaterpollution,contaminationoccurswhengroundwateraccumulatedinrainwater
rechargedaquiferswhich lie at adepthof1‐1.5metersbelow the surfacegets contaminated.
Quality of the ground water aquifer varies from island to island and is highly vulnerable to
contamination from inadequate sanitation facilities and other human activities, solidwaste
run‐off over exploitation; and saline intrusion through soil erosion and flooding. Marine
pollutionismainlylinkedtothewastemanagementpracticesofthecountry.
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6.2 AirPollution
6.2.1 Indicatorsofairpollution
Male’thecapitalofMaldivesisapproximately2squareKmandisthemostpopulatedislandof
thecountrywithapopulationof103693.(DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2010).Duetothe
prominence as the capital city with opportunities of economic activity has encouraged an
inwardmigrationtothecapitalcity.Thepopulationisincreasingattherateof5.8percentper
annum.
Accordingtothesurveyconducted inMale’byEPA(2011)perceptionsofparticipantsofthe
surveyonexposuretoairpollutionarehighwith78%statingthathighestexposureisduring
walkingwhileabout14%alsofeltthattheyareexposedtopollutionwhileridingmotorcycles.
Indicators of air pollution reviewed includes trend in vehicles, construction of building,
respiratorydiseases,importsoffuel
6.2.1.1Vehicles
Amongthesourcesofpollution,Male’ transportsector iscontributingasignificantamountas
inhabitantsofMale’areusingmoreandmoremotorcyclesandcarsreplacingbicyclesuseda
fewyearsago.PublicroadpassengertransportinMaldiveswasonlythroughtaxisoperatedby
taxicentersuntilJune2011.On23June2011busserviceintroducedasatrailserviceandthe
impactsofitisyettobedetermined.Taxiserviceswereinitiatedin70’sandbymid80sformed
taxicenterswereformedandstartedtogivetaxiservicesthroughthesetaxicenters.Ministryof
Transport(MOT)startedtoregistertaxicentersfrom1989andtaxidriversfrom1997andby
year2000 taxi serviceswere totally regulated.The increasing trendofmotor carsandmotor
bikesareillustratedingraphs6.1.Thecarbonmonoxidegasfromamotorvehicleexhaustisa
primaryairpollutantasitisdirectlyemittedfromthevehiclesinoperation.
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Over the years an increasing trend is observed and by 2009, there were 44380 vehicles
registered and most (80%) vehicles are motorbikes while cars account for 7% of the total
vehicles.Between2004and2009anaverageof3245motorbikesand230carswereregistered
peryear.Vehiclesareprimarysourceofairpollutionandvehiclesthatarepoweredbypetrol,
dieselnaturalgasoranyotherpetroleumproductemitorgiveoutpollutants.
Theincreasingpressureandimpactsarerevealedwhentakingintoconsiderationtheestimates
ofnumberofreturntripsbycarsandthepersonaltravelcostestimates.In2009itisestimated
that12500returntripsaremadewhileitiswidelyheldthatthisestimatewillincreasefurther
duringschooltimes.Itisestimatedthatpersonaltravelcostat108milliondollarswhichisone
percent of GDP (MTC 2007).Vehicle ownership is increasing at an alarming rate and it is
expectedtogrowby200percentinthenext15yearswiththeonlyimpedimentforthegrowth
isthelackofphysicalparkingspace.(MEEW,2007)
The situation gets aggravated with obstructions in commercial areas. Obstructions are
temporaryandiscausedwhenconstructionsitesusesthefootpathstostoretheirmaterialsand
equipments.Sometimesthewholestreetmaybeclosedduringconstructioncausingnuisanceto
all road users with traffic congestion occurring on the next available road. Also many small
retail shops and cafes aswell as tea shops are seen using the foot path to keep their goods,
blocking the movement of pedestrians. In addition, many vehicle repair and maintenance
workshopskeep thedamagedvehicleson footpaths and their activities suchaspaintingand
washingoftencreatesdiscomforttopedestrians.(p10,EPA,2011)
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
45000
50000
1990
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Number of motor cars
Nu
mb
er o
f m
otor
cyl
es
Years
No of motor cycles
No of Motor cars
Fig2.2:Increasingtrendofcarsandmotorcycles1990‐2009
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning2010
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6.2.1.2ConstructionofBuildings
The growth of the construction industry also denotes the increasing trend of air and noise
pollution.Constructionactivitiesthatcontributetopollutionincludelandclearing,operationof
diesel engines, demolition of buildings and building activities undertakenwithin the site. All
constructionsitesgeneratehighlevelsofdusttypicallyfromconcreteandcementwhichcanbe
carried over a large area for a long period. Due to lack of space and increase congestion
construction work on high rise building in Male’ is on the increase. Table 6.1 outlines the
numberofbuildingauthorizedtobeconstructedovertheperiod2004‐2009whichshowsthat
onaverage47buildingsareauthorizedonamonthlybasisand13buildingarecompletedper
month. Fig 6.2 illustrates the floor area in construction building in terms of authorized and
completedbuildingswhichagainemphasizestheamountofconstructionactivitythataregoing
on inMale’.Thedust from the cementandcoralblocksused in the construction is circulated
withinthesurroundingareaoftheconstructionsiteandthroughout2squarekmMale’.
Type 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Authorized
Building
843 513 593 506 504 485
Completed
Buildings
166 170 153 153 167 175
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
300000
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Floor area (sq m
)
Years
Authorised Residential Authorised Non‐ residential
Completed Residential Completed Non‐ residential
Table6.1:Buildingauthorizedforconstructionandcompleted.2004‐2009
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning2010
Fig6.2:‐Floorareasintermsofauthorizedandcompletedbuildings2004‐2009
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning2010
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6.2.1.3RespiratoryDiseases
Urbanairpollution is agrowingconcernwith constructiondust invisible tonakedeyewhich
penetratesdeeplyintothelungsandcausewiderangeofhealthproblemsincludingrespiratory
illness,asthmaandbronchitis.Congestionwithinthehouseholdsisalsoontheincreasecreating
indoor air pollution another concern within the capital Male’. On 24 December 2011, EPA,
started monitoring the particular matter of size 10 (PM10) at one station in Male’, Friday
Mosque station. As highlighted in table 6.2, in December the average for 10 days were 20
micrograms permeter cubewhich is below the 150micrograms per cubicmeter on a daily
averageof24hours.TheUnitedStatesEPAstandardsforPMstatethatPM10shouldbelower
than150microgramspercubicmeteronadailyaverageof24hours.
PMorparticulatematterissolidorliquidparticleswhichremainsuspendedintheairforlong
periodsoftime.Theparticulatematterofsize10microndiameteraretermedasPM10,andare
ofgreatesthealthconcernastheycanpenetrateintosensitiveregionsofthehumanlungs.The
source of PM is stated as windblown dust from roads and from construction sites. Finer
particles are from vehicle exhausts with oxides of sulfur and nitrogen released from vehicle
emissionstransformedbychemicalprocessesintoPM.HealtheffectsofPMincludespremature
death,increasedhospitaladmissionsincreasedrespiratoryillnesses,alterationsinlungtissues
andloweringofrespiratorytractdefensemechanisms.Mostsensitiveareelderly,childrenand
peoplewithcardiopulmonarydiseasessuchasasthma.(EPA,2011,http://epa.gov.mv)
Increased respiratory illnesses are one of the effects of particulatematter. Acute respiratory
diseasesarerecordedbyDepartmentofPublicHealth(DPH)andareusedhereasanindicator
ofairpollution.AccordingtothestatisticspublishedbytheDPHrevealsthatovertheyearsthe
casesofrespiratorydiseasehasincreased.(Fig6.3)andisoneoftheleadingcausesofdeath.
Table6.2:‐LevelofpollutantmonitoredfromFridayMosqueStation
Source:EnvironmentProtectionAgency,2011(http://epa.gov.mv)
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6.2.1.4ImportofFuel
Maldiveshasnoconventionalenergyresourcesthatitcanutilizetomeetitsenergyneedsand
dependson importsfor itsenergyneeds.Bulkofthesefuel imports ismarinegasoil,aviation
gas,lampfuel.Dieselfuelismainlyusedforpowergenerationbothbytheutilitycompaniesand
other electricity generators in the outer islands. Petroleum products are also used in land
transport(gasoline,high‐speeddiesel),includingaviation(jetfuel),industries,andhouseholds
(kerosene, Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG)). Nowadays, more outer island households are using
keroseneandLPGforcookinginsteadofbiomassmaterialssuchasshrubsandcoconuthusks.
Table 6.3 outlines the imports of fuel from 2004‐2010which shows that large quantities of
marinegas,lampfuelanddieselareimportedtothecountryindicatingthatpollutionlevelsare
onanincreasingtrend.
Description
unit 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Marine Gas Oil
(Diesel)
M/T 202,530 187,668 238,981 250,866 267,183 280,257 286,900
AviationGas M/T 15,830 13,037 16,951 13,383 23,460 25,495 21,351
KeroseneOil M/T 8,383 1,059 4,259 743 664 936
LampFuel Ltr 226,743 141,775 174,227 217,119 197,367 150,095 219,819
Petroleum
Ether
Ltr 9 83 4 11 19 47 51
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
45000
50000
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Nu
mb
erof cases
Years
Fig6.3:CasesofRespiratoryDisease2004‐2010
Source:DepartmentofPublicHealth,2011
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LiquidFluid Ltr 464 358 827 1,923 1,728 435 4,461
Butane M/T 6,488 7,150 6,403 6,048 10,317 11,538 11,780
Propane
Liquefied
M/T 2 0 1 3
Propylene
Liquefied
Ltr 41 18 71 694 662 160 45
Petrol M/T 18,461 19,209 23,051 28,116 26,477 28,323 29,865
6.2.2 Transboundaryairpollution
Efforts towards controlling and prevention of transboundary air pollution is undertaken as
collaborative activities with regional partners. Transboundary air pollution first became
apparentin1997whenlargepartsofthecountrywereaffectedbyahazecausedbyforestfires
inIndonesia.TheeffectsweresignificantfromOctobertoDecember1997asaresulttheIndian
OceanExperimentof1999wasinitiatedwithtwoairpollutionmeasuringstationsestablished
tomeasurethe longrangetransportofpollutants fromAsia to the IndianOcean.Thecloud is
causedmainly bydomesticwood anddung fires plus smoke from the burning of forests and
fields foragriculture. Inaddition ,vehicleexhausts,powerplantsand factorychimneysadd to
themix.Under theMale’DeclarationofControl andPreventionofAirPollutionand its likely
Transboundary Effects in South Asia ,significant efforts were made towards controlling and
prevention of transboundary air pollution in 1998.Under theprogramadditionalmonitoring
station was established in Hanimadhoo. The program emphasized the need for countries to
carryforward,orinitiate,studiesandprogramsonairpollutionineachcountryofSouthAsia.
TheMale’DeclarationonControlandPreventionofAirPollutionandItsLikelyTransboundary
Effects for South Asia is the first regional environment agreement in South Asia to tackle
transboundary air pollution through regional cooperation. The participating countries in the
Male’DeclarationareBangladesh,Bhutan,India,Iran,Maldives,Nepal,Pakistan,andSriLanka.
TheobjectiveoftheDeclerationistoaidtheprocessofprovidingacleanenvironmentthrough
clean air.The Declaration calls for regional cooperation to address shared local air quality
problemsandtheincreasingthreatoftransboundaryairpollutionanditspossibleimpacts.The
implementation has been done in a phasewisemannerwith the fourth phase ongoing from
March2010‐toMarch2012.Thefocusoffourthphaseisonsustainablefinancingmechanisms
and selection of regional centers on air quality and impact assessment studies. Under the
Table6.3:ImportsofFuel2004‐2009
Source:MaldivesCustom,2011
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project pollutantsNO2 and SO2 andO3weremonitored inHanimadhoomonitoring station in
2008.
6.3 NoisePollution
IncreasingvehiclesforroadtransportinMale’notonlyraisestheissueofairpollutionbutalso
raisesseriousconcernofnoisepollution.The transport sectorhasevolved inanadhocbasis
without a comprehensive plan. Without an organized public transport system in Male’ the
motorcyclesandcarsareincreasingatanalarmingrateof18%perannumcreatinglotoftraffic
congestion andassociated issues.Thepavednetworkof roadsof varying length andwidth is
often concentratedwithvehicles creating trafficblockagewithin the small alleyways creating
excessivenoisewithlorries,carsandmotorbikessoundingtheirhornswithoutanyconcernof
noise pollution. Loading and unloading of lorries in front of rented godowns in small streets
causes traffic blockages and vehicleswhich are comes behind the lorries constantly sounds
their horns. The situation gets aggravated when over 70% of the car owners do not have a
parkingspacewithmanyofficebuildingandcommercialbuildingcomingupwithoutafraction
oftheparkingspacerequired.
Construction sites also producelots of noise from demolitions, concrete mixing, also from
vehicles, heavy equipment and machinery with movement of trucks loads of construction
materialwithinsmallalleyways
6.4 Waterpollution
6.4.1 Freshwaterpollution
Groundwateraquifersformedbytheaccumulationoftherechargedrainwaterontopofthesalt
waterarefoundinalltheislands.Theaquiferisnormallyatadepthof1‐1.5metersbelowthe
surface.Thethicknessoftheaquiferisnormallydictatedbyseveralfactorsincludingnetrainfall
rechargesizeoftheislandandpermeabilityofthewaterthroughthesoil.Qualityoftheaquifer
varies from island to island and is highly vulnerable to contamination from inadequate
sanitationfacilitiesandotherhumanactivities,solidwasterun‐offoverexploitation;andsaline
intrusionthroughsoilerosionandflooding.
A survey of 70 islands in 2010 reported that in most of the islands ground water is
contaminatedwiththewaternotsuitablefordrinking.Asfig6.4illustrates49%oftheislands
reportedthatgroundwater isnotusedatall,whileonly17%usesgroundwateroften.Most
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islandsreportedthatgroundwaterissalineandthatthequalityisbadintermsofcolorsmell
and taste. Of the islands reported, 55 percent has stated that water is saline while 28‐65%
statedthatthewaterqualityisbadintermsofcolorsmellandtaste.
Theuseofseptictanksandtheprimitivesewagesystemsintheseislandsaresomeofthecauses
for deteriorating ground water quality with sinking of effluent causing ground water
contamination. UnlikeMale’, the capital in the rural islands the people use groundwater for
washingclothes,dishesandforbathingmoreoften,aspipeddesalinatedwaterisnotavailable
andinsomeislandsrainwatergetsdepletedduringdryspells.
InMale’ thegroundwaterhasbeencontaminatedanddesalinatedwater isbeingprovidedby
the government for a number of years. In 1995 theMaldivesWater and Sewerage company
(MWSC) was formed which provided the desalinated water for Male’. Since then the use of
ground water has been steadily increasing as revealed from Fig 6.5 which shows that use
desalinatedwaterhasincreaseover11foldsoverthe14yearperiod.
49%
24%
10%
17%
not used very rarely used to some extent very often
Fig6.4:Useofgroundwater‐2011
Source:IslandOffices,2011
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In Male’ today hardly anyone uses the groundwater for drinking, but several households
depends on groundwater for washing clothes and some other purposes. Often two taps are
installedinmanyhouses,oneforpipeddesalinatedwaterandoneforgroundwater.
Unlike other inhabited islands in Male’ household effluent is collected in catch pits and
transferredtoMWSC’sCentralSewageSystem.Presentlymostofthehouseholdpitsarebuiltin
Male’ are insideabuilding, in a roomoroffice, in theground floor, coveredwitha lidon the
openingwithconcernsaboutthesafetyoftheuseofgroundwaterinMale’beinghigh.Reported
incidencesrevealedthatabsenceoftheproperdisposalfacilitiestomanageusedengineoilor
black industrial oil in Male’ has posed risks of ground water contamination. Used oil is
sometimesbeingdischargedintoditches. .MorerecentlydieseloilfromStateElectricLimited
Company(STELCO)waterpipeswerefoundleakingcontaminatingthegroundwaterwithinthe
surroundingareaandlagoonadjacenttothearea.Othersourcesofwaterpollutiononbuilding
sites includedieselandoilpaint,solvents,cleanersandat times largequantitiesofpetroleum
arereleasedfromleaksandspillsduringextraction,processing,anddistribution.
6.4.2 Marinepollution
Marine pollution is linked to the wastemanagement practices of the country. In the islands
thereisnosolidwastecollectionandwasteistakenbyhouseholdstodesignateddisposalsites
or to the edge of the inhabited areas. The waste management practices of 70 islands were
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
thou
san
d m
etri
c to
ns
Years
Fig6.5:WaterdistributioninMale1995‐2009
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning2011
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reviewed tounderstand the currentwastemanagementpractices.As revealed from the table
wasteisfrequentlydumpedwithintheisland,burntorthrownintothelagoon.
Methodsofdisposal Percentage
tothebeach/sea 13
Withintheisland 31
Incinerator 1
bury 8
burn 28
Thilafushiorotherisland 4
recycle 0
compost 0
Combination 14
Disposal siteswithin the islandsare typicallyuncontrolledandunmanagedand locatedalong
theshorelines.Withnoprovisionsforcollection,treatmentanddisposalofhazardouswasteand
non‐biodegradableimportedproductswasteisalsodiscardedinthismanneroftenendingupin
thelagoonresultinginmarinepollution.AlsoinMale’engineoilinplasticcontainersareoften
dumped into lagoon fromvessels.Ashighlightedaboverecentlydieseloil fromSTELCOpipes
was found leaking and contaminating the ground water as well as the surrounding lagoons
adjacenttotheareawheremanyoftheinhabitantsgooutforswimmingasrecreationalactivity.
In response to the incident the area was banned for swimming purposes. Without proper
monitoringproceduresthelevelofmarinepollutionisdifficulttodetermine.
6.5 PoliciesandStrategies
MHE is the main organization mandated for developing policies and strategies related to
controlling pollution. Among the organization’s policies improving air quality to safe guard
humanhealthhasdirectrelevancetocontrollingairpollution.Strategiesformulatedunderthe
policy include, establishing fully equippedAmbient Air QualityMonitoring Station in densely
populatedislandsandundertakingmonitoringofemissionsfrompointandmobilesourcesand
establish standards for such sources of pollution. With assistance from United Nations
EnvironmentProgram(UNEP)workisbeinginitiatedunderthesestrategies.
Table6.4:Wastemanagementpracticesprevailingintheislands2011
Source:IslandOffices,2011
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Preventionandcontrollingofwaterandmarinepollutionarebasedonthewasteandwaterand
sanitationmanagement policies. Thepolicy of developing solidwastemanagement system to
prevent adverse impact on human health and environment through economically viable and
locallyappropriateapproachesisputforwardasamajorpolicywithanumberofinterventions.
The implementing agencies and responsible sectors being MHE, Local Government Utility
Companies,EnvironmentProtectionAgency (EPA)andcivil society ingeneral.Thesectorhas
outlinedthepolicyofimprovingwaterresourcemanagementtopreserveenvironmentwiththe
followingstrategieswhichhasdirectrelevancetowardscontrollingpollutionofthewaterand
sanitation.
1.Seekingimmediatemeasurestostoppollutionofwatertablesduetoseepageofsewerageand
otherpollutants
2.Developinglanduseplanstakingintoconsiderationtheprotectionofnaturalandfreshwater
resources
3.Establishandeffectiveprogramformonitoringofwaterresourcesqualityintheislands
4.Prepareaninventoryofnaturalwatercatchmentareasincludingwetlandsandmarshareas
TheregulatoryauthoritiesEPAandtheTransportRegulatoryAuthority(TRA)developtechnical
and financial guidelines and standards for assessment and monitoring procedures. The
enforcementofthestandardsandguidelinesaretargetedtowardscontrollingpollution.EPAis
an independent legal regulatory entity, working under the supervision of a governing body
under the MHE. The EPA was formed merging Environment Research Centre (ERC) and
MaldivesWaterandSanitationAuthority (MWSA)on18December2008.TheEPAGoverning
Boardisastatutorybody,establishedundertheEnvironmentProtectionAct,withexpertisein
environment protection, industry, environmental science, regional issues, environmental law
andlocalgovernment
As a regulatory body EPA aims to reduce pollution through their work related to waste
management water supply and sanitation programs and mandatory Environment Impact
Assessment(EIA)priortodevelopmentactivities.EPAchargesfinesforanypartywhichstarted
developmentactivitieswithoutadetailedEIAandhaltsprojectsuntilEIA iscomplete.Alsoas
the administering authority for waste management at the national level EPA, work towards
puttinginplaceuniformmeasurestoseektoreducetheamountofwastethatisgeneratedand
where waste is generated to ensure that waste is reused, recycled, and recovered in an
environmentallysoundmannerbeforebeingsafelytreatedanddisposed.Thesemeasuresare
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to be implemented by the island council and city council at the island level with the
decentralizationandsettinguplocalcouncilsrecently.
Similarly theEPA is theadministeringauthority for formulationof regulationswith regard to
desalination plants and the registration procedures of desalination plants which directly
contribute in proper function of water resources. Moreover, water resource assessment and
monitoring,watersupplyandsanitationguidanceandregulationdevelopmentandwaterand
wastewaterqualitycompliancemonitoringisalsothemandateofEPA.
In addition toMHEother concerneddepartment such as Ministry ofEconomicDevelopment
(MED),MOTareworkingtowardsimplementingrenewableenergyprojectsasanalternative
sourceofelectricitygenerationwhichwillassistinachievingcleanerenvironment.Establishing
acarbonneutraltransportsystemundertheumbrellaofbecomingcarbonneutralbyyear2020
is a noteworthy strategy. Any development towards making Maldives carbon neutral
contributes towards controllingandpreventionof airpollution.Recentdevelopments include
decisions towaive importdutiesonelectricandrenewableenergypoweredvehicles toboost
thegovernment'sinitiativetopromotetheimportanduseofenvironmentallyfriendlyproducts.
Thedecisionalsoincludeswaivingimportdutiesonsolarpanelsandsolarpanelbatteriesused
inmarinevessels.WithmostofthevehiclesandmarinevesselsusedintheMaldivesrelyingon
fossil fuel–petrolanddiesel–giving adutyincentivetoencouragetheimportofeco‐friendly
vehicles and renewable energy products used in vessels in accordance with documentation
issuedby theEPAdeclaring their eco‐friendliness. In addition,deliberationson thematterof
introducingafeedintariffsystemtoencourageadoptionofrenewableenergyinordertoattain
carbonneutralitygoal, secureenergysecurityandreducedependencyon importedoilareall
landmarkdecisionstowardsacleanerenvironment.
The Land transport Act 5/2009 provides the legal frame for land transport. Under the land
transport Act, TRA develops rules and regulations to help the sustainable development of
transport sector. As a means of reducing emissions from vehicles government banned the
importofreconditionedmotorcycleswhichandenginecapacityoflessthan150cubicmeters.
Similarlyabanwasintroducedontheimportofcarsmorethan5yearsold.TheAuthorityhas
implemented regulation which states that all vehicles driving on the roads of the Maldives
should have a road worthiness certificate to reduce emission rate of vehicles used in the
country.TRAmonitorswhethervehiclesdrivingontheroadhavearoadworthinesscertificate
forvehicleswithoutcertificationandcompensationistaken.
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7. ConservationofBiologicalDiversity
7.1 Introduction
The biodiversity or the degree of variation of life within the marine ecosystem is rich and
diversewhiletheterrestrialbiodiversityislimitedcharacterizedbythegeomorphicstructureof
the islands. The islands of Maldives are small, low lying and isolated with limited natural
vegetationthatisdistributedrelativelyuniformfollowingthepatternofsalttolerantbushesat
theedgeandlargertreesandcoconutpalmsfurtherinland.Nativeplantsoftheislandscanbe
ecologically grouped into five
categories of vegetation (Adams
1988citedinP4SD,2011).Theyare
beachpioneers, littoralhedge, sub‐
littoral thicket, climax forest and
mangroveandswampforest(P4SD,
2011).With limited arable land
characterized by poor soil, low
freshwater supplies, the variety of
plantsandanimalsarelimited.
Keyfindings:
Mainpressurestomarinebiodiversitycontinuetobeillegalmining,mainlybranchedcoral and sand, over fishingof reef species and reoccurring of bleaching events.Pressures to terrestrial biodiversity are due to clearing of vegetation, invasivepestsanddiseases,anduseofpesticidesandherbicides.
AmajorconservationeffortistheBaaAtollConservationProject(BACP)initiatedin
2003.TheBACPisimplementedforachievingbiodiversityconservationwiththepurposetodesign,testanddemonstrateamanagementsystemthatwillsecureandsustaintherichbiodiversityandecologicalprocessesoftheAtollforthebenefitofthefuturegeneration.In29June2011BaaAtollwasdeclaredasaUNESCOBiosphereReserve
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Incontrastthemarinebiodiversitybasedonthecoralreefsishighlydiverseintermsoflife.The
reefslopesarecoveredwithlushcoralvegetationwithseriesofreefterraceswitharichmarine
biodiversity.Themarineresourcesisthemostsignificantandvitalresourcebaselinkedtothe
economicdevelopmentofthecountrywithtourismandfisheriesaccountingfor28percentand
2.8 percent of GDP respectively ( DNP, 2010). Biodiversity‐based sectors contribute 71% of
national employment (78,500 jobs), 49% of public revenue (Rf 2.5 billion), 62% of foreign
exchange (US$435million), 98%of exports (Rf 1.7billion) and89%ofGDP (Rf135billion)
(Emerton L., Baig S., and Saleem M., 2009), underlining the economic case for biodiversity
conservation. With marine biodiversity linked to the economic development of the country
managementofthebiologicaldiversityhasbecomeapriorityforthesustainabledevelopment
ofthecountry.
7.2 PressurestoBiodiversity
In terms of biodiversity over 1,100 species of demersal and epipelagic fish fauna including
sharkshavebeenrecordedinMaldivesandthenumberis likelytoexceed1500species(MRC
2003citedinMHE,2010).Additionally285speciesofmarinealgae(AhmedandSaleem,1999
citedinMHE2010),187speciesofcoralover400speciesofmollusks,over145speciesofcrabs,
48speciesofshrimpsand83speciesofechinodermsexists.(MHAHE,2002citedinMHE2010).
Intermsofterrestrialbiodiversity,TheGlobalForestResourcesAssessmentof2005estimated
the forest area of Maldives at 1000 ha, although the Agricultural Development Master Plan
(2006‐2020)oftheMaldivesestimatedtheforestareasbeing3716ha(P4SD,2011).Numberof
plants ranges from 583 vascular plant species out of which 323 are cultivated and 260 are
nativatedornaturalized.Theseplants include214 floweringplantsand5 fernsandover300
species may be used in traditional medicine (Adams 1984 cited in MHE, 2010).Terrestrial
mammalianfaunaoftheMaldivesis limitedandverylittleofthelocalterrestrial invertebrate
fauna are documented. Additionally 13 mangroves belonging to nine genera have been
identified(Appendix7.1).Associatedwithmangrovesare6speciesofplantsand37speciesof
fungi.(UtawaleandJagtap1991,citedinMHE,2010).
Thepressuresandthreatsonbiodiversityhavebeeninexistenceoverlongperiodsoftimeand
will continue fordecades to come.Thechallenge is thedifficult tradeoffs in findingabalance
between economic growth, social equity and conservation of environment. Maldives has
undergone unprecedented social and economic change over the years which have provided
impetus for environmental degradation. The socio‐economic forces and circumstances create
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incentives for more activities that put pressure on the biodiversity. Today with increase in
population and increase in wealth from tourism and other economic activities the pace of
development is increasing at a significant rate in the country. The need for land led to
reclamationprograms,whileharborsaredredgedtofacilitateeconomicgrowthinislands.The
localized environmental impacts as a result of these developments have threatened the
biodiversity. Moreover awareness regarding the importance of biodiversity and the issues
associated with the loss of biodiversity is lacking (p 39, MEEW, 2007). Loss of biodiversity
coupledwithperilsfromtheadverseeffectsofclimatechangetoasmallnationdependenton
almost entirely on its coastalmarine resources is daunting. There are perhaps few countries
thatareatgreaterperilfromtheadverseeffectsofclimatechangeandlossofbiodiversitythan
theMaldives.
7.2.1 PressurestoMarineBiodiversity
Pressures to marine diversity include extraction of
branched coral and sand, over fishing of reef species
and reoccurring of coral bleaching events. The
negative effects of these pressures continue while
attempts to minimize the pressures and impacts
continue through laws, regulations and awareness
programs.
7.2.1.1Demandforcoral,sandandbranchedcoral
The demand for coral and sand mining became a major environmental concern in 1990.
HistoricallyMaldivianshaveminedcoralforpurposessuchasbuilding,makinglime,ormaking
religious structures. However, coral mining reached a critical status with a boom in the
constructionindustrysince1970s. Directgovernmentinterventioninregulatingcoralmining
commencedin1990,withabanonminingcoralfromanyhouse‐reef,followedbydesignating
particular areas for sand and coral mining by May 1992. With the regulation in place
government increased awareness and provided alternatives stipulating the use of hollow
cementblocksinsteadofcoralinallgovernmentbuildings.Small‐scaleoperationstobuildthese
blocks boomed to cater for increasing demand. Programs to increase the level of awareness
aboutthesignificanceofreefsforfisheriesandtourism,andtheirroleinthephysicalprotection
ofislands,helpedtoreducethedemandforcoralasabuildingmaterial.Positiveresultsinclude
coral blocks replacingmined coral for any building purposes inMale’, with declining trends
observedintheatolls.Atthesametime,sandminingfrominhabitedislandsalsodecreasedas
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island communities became aware of the negative impacts of sand mining.MOFA which
processes the application for sand mining from uninhabited islands reported that data for
demandforsandminingexistsbuthasnotbeencompiledfortheperiod2004‐2009.
Althoughdecliningtrendsareobservedinbranchedcoralandsandmining,onmanyoccasions
illegalmining have been reported. Most of the outer islands in theMaldives having no easy
access to importedriversandandaggregatesand transporting thesecommodities fromMale’
region is expensive.Therefore, even though it is prohibited, islanders sometimes collect sand
fromtheirownbeaches.
7.2.1.2Demandforreeffish
With the introduction of tourism in the 70’s and the expansion and development of tourism
industry reef fishing became a commercial fishery in theMaldives. Reef fish varieties are in
demandforthetouristresortsandsomeofthereeffishvarietiesarealsoexported.Theexport
oriented species include giant clam, sea cucumber, groupers and aquarium fish. The
governmenthasbrought inrestrictionsonthefisheryasaresultofoverexploitation.Current
conservationandmanagementmeasuresinplaceinclude;
22marineproductsareprohibitedtoexport(Table7.1)
39areasaredeclaredasprotectedsites(Table7.2)
70birdsareprotectedbirdsofwhichsomeareimportanttothelocaltunafishery(Table
7.3)
12marinespecieshavebeendeclaredasprotectedspecies.(Table7.4)
SpecificdestructivefishingpracticesarealsobannedintheMaldivesandinclude:
Useofdynamiteorexplosives
Useofspeargunsandsuchdevisestocatchfish
Useofanychemicaltocollectorcatchfish
Useofscubageartocollectseacucumberandlobsters
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Baitfishes(usedforpole&linefishing)
Bouldercoral Dolphin MotherofpearlshellsRays
Bigeyescad(lessthan6inches)
Branchingcoral Eels Parrotfish Trochusshell
Blackcoral Conch(triton)shell Lobster Pufferfish Turtle
Blackcoralnecklaces Coral Lobstermeat Rayskin Turtleshellproducts
Turtleshells Whales
Angafaru EidhigaliKilhiandKoatteyArea
LankanThila MushimasmigiliThila
Hanifaru FusheeKandu KuredhuKanduolhi OrimasThila
SouthAriAtollMPA
FilitheyoKandu DhigaliHaa MayaaThila
Hithaadhoo Lhazikuraadi VilingiliThila GuraidhooKanduolhi
Olhugiri VattaruKandu FushivaruThila EmboodhooKanduolhi
Hurasdhoo Faruhuruvalhibeyru MiyaruKandu GulhifalhuMedhugaonnakohlavaanee
HuraaMangroveArea
KashibeyruThila KudarahThila DhekunuThilafalhugeMiyaruvan
KudaHaa Gaathugiri ThamburudhooThila MakunudhooKanduOlhi
Rasfariisland,lagoonandthesurroundingreef
B.Mendhoo B,Goidhoomarshyarea Maaharuvalhifaru
B,Bathala B.Mathifaruhuraa Corbinwreckarea
LocalName CommonName ScientificName
DhivehiKoveli AsianKoel Eudynamysscolopacea
DhivehiHoagulhaa Audubon'sShearwater Puffinusiherminieri
KalhuRaabondhi BlackBittern Dupetorflavicollis
NooMaakanaa BlackHeadedHeron Ardeamelanocephala
Table7.1:Listofmarineanimalsprohibitedforexport
Source:MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture,2011
Table7.2:ProtectedareasofMaldives
Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment,2011
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Raabondhi Black‐crownedNightHeron
Nycticoraxnycticorax
BoakalhuGohorukey Black‐HeadedGull Larusridibundus
Kirudhooni Black‐NapedTern Sternasumatrana
EshungaIlolhi Black‐TailedGodwit Limosalimosa
TheyravaaIlolhi Black‐WingedStilt Himantopushimantopus
Vaali BridledTern Sternaanaethetus
KalhuMaadhooni BrownBooby Sulaleucogaster
Maaranga BrownNoddy Anousstolidus
MiyaremuDhooni CaspianTern Sternacaspia
Iruvaihudhu CatlleEgret Bubulcusibis
MedhuraajjethereRaabondhi CentralMaldivianHeron Butoridesstriatusdidiiphillipsi
SalvaaDhooni CommonCoot Fulicaatra
ChonChonIlolhi CommonGreenshank Tringanebularia
OlhuvaluKanbili/KulheeKanbili CommonMoorhen Gallinulachloropusindics
AngotiBondana CommonRingedPlover Charadriushiaticula
Valla CommonTern Sternahirundo
Theyravaa/MoalhaLunbo CrabPlover Dromasardeola
BondanaIlolhi CurlewSandpiper Calidrisferruginea
DheyfaiyDhooni EurasianSpoonbill Platalealeucorodia
MaaHoagulhaa Flesh‐footedShearwater Puffinuscarneipes
RathuReyru FerruginousPochard Anthuanyroca
BoduGaadhooni GreatCrestedTern Sternabergii
Lagnaa GreaterEgret Casmerodiusalbus
KunburuReyru Garganey Anasquerquedula
Alaka GrayPlover Pluvialissquatarola
ValuBondana GreatSandPlover Charadriushiaticula
GudugudaaDhooni GreaterFlamingo Phoenicopterusruber
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BoduGaadhooni GreatCrestedTern Sternabergii
Maahoara GreatFrigatebird Fregataariel
KalhuBulhithunbi GlossyIbis Plegadisfalcinellus
KanifulhuDhooni Gull‐billedTern Gelochelidonnilotica
KurullaDhooni Housesparrow Passerdomesticus
OnnaIlolhi JackSnipe LymnocryptesMinimus
KiruBondana KentishPlover Charadriusalexandrinus
Hoara LesserFrigatebird Frigataminor
FunamaaDhushin LesserGoldenPlover Pluvialisdominica
KudaBondana LesserSandPlover Charadriusmongolus
AinmatheeGaadhooni LesserCrestedTern Sternabengalensis
DhivehiRaabondhi MaldivianLittleHeron Butoridesstriatusalbidulusi
HuvadhooRaabondhi MaldivianPondHeron Ardeolagrayiiphillipsi
DhivehiKanbili MaldivianWaterTern AmaurornisPhoenicurusmaldivus
FuredhdheIlolhi MarshSandpiper Tringastagnatilis
HudhumaaDhooni MaskBooby Suladactylatra
Reyru NorthernShoveler Anasclypeata
Rahmatheeforike NorthernHouseMartin Delichonurbica
Gohorukey Pallas’sGull Larusridibundus
DhanbuMaakanaa PurpleHeron Ardeapurpurea
BileymaaDhushin PacificGoldenPlover Pluvialisfulva
Rathafai RudyTurnstone Arenariainterpres
MushiFenfoahDhooni RedThroatedPipit Anthuscervinus
MaaDhooni Red‐ footedBooby Sulasula
Valla RoseateTern Sternadougallii
Beyndu SootyTern Sternafuscata
BondhuDhooni Saunder’sTern Sterna saundersi
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GirubaaDhooni Spot‐billedPelican Pelecanusphillippensis
DhonFenfoahdhooni TreePipit Anthustrivialis
KulheeKukulhu Watercock Gallicrexcinerea
BoduRaabondhi WesternReefEgret Egrettagularis
BoduHoagulhaa Wedged‐tailedShearwater Puffinuspacificus
KanduKanbaa Wilson’sStorm‐petrel Oceanitesoceanicus
Dondheeni WhiteTern Gygisalbamonte
DhandifulhuDhooni White‐tailedTropicbird Phaethinlepturus
Bulhithunbi Whimbrel Numeniusphaeopus
ValhoaDhooni WhiskeredTern Chlidonias hybridus
DhonRaabondhi YellowBittern Ixabrychussinensissinensis
FenfoahDhooni YellowWagtail Motacillaflava
Oneofthemajorsetbacksinimplementingtimelyenforcementmeasuresisthelackofdataon
abundanceanddistributionofreeffishes.ResearchundertakenbytheMarineResearchCentre
(MRC)in2008highlights,thereeffishexportindustryiswidespreadwiththecommonpractice
amongyellowfintunaexporterstoturntowardsreeffishduringtimesoflowyellowfincatches.
In2009reeffishcatches,recordedasothermarinefishes,totaledto20.9thousandmetrictons
andaccountsfor17.9percentofthetotalcatchof2009(MOFA,2010).Thisisconsideredtobe
anunderestimatewithknowncasesofnon‐reportingwithlargegeographicdistributionofthe
fishing communities. The statistics from customs agencies are useful to estimate catch but
timelyenforcementmeasuresaredifficulttomakeusingdataonexports.Generallyreeffishing
can be undertaken throughout Maldives with only restriction around resorts and marine
protectedareas.
ScientificName CommonName
Chelonioidea MarineTurtles
Antipatharia BlackCorals
Charoniatritonis Conch(triton)Shells
Elasmobranchii Sharks
Table7.3:ProtectedBirdsofMaldives
Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment,2011
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Cheilinusundulatus NapoleonWrasse
Delphinidae Dolphins
Tridacnidae GiantClams
Mysticeti,OdontocetiZiphiidae Whales
Whaleshark
Scleractinia StonyCoral
Pterioida PearlOysters
Nephropidae Lobsters(berriedfemalelobstersandthosesmallerthan25cmintotallength‐fromheadtotail)
a)SeaCucumber
Beche demer fishing started in 1986, at firstwith very low quantities. A huge increase has
brought exports to exceed 300 t/year since 1988. By government regulations SCUBA gear
cannotbeusedtocollectseacucumbers.Dataontheexportoftheseacucumbersfortheperiod
2004‐2009 reveal that over 470mt of sea cucumber in dried formwere exported. Live sea
cucumbers are also exported, which provides a considerable amount of income. (Table 7.5)
Maricultureof sea cucumber ison the increasewhichhas causeddamages to somereefsand
mangrove ecosystem. General environmental impacts associated with mariculture activities
includewastes from cage cultures, farm escapees and invasive, genetic pollution and disease
and parasite transfer and habitatmodification. According to the department of Planning, 10
maricultureprojectshavebeenapprovedbyNovember2011.
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Seacucumberdried(Qty)
182.06 116.53 87.87 84.01
Seacucumberdried(Rf)
31049.01 23,118.93 12,707.46 7891.33
SeacucumberliveQty(No’s)
50.00 10,000
SeacucumberliveValue(Rf)
0.32 7.3
Table7.4:MarinespeciesprotectedintheMaldives
Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment,2011
Table7.5:ExportofSeaCucumbers2004‐2009
Source:StatisticalYearBook,DepartmentofPlanning,2010
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0.00
50.00
100.00
150.00
200.00
250.00
300.00
350.00
400.00
450.00
500.00
0.00
5,000.00
10,000.00
15,000.00
20,000.00
25,000.00
30,000.00
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Qty(mts)
ValueRf(000)
Years
Value
Qty
b)GrouperFishery
Groupersbecameaprime target for export to theFarEasterncountries,particularly toHong
Kong in 1990. During times of low tuna catches, fishermen sometimes switch fisheries from
targeting tuna to catching groupers with the latter fishery being an alternative livelihood to
manyfishermenintheouterislands.By2004assessmentsbyMRCshowedthatgrouperswere
heavily fished with catch rates declining dramatically and nearly half of the catch being
immature. The culture of groupers in the Maldives was initiated by the MRC in 2005 as it
became obvious that if the fishery continued without strong management intervention the
groupersmaybecome"extinct"fromtheMaldives.MRCdemonstratedthatyounggroupersor
fingerlings may be cultured in floating cage systems, similar to what is being practiced in
MalaysiaandIndonesia.
In the absence of catch statistics the export figures are reviewed to understand the current
trend in the grouper fishery. The export statistics from 2004‐2009 reveal that groupers are
exportedliveandfrozenform(Fig7.1,Fig7.2).Theannualquantityexportedinchilledorfresh
formbetween2004to2009is253metrictonswithanannualvalueofRf16982thousand.The
quantity of groupers exported alive, accounts for over 95000 in numbers per year with an
annualvalueofoverRf95000thousandfortheperiod2004‐2009.
Fig7.1:‐ExportofFreshorchilledgrouper2004‐2009
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning2010
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0.00
2,000.00
4,000.00
6,000.00
8,000.00
10,000.00
12,000.00
0.00
20,000.00
40,000.00
60,000.00
80,000.00
100,000.00
120,000.00
140,000.00
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Value in
Rf 000
Numbers
Years
Qty
Value
c) Giant Clam
The giant clam fishery, which started in 1990, was short‐lived. Two species were exploited
(TridacnasquamosaandTridacnamaxima).Theexport‐orientedgiantclamfisherycametoa
stop a year later when the government banned the export of giant clam products. It was
believed that further fishing would lead to serious exhaustion of the stocks and localized
extinctionofclamsonsomereefs.(MRC,2008)
d)Sharkfishing
ConcernforthesurvivalofsharkspeciesintheMaldiveswasgrowingovertheyearswhichled
toatotalbanonallsharkfishingwithintheMaldivianwaterson15March.onJuly2011sharks
weredeclaredasprotectedspecies.
Sharkspecieshaveslowgrowth, latematurityand lowfecundityresulting inwidegeneration
gapsand lowregeneration rates in thepopulation.These factors render sharksvulnerable to
over‐exploitation.ThirtysevenspeciesofsharkshavebeenrecordedintheMaldives(Anderson
andAhmaed,1993,Adam,AndersonandMerret,1998).AndersonandAhmed(1993)estimated
directrevenueofUS$2.3millionfromdiversvisitingspecificsharkdivingsites in1992.They
furtherestimatedthattheaveragevalueofalivegreyreefsharkwasUS$3,300peryear,while
adeadgreyreefsharkwasestimated toprovideaone‐timevalueofUS$32 to the fishermen
Fig7.2:‐Exportoflivegrouper2004‐2009
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning2010
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(Anderson andAhmed, 1993). Revenue fromexport of sharkmeat and finswas estimated at
US$0.7millioninthesameyear.
Exportdata(table7.6)showsthatpriortotheban,sharkproductsincludingfreshandchilled
shark,frozenshark,andsalteddriedsharkfins,havebeenexported.
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Sharkfreshorchilled
Qty(mt)1.47 0.12 .0004
Value(Rf000
88.88 6,80 0.05
Sharkfrozen Qty(mt)86.17 76.41 3.17 1.32
Value(Rf000
289.8586 390.55 10.17 4.40
Sharksalteddried
Qty(mt)320.04 248.56 271.16 217.05 233.49 145.8
Value(Rf000
2,960.85 2,210.89 3,294.14 1,823.83 1893.65 1281.9
Sharkfins(frozen)
Qty(mt)37.42 29.90 4.20 3.51 0.17
Value(Rf000
1,224.05 712.43 57.12 15.80 21.50
Sharkfins(dried)
Qty(mt)19.86 13.26 11.98 11.03 8.87 8.6
Value(Rf000
7,055.76 6,931.87 2,412.03 1,358.79 871.23 734.2
Sharkfins(salteddried)
Qty(mt) 0.33 0.25 0.20
Value(Rf000
4.21 3.00 2.62
Sharkliveroil liters 5,780.50 469.00 900 6800
Rf(000) 311.97 62.68 138.78 908.8
Table.7.6:‐Quantityandvalueofsharkproductsexported2004‐2009–qtyandvalue
Source:‐StatisticalYearBook,DepartmentofPlanning,2010
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0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
0
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
300,000
350,000
400,000
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
ValueinRf000
Numbers
Year
e)AquariumFishery
ThemarineaquariumtradeofMaldivesstartedaround1979,withSriLanka.Europebecame
the major destination of this trade over the years. In 2007, there were seven registered
companies, trading approximately 140 species of fish and 5 species of invertebrates (MRC,
2008).From2004 to2009,annually300,000 fisheswereexportedwithanannualearningof
over Rf 7 million (Fig7.3). As a management measure, species based quota system was
introduced,basedonexportdatafromtheMaldivesCustomServices(MCS),knowledgeofthe
abundanceofeachspeciesandknowledgeofitstolerancetocaptivity.
Maldivesisapopulardestinationforsnorkelersanddiversandthecollectionofaquariumfish
could impact dive tourism. Presently, random checks of the fish exports are scheduled for
implementation following the introduction of a fish guide software. There are no specifically
designatedareasforcollectionofaquariumfishandcollectionmovedfromoneareatoanother
asstocksdeclined.Thispatternofresourceusemayactasindirecttimeareaclosuresandaidin
thereplenishmentoffishstocks.(MRC2008)
Fig7.3:‐Exportofaquariumfish2004‐2009
Source:StatisticalYearbook,DepartmentofNationalPlanning2010
StateoftheEnvironment2011
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f)Baitfishery
Bait fishingis integralpartofpoleandlinefishing. Someofthedetrimentaleffectstomarine
environment are caused by the use of powerful lights to collect live baitfish.When powerful
lightsareused, it is reported toattracta largenumberoforganisms including tiny fishother
thantheintended,andthesedieorareweakenedbythetimesufficientbaitfishiscollectedfor
eachfishingeffort.
7.2.2 Otherpressuresonmarinebiodiversity
Coralbleachingeventshaveaffectedthemarinebiodiversity.Maldiveshaspreviouslysuffered
boutsof coralbleaching (amongstothernatural causes)which causeddevastatingdamage to
reefsandtheirinhabitants.Thecoralbleachingeventsof1999reducedcoralcovertoameanof
2.1percentcomparedtothepre‐bleachinglevelof30‐40percent.Coralbleachingeventswere
alsoreportedin2010.
Otherpressuretomarinebiodiversityincludesdisposalofnonbiodegradablewastegenerated
fromimportedproductsonto thereefs,pollutionand intensiveuseofreefs forSCUBAdiving
andsnorkeling.Lossof coastalhabitatparticularly seagrassbeds,mangrovesandcoral reefs
areassociatedwithdredgingofharborsandlandreclamation.
7.3 Pressuresontheterrestrialbiodiversity
Pressures to terrestrial biodiversity are causedmainly by removal of vegetation, diseases to
plants caused by pests, and use of fertilizers and chemicals. The negative effects of these
pressuresarecontinuouslymonitoredandminimizedthroughenforcementofregulationsand
awarenessprogramswhicharesetupunderthepoliciesandstrategiesofMHEandMOFA.
7.3.1 Removalofvegetation
Thevegetationinthelittoralzoneincludingthemangrovesandothervegetationhavebenefits
inactingasprotectionbeltsforcoastalprocesses. Thebenefitsashighlightedin theMaldives
NationalActionProgrammetoAddressLandDegradation, includespreventingsoilandbeach
erosion and reducing the implications of storms, mitigating the effects of salt spray, storm
surges,monsoonalwindsandtsunamidamage.(P4SD,2011).
Howeverinmanyislandsphysicalorurbandevelopmentisimplementedwithoutproperland
use plans and removal of vegetation to undertake development activities is on an increasing
trend.Housing, infrastructuredevelopmentandagricultureareall encroachingon the limited
vegetation areas, includingmangroves andpondareas. Land reclamation is also affecting the
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natural vegetationon the inhabited islands.According to theDNP2011,only22 islandshave
approvedlanduseplansatpresent.Reclamationsofislandlagoonsareundertakentocaterfor
thedemandforextralandrequiredfornewhousingandinfrastructureactivities.Intheabsence
ofdataonareasclearedofvegetation,availableindicatorsarereviewedtounderstandseverity
of the situation. Table 7.7 outlines some selected indicators on planned and existing
infrastructuredevelopmentofthecountryexcludingMaleurbanarea.
Existing planned
Airports 5 10
Transitairporthotels 9
Cityhotels 9
Resorts 98 18
Yachtmarinas 2
Agriculturalactivityislands 76
Fishingactivityislands 56
Considerable amounts ofwoodmaterials are being loggedon the inhabited islands.With the
actualloggedtreesnotknownavailableindicatorsarereviewedtounderstandthestatusofthe
severityofthesituation.Coconuttreesandotherwoodytreescontinuestobeloggedforhouse
construction and boat building. Table 7.8 to 7.10 indicates demand for timber shown from
quantity of trees logged from uninhabited islands. Over the period 2004‐2009, government
administrationsin13atollsapprovedapplicationstologonaverage200coconuttreesperyear.
Coconuttimberismostlyusedforconstructingpartsoffishingvessels.
2004 2005 2006 2008
Ha 4
Sh 20
N 88 127 0 5
R 8 10 0
B 83 0 10
Lh 0 3 0
Table.7.7:‐Someexistingandplannedeconomicandinfrastructuredevelopment(excludingMaleurbanearea‐2011
Source:‐DepartmentofNationalPlanning2011
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K 12 0 12
Adh 0 2 0
Dh 46 32 1 30
Th 10 6 10 81
L 84 47 0 164
Ga 20 6 0 0
Gdh 35 115 0 133
388 368 11 435
Atolls 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Ha 34 20
HDh 49
Sh 171
N 25 10793 91
R 87 6318 108 22 54 88
B 296 110 65 161 367
Lh 22 0
K 153 49 8
Aa
M 98
Dh 1
Th 7
L 25
Ga 32
Gn 53
649 17221 545 144 353 455
Table.7.8:‐DemandforCoconutTimber(innumbers)‐2004‐2009
Source:‐MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture,2011
Table.7.9:‐DemandforcoconuttimberinMt‐2004‐2009
Source:‐MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture,2011
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Othertypesofwoodytreesarealsologgedforbuildingpurposes(Table7.11).Almostallatolls
haverequestedtocutdowntreesfordifferentpurposes.
Atoll 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Ha 1076 270 1682 839 120
HDh 1596 0 2264 1931 300
Sh 3097 20 6433 2969 1701 1975
N 7196 312 2747 2218 3535 200
R 5954 423 5862 1803 2445 1730
B 8819 715 3221 4214 4861 4492
Lh 1109 160 790 880 40
K 10072 406 9457 11967 1806 2346
Aa 3060 0 1642 200 450 1262
ADh 5000 60 2769 1812 1000 300
V 792 0 447 0 0 0
M 1420 0 1843 830 741
F 250 0 2168 877 514 200
Dh 838 50 1655 563 300
Th 2706 10 1204 2177 1451
L 0 0 2571 1124 400
Ga 755 0 15 30 103
Gdh 3000 151 623 57 788
S 130 0 800 790 58 583
Table.7.10:‐Demandforothertypesoftimberinnumbers‐2004‐2009
Source:‐MinistryofAgricultureandMarineResources,2011
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Localname CommonName BotanicalName
Uni NitPitcha GuettardaspeciosaL.
Midhili CountryAlmond TerminaliacatappaL
Dhigga SeaHibiscus HibiscustiliaceusL
Hirudhu Tuliptree Hibiscuspopulnea
Funa AlexandraLaurelWood CalophylluminophyllumL
Kinbi Seapoisontree BarringtoniaasiaticaL(Kurz)
Kaani SeaTrumpet CordiasubcordataLam
Kuredhi Ironwood Pemphisacidula
Nika Banyan FicusbenghalensisL.
Kandoo Smallleaforangemangrove BruguieracylindricalBl.
Kandhu Hernandia Hernandianymphaeifolia
Inthepastwoodwasextensivelyusedforcookingandwhilefirewoodisslowlybeingreplaced
bykeroseneandgasindomesticcooking,inpoorerislandssomehouseholdsstillusefirewood
forcookingasrevealedinFig7.4.
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
Firewood Oil Gas Others Not Stated
Number of households
Types of fuel used for cooking
Table.7.11:‐Commontypesofwoodytreesisusedfordifferentpurpose‐2011
Source:‐MinistryofAgricultureandMarineResources,2011
Fig7.4:‐Typesoffuelusedforcooking–Census2006
Source:‐DepartmentofPlanningandDevelopment,2011
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136 |P a g e
7.3.2 Invasivepestanddiseases
Maldives is particularly vulnerable to invasive pests and diseases as the island economy is
heavilydependentonimports.Theseimportsareusedformeetinglocaldemandaswellasthat
oftourismindustry.Todateithasbeenrecordedthatover50diseasescausingmicroorganisms
and53insectspeciesexistinthecountry(MOFA2011).Mostofthemicroorganismandinsects
arealienspecies.Datacollectedfromasampleof60islandsrevealsthatthemostcommonalien
specieswith the potential to become invasive can be noted as papayamealy bug, rhinoceros
beetle,mealybugs,scaleinsectsandcoconuthispidbeetle.
Pests and diseases affect agricultural productivity, in addition to causing negative impacts to
biodiversityandenvironment.Somepest invasionshave thepotential tobecome irreversible.
Currently the endemic species are highly threatened with increased degradation and
fragmentationofnaturalhabitatsduetodevelopmentactivities.Recordedeventsofoutbreaks
reveal that huge economic losses do occur due to insect and disease invasive species (Table
7.12).Furthermore,biologicalresourcesandtreeproductivityofthecountrymaybethreatened
by several serious invasive plant species, including Lantana camara,Mikaniamicrantha and
Mimosa diplotrich. Urgent measures to prevent further spread and to manage current
incursionshavebeenidentifiedasnecessary.
Pests Detailsofdamage
GypsyMoth Causesalotofnuisanceeachyearthroughsocialdamage
CoconutHispidBeetle CausedextensivedamageandlossoverUSD259,350betweenJune2000‐2003
RhinocerosBeetle Causesdamagetothecoconuttreesreducingyield
StemBorder Mangoandbreadfruittreesareattackedonacountrywidescale
CitrusCanker Thelocallimevarietiesarealmostwipedout
BananaWeevilborer Bananatreeswereaffectedin1990
Physillidinsect Affectswaterandroseappletreesreducingyield
Spiralingwhiteflyandwhitefly Commonnuisancepestofmanycrops
Papayamealybug Spreadingfastinallpapayagrowingislands
SootyMoldComplex Attachseveralspeciesofplantsincludingmango,guava,bananaandcitrusvarieties
Anthracnose,fruitrotandvirusinfections Fungal,bacterialandviraldiseasesfrequentlycausehorticulturalcroploss
Table.7.12:‐Recordeddamagescausedbyalieninvasivepestsanddiseases‐2011
Source:‐MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture,2011
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InadditionagrowingconcernaboutbiodiversityofMaldivesincludesimportofbirdsandother
animalsaspets.Nostudyhasbeenundertakentounderstandthestatusortheeffectsofthem
onbiodiversityinthecountry.Generallyreleasedorescapedpetsmaysurviveinthewildand
canbecomeinvasive.Invasivealienspeciesdisturbthefunctionofecosystemandistheleading
threattobiodiversity.Dataonanimalsimportedintothecountryrevealsthat39differenttypes
ofbirds,71fishspecieshavebeenimportedintothecountryin2011(Appendix7.2)
7.3.3 Invasiveplantspecies
Ornamentalplantsarebeingimportedintothecountryatanincreasingrate.Althoughnoneof
theimportedplantsnotedasinvasivethethreatexists.PlantandAnimalQuarantineUnitunder
theMOFA control the import of plant disease and pets into theMaldives by sea and air. All
invasivespeciesdeterminedbyFAOareprohibitedimports.FromJanuarytoNovember2011it
isrecordedthat105typesofplantshavebeenimportedintothecountry(Appendix7.3)
7.3.4 Useoffertilizers,herbicidesandpesticides
Generally farmers lack awareness about pests and diseases, and the role of herbicides and
pesticides.Inaddition,theydonothaveadequateknowledgeontheapplicationofherbicides
andpesticidesincludingdosesandfrequencyofuse.Otherthanpestsanddiseases,growthof
weedsposesadditionalproblemstothefarmers.Theincreaseinweedsdegradesfarmlandsand
replaces natural vegetation which in turn prevents natural regeneration. As a result, the
demandanduseofpesticidesandherbicidesareincreasing.AcommonspeciesistheLantana
camara and grass sp. The grass sp is a rapidly spreading noxious perennial weed among
agricultural andnaturalvegetation.Herbicidesare frequentlyapplied forweeding inorder to
prevent economic losses arising from competition between agricultural crops and weeds.
Pesticideresiduesaredetrimentaltohumanhealthinadditiontocausingnegativeimpactson
biodiversityandenvironment.
Table7.13illustratestheincreaseinimportofpesticidesandherbicides.Theannualquantityof
fungicide imported isover2500kgsbetween2004‐2009.Similar is the trend for insecticides
imported which has gone beyond 2300kgs 147000 liters and 838000 numbers taken into
considerationthedifferenttypes.
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Typeofpesticide
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Fungicides Kgs 2146.5 1921.53 7221.08 1619.35 1478.6 2115.53
Ltr 202.13 385.2 308 343.6 512.2 662.15
HerbicidesandAlgaecides
Kgs 163.3 102 55.24 148 157.2 129.68
Lts 20.75 15.5 23.6 24
InsecticidesandPesticides
Kgs 37048.98 18738.25 48963.81 14870.48 18769.12
Ltr 82198.89 96584.82 283008 147491.5 109922.3 163713
Nos 795598 1611634 449425 1916474 140033 101877
Plantgrowthregulators
Kgs 500 380.6 30000 27.2 415.27
Ltr 4.8 12.45 40.6 248.6 19.6
Rodenticidesandsimilarproducts
Kgs 2132.1 5812.73 3346.57 4102.93 6953.06 3614.25
Nos 6056 1396 164 1002 1956 2516
Weedkiller Kgs 6.75 2
Increaseduseofpesticidesisassociatedwithincreaseintheriskofundesirablesideeffectson
humans, non target‐organisms and the physical environment. MOFA advises to follow the
guidelines written on the labels of pesticide containers. The use of inorganic fertilizers also
showsanincreasingtrendwith780mtoffertilizersbeingimportedintothecountry(Fig7.5).
Table.7.13:‐Importsofpesticides2004‐2010
Source:‐MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture,2011
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7.4 ConservationofBiologicalDiversity
A widespread recognition exists that conventional approaches have not been effective in
conserving thenaturalenvironmentandbiodiversity.Asa resultgovernmentofMaldiveshas
initiated declaring legally protected status to different areas and species in theMaldives. As
such, to date, Maldives has accorded protected status to 9 marine species, 39 sites and 70
species of birds. Giving status of legal protection to these areas and species requires
institutionalstrengthening,capacitybuilding,educationandawarenesstowardsenforcementof
guidelinesandmanagementofprotectedareas. Onemajorprogram,MaldivesProtectedArea
SystemProjectwasimplementedbetween2000‐2003,toaddresstherequirementsmentioned.
Ithasprovidedimportantlessonsdirectingthewayforward.
7.4.1 Protectedareamanagement
Recognizing the challenges in managing protected areas, the Government of Maldives, with
support fromGlobal Environmental Facility (GEF) andUnitedNationsDevelopment Program
(UNDP) is implementingBaaAtoll EcosystemConversation Project (AEC) project since 2003.
The aim is to design and demonstrate an effective management system for atoll ecosystem
conservationandsustainabledevelopmentonBaaAtoll.Theprojectwasformulatedtoprovide
the overall framework for sustainable development of the atoll and supports biodiversity
Fig.7.5:‐Importsoffertilizers2004‐2009
Source:‐StatisticalYearbook,DepartmentofNationalPlanning2010
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conservation and livelihood. The Baa Atoll Conservation Project (BACP) is the implementing
strategy for achieving biodiversity conservation with the purpose to design, test and
demonstrate a management system that will secure and sustain the rich biodiversity and
ecologicalprocessesoftheAtoll forthebenefitofthefuturegeneration.Theprogramisbeing
implementedasamodelwhichcanbereplicatedinotherpartsofthecountry.Undertheproject
BaaAtollisdeclaredasaUNESCOBiosphereReservein29June2011.
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7.5 Policiesandstrategies
Astrongcommitmenttotheprotectionandconservationofthebiodiversityisenshrinedinthe
constitutionoftheMaldivesratifiedinAugust2008.Clause22oftheconstitutionandarticle67
of the constitution highlights that the state and its citizens and the visitors should respect,
protectandconservethebiodiversityofMaldives.
TheEnvironmentProtectionandPreservationAct1993providesthelegal justificationforthe
protectionofthebiodiversity.OneofthemainpoliciesofMHEisensuringBiologicaldiversityis
sustainedformaximizationofecosystembenefits.Underthispolicybiodiversityconservation
measures are required to be incorporated in all national and sector policies. Under the law
marineprotectedareashighlightedasmarineaquariumsandactivitiesthataredetrimentalto
marineprotectedareasandprotectedspeciesandtheirhabitats,areprohibited.Bylawcutting
BiosphereReserve–BaaAtoll
Baa Atoll is famed for its richbiodiversitythat includes large mangroves and a
unique diversity of fauna. The ring‐shaped reef formsare areefstructurewhich is
uniquetotheMaldives.HanifaruBayisconsideredonethefewplacesintheworld
wherewhale sharkscongregate in to mate. The bay is also home to some of the
largestgatheringsofMantaraysworldwide.Onehundred individualsgather in the
smallinletwhenthetidepushesplanktonintothebay.RecentlysixareasofBaaatoll
were declared protected under law, while the already protected two areas were
extended.Mendhu,oneoftheuninhabitedislandsoftheatollanditshousereefare
amongtheprotectedareas.Severalotheruninhabitedislandssurroundingthearea
were also declared as protected. The other protected areas include, the marshy
swampinGoidhoo,Dhorukandu,MaahuruvalhiFaru including itssurroundingarea,
MathifaruhuraIsandincludinghousereef,BathalaahuraIslandincludinghousereef,
GaaganduhuraIsand including house reef and Vinanehfaruhura Island including
house reef.The surrounding area of the shipwreck of “Kobin,” the ship that ran
aground on Fulhadhoo in 1602 is also included in the list of protected areas.The
extended areas are Dhigalihaa area, protected since 1998, and the area around
HanifaruIsland,protectedsince2009.DhigaligiriandHanifaruweretheextensions
totheprotectedareas.
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downtrees,uprooting,diggingoutandexportoftreesandpalmsfromoneislandtoanotheris
prohibited.AlsoEnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)regulationwasformulatedin2007to
strengthen the EIA process and to ensure environmental and socio‐economic impacts
associatedwithnewdevelopmentsareaccountedforindecisionmaking.Moreover,biodiversity
consideration are incorporated in all the environmental plans documents including the
MaldivesNAPA2007,NEAP3,2009andtheForestryPolicies.TheMultilateralEnvironmental
TreatiesthatMaldiveshaveenteredinto,allcontributetowardsprotectionandpreservationof
theenvironment.
The MOFA is legally responsible for the management of all issues and activities relating to
marinelivingresourcesintheMaldives.TheFisheriesLawofMaldives(LawNo.5/87,24‐08‐
87) governs themanagement of all fisheries activities in theMaldives. Fisheries Regulations
(1997), notifications andwritten guidelines, drawn in conjunctionwith the Fisheries Law of
Maldives gives guiding principles for the management of fisheries and marine resources.
Specific destructive fishing practices are banned in theMaldives. Under the Fisheries Law of
Maldivesspecialareasorspeciescanbeprotectedfromexploitationorexportiftheneedarises.
The Fisheries Regulation gives details of protected marine species in the Maldives, from
exploitationand/orexport, Isalsopartof thestepstakenby thegovernmenttoconserveand
manage coral reefs and the marine environment in a sustainable manner. Biodiversity
considerations are incorporated in the regulation formulated for licensing of aquaculture as
well.
The agriculture sector's policies and programs and activities incorporates biodiversity
consideration. The Sanitary and Phytosanitary protocols that fall under the World Trade
Organisation Agreement stipulate that imports of agricultural products may be rejected if a
justifiable reason can be found. Under the regulation on import of live plants and plant
products importpermits andoriginal StatePhytosanitary certificate is required for importof
live plants. Any shipment without a valid original State Phytosanitary Certificate will be
detaineduntil furthernotice.Shipmentsmustnot includedriedparts inanyof the liveplants
and plant product or soil particles. The regulation requires notification 72 hrs prior to the
expected time of arrival of the consignment and the flight number to plant protection and
animal quarantine unit in Hulhule. Additionally, regulations for importation of live animals,
regulation onmining and utilization of coral sand and coral aggregates are important efforts
contributingtotheprotectionofbiodiversity.
GuidelinesonkeepingpetbirdsinMaldivesandpoultryquarantineinMaldivesalsoplaysarole
towards protection and preservation of the environment. To strengthen the legal framework
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bills on plant protection and pesticides have been drafted and are currently open to public
consultation. Theministry is also formulating a bill on agricultural land in order to create a
conduciveenvironment forsustainableagricultureand forestrydevelopment.Conservationof
island ecosystems through monitoring, surveillance, training and awareness are part of
strategies.Theprogramspromotingbiologicalcontrolofplantdiseasesandpestsalsoplaysa
majorroletowardsprotectionandpreservationofenvironment.
The MTAC has their respective policies and strategies targeted to the protection and
preservation of the biodiversity. The Tourism Act of Maldives 1995 provides the legal
framework with provision for Regulations on Protection and Conservation of Environment.
Regulations on scuba diving also instructs divers to take reasonable care to protect living
organismsand theirhabitats, avoiddamage to corals and avoidphysical contactwithmarine
animalsProtectedareas,astheirnamesuggests,aredeclaredtoprotectareasofthecoralreef
system,anditsresidentfishandotheranimals,andtomaintainreefsinapristinecondition.
ScientificName CommonName LocalName
Avicenniamarina Greymangrove Baru
Bruguieracylindrica Small‐leafedorangemangrove Kan’doo
Bruguieragymnorrhiza Large‐leafed mangrove, oriental
mangrove
BoduKan’doo,BoduVaki
Bruguierasexangula BoduVaki
Ceriopstagal Yellowmangrove Karamana
Excoecariaagallocha Blindingtree,riverpoisontree Thela
Heritieralittoralis Lookingglassmangrove Kaharuvahgas
Lumnitzeraracemosa Blackmangrove Burevi
Pemphisacidula Ironwood Kuredhi
Rizophoraapiculata Thakafathi
Rhizophoramucronata Ran’doo
Sonneratiacaseolaris Crabapplemangroveapple Kulhavah
Xylocarpusrumphii Cedermangrove Marugas
Appendix7.1MangrovespeciesidentifiedintheMaldives
Source:‐MinistryofHousingandEnvironment,2010
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Birds Fish Fish Poultry
AgapornisPersonatus StagonopleuraOculata OsphronemusGoramy AnasPlatyrhyncos
AgapornisPullarius TaeniopygiaGuttata OsteoglossumBicirrhosum CoturnixJaponica
AgapornisRoseicollis ZenaidaMacroura PangioMyersi GallusDomesticusAncona
AidemosyneModesta AmphiprionOcellaris ParacheirodonInnesi GallusDomesticusAustralorp
Alexendriae AmphiprionPercula PelvicachromisPulcher GallusDomesticusLegghorn
AmazonaAestiva ApteronotusAlbifrons PhractocephalusHemioliopterus
GallusDomesticusMinorcas
ArdeolaSpeciosa AstronotusOcellatus PlotosusLimbatus GallusDomesticusSussex
BarnadiusZonarius BarbonymusSchwanenfeldii PoeciliaLatipinna GallusGallusDomesticus
CallipeplaCalifornica BotiaMacracantha PoeciliaReticulata MelegrisGallopavo
ChrysolophusAmherstiae
ButisButis PoeciliaSphenops NumidaMeleagris
ChrysolophusPictus CalicoGoldfish PoeciliaVelifera Goats
ColumbaLivia CarassiusAuratus PseudochromisPaccagnellae CrossbredMalabar
ColumbaLiviaDomestica
CarassiusAuratusAuratus PseudomystusSiamensis
CoturnixChinensis CichlasomaCitrinellum PseudotropheusTropheops Insects and micro
organism
CoturnixDelegorguei CichlasomaMeeki PseudotropheusZebra Apiscerana
ErythuraCyaneovirens ClariasBatrachus PterophyllumScalare Eiseniafoetida
Haematenotus ColisaLalia PuntiusConchonius
LonchuraDomestica ColossomaBrachypomum PuntiusTetrazona Cats
LonchuraStriata ColossomaMacropomum ScarusCoeruleus European
LophuraNycthemera CyprinusCarpio ScleropagesJardini EuropeanShortHair
LouchuraLeucogastroides
DanioRerio ScleropagesLegendrei Siberian
MelopsittacusUndulatus
DevarioAequipinnatus SymphysodonAequifasciatus/SymphysodonHeckeli
Siamese‐Persian
NeochmiaModesta DimidiochromisCompressiceps SynchiropusSplendidus MaineCoon
NeochmiaPhaeton GarraCeylonensis TetraodonCutcutia Persian
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NeophemaSplendid GymnocorymbusTernetzi TetraodonFluviatilis MixedBreed
NeopsephotusBourki GyrinocheilusAymonieri ThorichthysMeeki
NymphicusHollandicus
HelostomaTemminckii TrachemysScripta Rabbits
PavoCristatus HemichromisBimaculatus TrichogasterLeeri Leporidaecuniculas
PeophilaAcuticauda HemigrammusRhodostomus TrichogasterTrichopterus
PlatycercusElegans HypostomusPlecostomus XiphophorusHelleri
PlatycercusEximius KryptopterusCryptopterus XiphophorusMaculatus
PlatycercusIcterotis LabidochromisCaeruleus YasuhikotakiaModesta
PoephilaActicauda MacrobrachiumRosenbergii
PoephilaBichenovii MacrognathusSiamensis
PoephilaPersonata MelanochromisAuratus
PolytlisAlexandrae MetriaclimaCallainos
PsephtusHeamatonotus
MetriaclimaEstherae
PsittaculaKrameri MetriaclimaGreshakei
SerinusDomesticus MetynnisHypsauchen
ScientificName ScientificName
Aglaonema‘SilverQueen’ Echinodorusharbichspe.spotted
Aglaonemasimplex Echinodoruspar.’tropica’
Alternantherabettzickiana Echinodorussubalatus
Alternantheralilacina Echinodorusuruguayensis
Alternantherareineckii Egeriadensa
Alternantherasessilis Egerianajas
Alternantherasp.‘RedRound’ Eleocharisparvula
Amazonwithwood Eleocharisvivipara
Ammaniagracillis Eriocauloncinereum
AnubiasBarterivar.nana Hottoniainflata
Appendix7.2:BirdsandotheranimalsimportedJanuary–November2011
Source:‐MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture,2010
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Anubiaswithwood HygrophilaAngustifolia
Aponogetoncrispus Hygrophilacorymbosa
Aponogetonelongates Hygrophiladifformis
Aponogetonrigidifolius Hygrophilapolisperma
Aponogetonulvaceus Hygrophilasalicifolia
Bacopacaroliniana Hygrophilastricta
Bacopamyriophylloides Lilaeopsisnovaezealandiae
BettzickianaAurea Lilaeopsisnovaezelandiae
BettzickianaGreen Limnophilaaromatic
Bettzickianared Limnophilahippuroides
Blyxaaubertii Limnophilasessiliflora
Bolbitisheteroclite Limnophiliaheterophylla
Bolbitisheudelotii Lobeliacardinalis‘smallform’
Cabombaaquatic Ludwigiainclinata
Cabombacaroliniana Ludwigiaindianta
CabombaFurcata Ludwigiarepens
Cabombapiauhyensis Ludwigiasp
Cardaminepalaeformis Ludwigiastricta
Ceratophyllumdemersum Lysimachianummularia
Chlorophytumbichetii Mayacasellowiana
Cryptocorynebalansae Micranthemumumbrosum
Cryptocorynebechetti Microsoriumpteropus
Cryptocorynecordatacar.Siamensis Myriophyllummatogrossense(red)
Cryptocorynelucens Myriophyllumtuberculatum
Cryptocorynepetchii Nesdeaspecious
Cryptocorynepontederiifolia Nomaphilasiamensis
Cryptocorynespiralis Nupharjaponica
Cryptocorynetropica Nymphaeaspc.
Cryptocorynewendtii“green” Nymphaeaspecies“red”
Cryptocorynewendtii“red” Ophiogopon“Kyoto”
Cryptocorynewendtiigreen Ophiopogonjaponicas
Didiplisdiandra RotalaIndica
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Dracaenaderemensisstriped Rotalarotundifolia
Cryptocorynewendtiigreen Rotalarotundifolia“Red”
Dracaenasanderiana Rotalawallichii
Dracaenasanderiana‘variegatus Toninafluitans
Drecanamargineta Trapanatans
Drecanamarginetaver. Trichomanesjavanicum
EchinodorusAmazonicus VallisneriaAmericana
Echinodorusargentinensis Vallisneriaasiatica
EchinodorusBleheri Vallisneriagigantean
Echinodoruscordifolius Vallisneriaspiralis
Echinodorusdekumbens Vallisneriatorta
Appendix7.3:PlantsimportedintothecountryJanuary–November2011
Source:‐MinistryofHousingandEnvironment,2010
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8. Chemicalandtoxicology
8.1 Introduction
In Maldives a trend of increase in imports of chemicals is noted by concerned authorities,
highlighting that the country is faced with wide ranging issues pertaining to chemical
management. The capacity to study and analyse the situation is limited with no baseline
information established, to determine whether chemical usage within the country is an
emerging health issue. Statistics pertaining to the chemicals imported into the country is
unavailable, although prior permission from the Ministry of Defense and National Security
(MODNS)isrequiredbeforeimportingchemicalsintothecountry.
Thegeneral scientific causeandeffectof chemicalsusageand toxicology states thatpotential
toxiceffectincreasesastheexposureincreasesandthatallchemicalswillexhibiteffectswhen
exposed to large doses. This aspect emphasizes that toxic potency of chemicals is ultimately
definedbytheamountofchemicalexposure.Generallytoxicityorharmfulactioninherentina
chemicalsubstanceoccurswhena livingbiologicalsystemcomesintocontactwithachemical
substance.Chemicalsenterthebodythroughfourmainrouteswhichisabsorptionthroughthe
respiratorysystem,skin,digestivetract,byeatingorsmoking,throughcontaminatedhandsor
contaminatedworkareasandabsorptionthroughsyringeneedleorbrokenglass.
Skin‐absorption may be a significant factor in the use of pesticides in Maldives. It is a well
known fact that in Maldives use of pesticides for agricultural purposes is common and
increasinginruralislandswhichisacauseforconcern.
Keyfindings
DevelopingahealthyandsafeenvironmentforthecitizensisapriorityundertheEnvironmentLaw,withprovisionsforenvironmentallysoundmanagementofhazardouswaste,chemicalsandoil.Existingconstraintspertainingtochemicalmanagementincludeslackofchemicaldatabase,trainedstaffandequipmentforchemicalmanagement.Theneedtostrengthenlawsandregulationspertainingtochemicalmanagementalsoexists.DraftPesticideActcurrentlyopenedupforpublicconsultationanddraftingofnewregulationundertheLawonImportationofProhibitedItemstotheMaldivesarenoteworthydevelopmentstowardschemicalmanagement.
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8.2 Chemicalusage
Chemicals, inanyform,arenotproducedinthecountry.However,recentrapiddevelopments
andurbanizationofthecountryhaveresultedinanincreaseintheimportanduseofchemicals
andrelatedcomponents.Intheabsenceofspecificdatabases,analysisofchemicalusageinthe
countryhastobebasedonlyinformationonimportsavailablefromMaldivesCustomsService
(MCS)whichshowsthatunderthebroadcategoryofChemicalsandRelatedIndustries,avariety
of chemicals are imported. The CIF value for these Chemicals and Related Industries are
published regularly in the Statistical Yearbook (Fig 8.1) which shows that the value has
increased over the years. This is a very crude indicator of imports of chemicals and a detail
studyofthequantitywithinthesecategoriesarerequiredtounderstandthestatusontrendsin
importsofspecificchemicals.
The broad category of imports of chemical and related industries are subdivided under the
harmonizedsystemintoanumberofgroupsasfollows:
Inorganicchemicals,organic/inorganiccompoundsofpreciousmetals,isotopes
Organicchemicals
Pharmaceuticalproducts
Fertilizers
Tanningordyingextracts,dyes,pigments,paintsandvarnishes,puttyandink
0
100000
200000
300000
400000
500000
600000
700000
800000
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Value in
Rf 000
Years
Fig8.1:‐CIFValueofChemicalsandrelatedindustriesimported2004‐2009
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2010
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Oilsandresinoids,andperfumery,cosmeticortoiletpreparations
Soaps,detergentsandcleaners,waxes,scouringproducts,candles,modelingpastesand
dentalwaxes
Albuminoidalsub,starches,gluesandenzymes
Explosivematchesandpyrotechnicproducts
Photographicorcinematographicgoods
Basedontheabovecategoriesthemainchemicalusagewithincountrycanbeclassifiedunder
thefollowingthreemaincategories
Chemicalsusedforagriculturalpurposes
Chemicalsusedforhealthpurposes
Chemicalsusedforhouseholdandindustrialpurposes.
8.2.1 Chemicalusedforagriculturalpurposes
Chemicals usage for agricultural purposes is largely based on the use of the pesticides for
controlofpestonagricultural crops,plantation treesandornamentals.Table8.1outlines the
pesticidesimportedforagriculturebypurposes,fortheperiod2004‐2009
(iirelevantphotograph)‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
Typeofpesticide
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Fungicides Kgs 2146.5 1921.53 7221.08 1619.35 1478.6 2115.53
Ltr 202.13 385.2 308 343.6 512.2 662.15
HerbicidesandAlgaecides
Kgs 163.3 102 55.24 148 157.2 129.68
Lts 20.75 15.5 23.6 24
InsecticidesandPesticides
Kgs 37048.98 18738.25 48963.81 14870.48 18769.12
Ltr 82198.89 96584.82 283008 147491.5 109922.3 163713
Nos 795598 1611634 449425 1916474 140033 101877
Plantgrowthregulators
Kgs 500 380.6 30000 27.2 415.27
Ltr 4.8 12.45 40.6 248.6 19.6
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Rodenticidesandsimilarproducts
Kgs 2132.1 5812.73 3346.57 4102.93 6953.06 3614.25
Nos 6056 1396 164 1002 1956 2516
Weedkiller Kgs 6.75 2
Astable8.1shows,underthebroadcategoryofpesticides,5typesofpesticidesare imported
intothecountry.Theyincludefungicides,insecticides,plantgrowthregulators,rodenticidesand
weed killers. It is noted that import of 3 types of pesticides is on the rise,while for the rest
quantityimportedvariedwithoutanysignificantdecreasingtrends,duringtheperiodbetween
2004and2009.
Typeofpesticide 2004 2009 Increaseinpercentage
Fungicides(Ltrs) 202.13 662.15 228
Insecticides(ltrs) 82,198.89 163,713 99
Rodenticides(ltrs) 21,32.1 3614.25 70
Withanincreasingtrend,causeforconcernarisesduetotheinadequaciesontheinstructions
onuseof andprecautions tobe taken in theapplicationofpesticides leading to gross abuse.
Basedondifferent assessments andobservations,MOFAhave identified several inadequacies
with regard to the to theuseof pesticides for agricultural purposewhich are summarized in
table8.3
Table8.1outlinesthepesticideimportedforagriculturepurposesfortheperiod2004‐2009
Source:MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture,2010
Table8.2:Increaseinuseforpesticides
Source:MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture,2011
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Keyissues Details
Inadequacyinlabeling
Somelabelsinforeignlanguage
Someshopsevenrepackwiththeirownlabeling
Olderfarmersarenotabletoreadthelabels
Pesticideabuse RecommendedprotectivegearishardtofindandoftennotusedFarmersareunabletodistinguishplantdiseaseandplantpest
Frequentdosesareapplied
Preharvestintervalsnotknownandrespected
Sunkenwellusedforirrigationpurposesareusedtomixthepesticide
InadequacyinStoringanddisposal
Emptycontainersaresometimesburiedordisposedoffasgarbage
Inadequacyinregistrationprocess
Noregistrationprocess.
PermissiongrantedbyMoFAbasedonWHOofhazardousclass
Listnotupdatedinatimelymanner
Intheabsenceofthedatapertainingtouseofpesticidesinthecountry,informationfromMOFA
werereviewedtoanalysethesituationonuseofpesticideswithinthecountry.
Accordingto(Krantz,2007)areviewofthepesticidesthathadbeenapprovedbyMOFAduring
theperiodJanuary2006toMay2007revealedthat221differenttypesofpesticideshadbeen
imported, which included 19 types that falls into WHO Hazard Class I (extremely/highly
hazardous). The survey further showed that the list of imported products included many
products that arehighly toxic to fish and/or carryahigh riskof groundwater contamination.
Several of the imported products are known carcinogenics. Additionally according to Wulp,
Table8.3:Issuesrelatedtouseofpesticides
Source:MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture,2011
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(2009),briefsurveysconductedinshopsduringJuly2009foundtwoproductsthatfallinWHO
Hazard Class I: Methomyl and Monocrotophos. Both are now prohibited in Maldives. Large
proportionsof theproductson sale are “oldgeneration” generics that are relatively cheap to
buy, but tend to have higher social costs to health and environment. Many of the products
currentlyusedarenolongerpermittedintheEUandinprinciplecouldbesubstitutedbynewer
alternatives that are more selective and have lower human toxicity. Increasing overuse of
pesticidesanddisregardofpre‐harvestintervalsareobservedindicatingahighriskofpesticide
residues.
Todatenosignificantresidue testinghasbeenconductedand thedegreeofcontaminationof
fruit andvegetables remainsunknown.TheMaldivesFoodandDrugAuthority (MFDA)has a
laboratorythatisusedforconductingarangeoftestsincludingwaterquality,histamineinfish,
alcohol traces inbeverages, etc. Atpresent, routine tests forpesticide residueson fruits and
vegetables,arenotundertaken.
SupportisbeingreceivedfromUNDPandUNEPforactivitiestoraiseawarenessonthehazards
causedfromthemisuseandabuseofpesticides.InadditiontothetrainingprovidedbyMOFA
pesticidesellingoutletand6shopswhichsellagriculturalpesticidesprovidesomeinformation
on the safe useof pesticides. MOFAoutlet provides adviceon incidence of pests andproper
treatment,tothepeoplewhocometobuypesticides.Theoutletalsodisplaydifferenttypesof
pesticides,andprovideinformationonmosteffectiveorrelevantpesticidethatisrecommended
for farmer use. The collection included Actellic, Carbendazim, Carbofuran, Carbusulfan,
Chlorpyrifos,Cypermethrin,Deltamethrin+triazophos,Endosulfan,Fenthion,Fenvalverate,Fipronil
and Imidacloprid. Information sheetswritten in national languagehave beenprepared for all
pesticides on sale, emphasizing precautions to be taken in the handling and application of
pesticides, especially in the protection of eyes and skin. Shopswhich sell pesticides are also
requiredtoprovideinformationontheproperhandlinganduseofpesticides.
Themaindistributorofpesticidesinthecountryprovidescolorleafletswithtranslatedproduct
information,whichincludespicturesofthepestsforwhichtheproductisintended,dosagerates
fordifferentpest‐cropcombinations,andpre‐harvestintervals.Thecompanyprovidestraining
tofarmersontheagriculturalislands.Theirmainpesticideproductdistributedbythecompany
is Carbofuran (3% GR), which in the first half of 2009 accounted formore than 50% of the
volumeimported.OtherimportsareSulfur,Avermectin,Dimethoate,ProfenofosandMancozeb.
Thecompanyalsoimportssofterproductsandistryingtodeveloptheirmarket,butchangein
demandisslowasfarmersareaccustomedtotheolderproductlistedabove.
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8.2.2 Chemicalusedforhealthpurposes
TheCentre forCommunityHealthandDiseaseControl(CCHDC)functioningunderMinistryof
Health and Family (MOHAF).is responsible for public health vector control. Its policy is to
minimizetheuseofchemicalsanduseenvironmentalcontroloptionswherepossible.Themain
vectors that do require chemical control are mosquitoes transferring dengue fever and
Chikungunya virus. Chemical control of mosquito is applied when dengue cases increase,
typicallytwiceperyear.ControlinvolvesfogginginareasofMale’andVillingilliwithUltraLow
Volume (ULV) application in specific areas with high concentration of mosquito presence.
Overall, volumes used are modest. In the past, pesticides weresupplied fromWorld Health
Organisation(WHO),butatpresenttheCentreobtainsthemfromimportersinMale’.Pesticides
areappliedbystaffoftheMOHAFwhoreceivedbasictrainingandhaveaccesstothenecessary
protectivegear.Vectorcontrolat theresorts ismainlycarriedoutbyspecializedpest control
operatorswhobuy theirownpesticides. InMale’ thereareat least three companiesoffering
suchservices. Someoftheresortscontrolpestsontheirown.TheCCHDCusesMalathionand
Deltamethrinforitspublichealthrelatedactivities.
8.2.3 Chemicalsforhouseholduse
Householdpesticidesareusedforpestsanitationintouristresorts(mainlymosquito’s,rodents
and cockroaches). Otherpest control operations include activitiesundertakenby specialized
pestcontrolcompaniesandincludesprotectionofornamentalsfrompests.
Table8.4providesthesomeofthepesticidesimportedforhouseholdusefortheperiod2004‐
2009,ofwhichmanyoftheproductsshowsincreasingtrends.
Typeofpesticide 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Antiseptic,DisinfectingOrSterilizingSolution
Ltr 7350.8 7537.18 8879.99 18722.45 9404.62 25275.85
AntisepticCream Kgs 919.53 346.68
AntisepticCream,DettolCreamandGlovepower
Kgs 5195.44
MosquitoCoil No 878164 2020651 1046315 1764839 2277603 2649870
Mosquitocoilandmosquitorepellent
Kgs 38789.29 28898.9 473822.2 42295.31 19595.26 10922.71
Mosquitomat Nos
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Naphthalenemothballs
Kgs 28639.47
Detol Lts 35753.85 19957.11 35957.6 41487.95 46619.05 33239.32
DetolCreamandglovepowder
Kgs 133.26 444.86 1372.08
Disinfectant Kgs 5016.5 6763.28 5468.25 5960.19 3002.26 4145.37
Flytrapandcockroachtrap
No 8822 3500 13812 12834 12174 7099
Pesticides are used to control mosquitoes, rats, cockroaches, termites and ants. Pest control
servicesprovidersofferregularpestcontrolservicestotheresorts.Onecompanyprovidepest
control services for about 70 resorts and provides training and supplies to other resorts. In
some islands they have a permanently stationed staff. All pesticides for use on resorts are
suppliedthroughMale’andallimportsfollowtheestablishedapprovalprocedure.Accordingto
MFDA they receive about 12 requests per month, mainly from pest control companies and
resorts. InformationprovidedbyMFDAindicatedthatthetotalquantityapprovedduringthe
first half of 2009 was only 0.7mt. According to MFDA there are about 6 companies in the
Maldivesthatprovidepestcontrolservices.
8.2.4 Chemicalsforconstructionpurposes
Inadditiontothehouseholduse,chemicalsareanintegralpartofconstructionactivities.Data
onchemicalusedforconstructionpurposeisnotavailable.Generallyanumberofchemicalsare
usedintheconstructionprocess,inordertoprovidegreaterstability,durability,strength,and
luster to the structure. Several chemicals suchas adhesives, epoxyproducts, sealants, joinery
products, are commonly used for the purpose of construction. Construction workers handle
toxicsubstancesonadailybasis,usuallywithoutapparentimpactorinjury.
8.3 Disposalofchemicals
Chemical should not be disposed of by common means like other by‐products used in our
lives,and as such, a formal procedure is in place. The MDANS is formally responsible for
disposalofhazardouschemicals.ThisisdoneattheislandofTamburudhoo,whichisusedfor
militarytraining.
Table8.4:Someofthepesticidesimportedforhouseholduse2004‐2009
Source:MinistryFisheries,AgricultureandMarineResources,2011
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Household pesticides containers are often disposed of with the every‐day garbage. Empty
containers are buried or burned at the edge of the fields, or disposed of with the garbage.
Importing companies maintain small stocks that are turned‐over relatively fast and then
replenishedbynewimports. Newstockstypicallyareorderedevery1‐3months.TheCCHDC
stores its pesticideson thenearby islandof Thilafushi, the “industrial” islandwherewaste is
disposed
8.4 PoliciesandStrategies
TheGovernmentofMaldivesgiveshighprioritytodevelopahealthyandsafeenvironmentfor
the citizens. According to the SAP 2009‐2013 the government aims to ‘Ensure protection of
peopleandtheenvironmentfromhazardouswasteandchemicals.’Underthispolicytwomain
strategiesareoutlined.
Theyare:
Establish a National Chemical Information System and develop regulations and
guidelinesforsaferuse,handlinganddisposalofallchemicals.
InitiateaHazardousWasteCommunication(notificationandmovementsystem)tomeet
internationalsystems
Differentorganisationsworktowardstheprotectionofpeoplefromtheeffectshazardouswaste
andchemicals.TheEnvironmentandProtectionandPreservationofAct(Lawno4/93)ofMHE
has itsprovisionsonenvironmentally soundmanagementof hazardouswaste, chemicals and
oil. The MDNS is mandated by Law 4/75, Law on Importation of Prohibited Items to the
Maldives”toregulate,amongothers,theimportofdangerouschemicalsintothecountry.Article
5 of the Act states that all dangerous chemicals (except for fireworks) and acids and other
poisonous itemsproducedusing these chemicals can only be imported into the countrywith
writtenpermissionfromtheMDNSandinaccordancewithsuchrulesandregulationssetout
bytheMinistry.TheMinistryhasformulatedtherelevantRegulationstatedinArticle5,butitis
yet tobe implemented. Implementationhasbeendelayeddue to theunavailabilityof trained
staffandthenecessaryequipmentneededtocarryoutspecifictasksstatedintheregulation.
Control and Regulation of chemicals is split between different organizations. Pesticides are
regulated through the MOFA which process the request of imports of chemicals. Requests
typically contain the trade name, unit size and number of units. In several cases the active
ingredient and formulation are also provided. MOFA looks up the category of the product
(fertilizer, insecticide, fungicide,herbicide,etc)andattemptstofindtheactiveingredient if it
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hasnotbeenprovidedandarethencheckedagainstthelistofprohibitedpesticides.Products
thatarenotonlistgetapprovedandsendtotheMDNSforthefinalapproval.
TheAgriculturalMaster Plan 2006‐2012 also emphasizes on the regulation of pesticides and
statesthattheten‐pointactionplansuggestedfortheagriculturesectorintheNBSAPneedsto
be internalized and integrated in all agricultural development programmes andprojects. The
NBSAP action plan for agriculture encompasses a comprehensive array of actions including
minimal use of chemicals harmful to soil and soil organisms, adoption of Integrated Pest
Managementpractices,controllingthehandlinganduseofpesticides,andprovisionofadequate
institutionalandlegalframework.
MFDAalsoplayan important role inapprovalofpublichealthpesticides.The sameprinciple
appliedbytheMOFAisusedforpublichealthissues/medicalsector.MFDAusesapositivelist
forapprovalofpublichealthpesticides.Onlypesticidesonthepositivelistgetapproved.Ithas
aformatforrequestingapproval,whichcontainstheBrandname,Chemicalname,Quantityand
Intended Use. Information about the formulation and concentration is not requested. The
schemehasbeeninexistencesince2006.
Pharmaceuticals are under themandate of theMOHAF. ForODS, prior approval is necessary
fromMHE.TheMDNSapproves importationofpesticidesthathavebeengivenano‐objection
byMoFAorMFDA.
MaldivesisaPartytomanychemicalrelatedconventionsandagreementssuchastheMontreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Basel Convention on the Control of
TransboundaryMovementsofHazardousWastesandtheirDisposal,StockholmConventionon
PersistentOrganicPollutants,RotterdamConventiononthePriorInformedConsentProcedure
for certain hazardous chemicals and pesticidies in interntaional trade. The country is also a
member of the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety, Strategic Approach to
International Chemicals Management. The Maldives is also Party to the Convention on the
Prohibitionof theDevelopment,Production,StockpilinganduseofChemicalWeaponsandon
theirDestruction(CWC),withtheMDNSbeingtheNationalAuthority.TheMinistryiscurrently
workingondraftingabillonChemicalWeaponswithassistancefromOPCW.
Implementationandmonitoringofenvironmentallysoundmanagementofhazardouswasteand
chemicals has been a challenge toMaldives due to the lack of a chemical database or even a
baselineindicatingtheusageanddisposalofthesechemicals.Thelegalframeworkandtherules
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and regulation developed reveal the concept of precaution is recognized. Planned efforts
towardsstrengtheningthefoundationsofchemicalmanagementincludedraftbillonpesticides
which is currently for public consultation. ThisNational PesticideActwill be themajor legal
instrumenttoregulateimport,useanddisposealltypesofpesticideinthecountry.TheMDNS
also has formulated the relevant Regulation stated in Article 5, of the Law 4/75 “Law on
ImportationofProhibitedItemstotheMaldives”
The project formulated for the Strengthening Capacities for National Strategic Approach to
International Chemicals Management in Maldives also includes important components that
wouldstrengthenthechemicalmanagementwithinthecountry.Theproject includesplansto
assesslegal,institutional,administrativeandtechnicalaspectsofchemicalmanagementandthe
extentofchemicalavailabilityanduseinthecountrywithexistingcapacitiesandinadequacies.
Formulationofthenationalchemicalsmanagementdatabaseisalsoanimportantcomponentof
the project. These effortswhen implementedwill greatly improve the chemicalmanagement
withinthecountryprovidingamuchneededbaselineassistingadherencetothenationalaswell
internationalobligationstowardchemicalmanagement.
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9. Energy
9.1 Introduction
TheMaldiveshasannouncedplanstogreenitsenergysectoraspledgedundertheCopenhagen
Accordtobecomecarbonneutralby2020.Thegovernmentappointedataskforcetodeliberate
onthevariouspre‐requisitesandrequirementsforreducingenergysectorcarbonemissionsin
line with overall objective of carbon neutrality. A roadmap in the energy sector to reduce
dependenceonfossilfuelswasdevelopedwhichwasbuildon5keyareas.(Fig9.1)
Keyfindings:
Governmentisfocusedonmakingthecountrycarbonneutralby2020.Policymechanismdesignedtoaccelerateinvestmentinrenewableenergyincludeswaivingimportdutiesonsolarpanels,solarpanelbatteriesusedinmarinevessels,andonrenewableenergypoweredvehicles.
PowerPurchasingAgreementwithSTELCOandChinesecompanyhasbeensignedunderwhichawindfarmof20MWistobeestablishedtopowergreaterMaleregion.TheplanalsoincludesconnectingthegreaterMale’regionthroughsubmarinecabletoestablisharegionalpowergrid.
Otherimportantpolicymechanismsdesignedtoaccelerateinvestmentinrenewableenergyincludesopeningthesectortoforprivateinvestorsandintroducingfeed‐intariffmakingitmandatoryforutilitiescompaniestopurchasepowerfromindependentrenewableenergypowerproducers.
Fig9.1:‐Keyareasofinterventionforachievingcarbonneutralitybyyear2020
Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment,2011
Interventions
Renewable energy
Solar, wind and Biomass
Energy efficiencyCleaner
transportation
Waste
Management
Carbon
Sequestration
and Offsetting
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Thesemeasureswere announced in the faceof starkwarnings from scientists that rising sea
levelsevenbyonemetercouldengulf theMaldivesandother lowlyingnationsrenderingthe
islandsalmostentirelyuninhabitable.ForMaldivestobecomecarbonneutralbytheyear2020
the increasing demand for energy need to be reduced. Prerequisites and requirements for
reducingenergysectorcarbonemissioninlinewiththeoverallobjectiveofcarbonneutrality,is
to be determined with the formulation of the Carbon Neutral Master plan by 2012. The
Framework for Energy Investment in theMaldives was developed as a preparatory exercise
prior to start of the renewable energy investment plans. The Maldives 2009 Carbon Audit
Report(2010)estimatedincreaseinenergydemandat85%fortheMale’regionand77%for
theprovincesunderliningtheneedinvestinginrenewableenergy.
9.2 EnergySector
Theenergysectorofthecountryreliesonimportedfuelwhichconsistsofdieselfueloilusedfor
electricityproductionfollowedbypetrol,LPG,aviationfuelandkeroseneoil.Maldivesimports
allitsfuelsinrefinedformandinverysmallquantities,whichmakesfuelevenmoreexpensive.
The geography of the countrywith island scattered over vast distancemakes it difficult and
costlytotransportfueltothecommunities.Asfigure9.2illustratesyearlyconsumptionoffuelis
growingrapidly,resultinginincreaseintheproportionofforeignexchangespentonfossilfuels.
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
300000
350000
1990
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
000 Kwh
Years
Note:Datafromtheprovincialutilitycompaniesnotincludedintheyear2009
Fig9.2:Electricityproduction1990‐2009
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2010
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Maldives is a small nation consisting of 1192 islands out ofwhich inhabited remains at 194,
while another 97 islands are developed as tourist resorts, each of them having independent
electricpowergenerationsystemsandotherutilityinfrastructure.Theelectricityproductionis
decentralized and based on production units of various sizes. The State Electric Limited
Company(STELCO)provideselectricityto7islands,whileUtilityCompaniesprovideelectricity
totheotherislands.TheenergyusageofthecountrybyserviceprovidersisoutlinedinTable
9.1
UtilityCompanies Generationofelectricity
GWh %
STELCO 237 71
UpperNorthUtilitiesLtd 22.3 7
NorthUtilitiesLtd 19.4 6
CentralUtilitiesLtd 6.7 2
SouthCentralUtilitiesLtd 8 2
SouthUtilitiesLtd 29.8 9
UpperSouthUtilitiesLtd 10.6 3
Resortsindustries NA NA
Total 333.8 100
The total installedpower capacityof the7utility companies is equal to106.2MW.Themain
electricityproviderSTELCOhasan installedcapacityof61.98MWwith49.6MWinstalled in
the capital Male’. The power plants of STELCO are diesel operated. Without a complete
connectionbyagridsystemprivatelyowneddieselgeneratorsareoperatedintheresortsand
otherindustries.Thegenerationofelectricitybyprovincerevealsthat71percentofthepower
isgeneratedforthegreaterMale’area.MaldivesEnergyAuthorityestimatesthattheresortwith
theirdieselgeneratorswillbegenerating120GWh.
Table9.1:Theenergyusageofthecountrybyserviceproviders‐2009
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2010
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Thepowergenerationanddistributionsystemssetupintheislandsarecurrentlyintheprocess
of being integrated into the government utility companies. These utilities were previously
operated by Island Development Committees with the financial assistance from the
Government. Under the Asian Development Bank, Outer Islands Electrification Project
implementedfrom2005‐2010underwhichcommunitygeneratorswereinstalledinanumber
of islands. In term of electricity utilization it is estimated 47% is utilized for residential
purposes,35%formanufacturingandcommercialpurposesand16%forgovernmentbuildings
while2%accountspublicplacesandschools(Fig9.3)
9.3 RenewableEnergy
The threepotential renewableenergyresources in theMaldivesaresolar,windandbiomass.
Potential formarineenergy isbeing studiedand isyet tobedetermined. Initially renewable
energy technology applications in Maldives were limited to some applications of solar
photovoltaic cells in navigation lights and in outer island telecommunication systems.
Renewableenergywasused topowernavigational lights (marking thereefs), communication
transceivers on fishing boats and supply power for remote installations on the national
telecommunicationnetwork.Solarenergyisalsousedonasmallscaleforproducinghotwater
forhomesandinthetourismindustry.
47%
35%
16%
2%
Residential
Manufacturing and commercial
Government buildings
Public places and schools
Fig9.3:ElectricityUtilizationinMale2006‐2009
Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2010
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Afterunveilingtheplanofbecomingcarbonneutralbytheyear2020governmenthasfocused
onpolicymechanismdesignedtoaccelerateinvestmentinrenewableenergy.Importdutieson
solarpanels, solarpanel batteriesused inmarinevessels, andon renewable energypowered
vehicleswerewaived.Alsotheregionalutilitiescompaniesaretopurchaseelectricityproduced
by renewable energy companies to the STELCO’s grid. Due to the need for a specialist
governmentagencytodirecttheMaldivestowardsitsgoaltobecomecarbonneutralby2020
thegovernmentcreatedaRenewableEnergyInvestmentOffice(REIO)underMEA.Thepurpose
ofcreatingREIO is tocomeupwitheconomicsolutions to thecountry’senergyconcernsand
expedite implementation of these solutions. REIOwill assist government to draw investment
plans andproposals for foreignaid to facilitate investment and support in alternative energy
projects in Maldives. Other functions mandated include finding and applying appropriate
alternative energy solutions and assisting regional utilities companies in seeking investments
andcapacitybuildingintheareaofrenewableenergytechnologies.
Todayuse of renewable energy is encouraged andpromotedwith a number initiatives being
implemented.Theproject “Male’CleanEnergyPromotion” fundedunder thegrant aid from
JapaneseGovernmenthasinstalledsolarPVin5sitesinMale’withthetotalinstalledcapacity
being estimated at around 395 kW. This is the largest commercial scale renewable energy
investment program in the Maldives at present. Renewable energy is also used by the
telecommunication company of Maldives in 174 sites based on power generated from solar
panelsorsolar‐dieselhybridsystems.Thesitewhichhasthehighestgenerationofsolarpower
hasacapacityof3.5kWwhilethetotalcapacityapproximatesat130kW
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a)Solarenergy
Solardataforresourceassessmentsarelimited.MMScollectsthenumberofhoursofsunshine
andthetemperatureperdaybutnosolarenergyradiationdataiscollected.Powergeneration
potentialthroughphotovoltaicandsmallsolarthermalissignificant.Afeasibilityofusingsolar
energyproductionwasdeterminedusing satellitedata for three locations in southnorthand
centre of the country. The study revealed that solar radiation and daylight hours across the
countryarereasonablygoodwithlotsofsolarheatingandsolarpotential.Itwasfoundthatthe
potential is high as every squaremeter of available land area canprovide about 5 kWh/day.
Detailstudies forall inhabited islandsandresortsarebeingundertakentoestimate theexact
system configuration and investment options for each island. Work is ongoing with islands
being classified according to population size, demand and load pattern with sample islands
beingselectedforimplementationofpilotprojectsafterwhichitcouldbereplicatedintherest
ofislands.ThinadhoointheSouthandKDhifushiinthecentralregionareatpresentselectedas
sampleislandswithworkongoingatpresent.
b)WindEnergy
Available wind data is limited to records of wind speeds at various airports in the country.
Thesewindmeasurementsareat10metersabovetheground,andbecauseofthelowaltitude,
thesearenotrepresentativeofwindspeedsat thehigher levelsatwhichturbinesareusually
positioned. Measurements made by the US based National Renewable Energy Laboratories
have indicatedthatthe largestwindpotential inthecountry is inthe islands locatedbetween
4.5oand6oNlatitudes.Afeasibilitystudywasundertakentoassesspotentialnortherninhabited
islandsites,basedontheconsumptionanddemand. It is inferredthatwindcanbeutilized in
smallersizebecauseoftheirlowercutoffspeedandsmalldemandinislands.Alsoitisinferred
thatwindisslightlybetterattheNorthernRegionsthanincentralandsouthernregions.Work
onmeasuringthewindatvariousheightsisongoingatpresent
New developments towards harnessing wind energy includes signing an agreement with
STELCOwithXMECNewEnergyofChinatoproviderenewableenergyfor25yearsintheMale’
areawhich constitutesMale’, Hulhumale’, Villimale’ and industrial Thilafushi.The projectwill
provideupto20megawattsofelectricitytoSTELCO’sgrid.Undertheagreementthecompany
willgenerate50megawattsofwindenergyfortheMale’areaandaLiquefiedNaturalGas(LNG)
plant is to be built to provide 30megawatts of energy on windless days to prevent service
disruption.“TheenergyharnessedfromthewindturbinesandbackupLNGplantistobefedto
theSTELCOgridvia submarinecables connected toMale’ andHulhumale’,”XMEC is scouring
areasinMale’atolltolocatethewindturbinesandLNGplant.(www.haveeru.com)
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c)BiomassEnergy
In2003‐04abiomassstudywasundertakenwhichreportedthat the totalaccessiblebiomass
potentialresourceis20000toe.Forinvestmentdecisionatpresenttherecommendationisto
undertakeadetailstudytounderstandthedifferenttypesofbiomass.
It is importanttohighlightthatinthepast,biomassisthemainsourceofenergyfordomestic
purposes in most of the outer islands. Fuel wood is used for cooking and smoking of fish.
Biomass includesdrybranchesfromtreesandshrubs,coconuthusks,drycoconut leaves,and
coconutshells.However,withthedepletionofwoodresourcesandsubsequentrestrictionson
tree cutting, households have switched to kerosene and LPG for cooking instead of biomass
materials.
A source of biomass material is municipal solid waste. According to Municipality Waste
Management Section inMale’, the typical composition ofmunicipal solidwaste is paper and
cardboard (33%); kitchen waste (15%), and construction waste (industrial/scraps) (52%).
About15%oftheconstructionwasteiswood.DailysolidwastegenerationinMale’sisonthe
average 140 tons. Biodegradable waste (mainly foodwaste) is about 25 tons/day. The solid
waste is sorted prior to transporting to the island of Thilafushi. Only the biodegradable and
combustible materials (i.e., organic) are dumped in the pits. The combustible materials are
burned and the residue ashes (plus unburned matter) are dumped into the pit. Previously
Thilafushi was just a reef and now it has a reclaimed area of 100,000 square meters. Some
industriesnowexistintheareasuchasacementpackingplantandaLPGrefillingplant.South
AsianRegionalInitiativeforEnergyreportsthatLandfillgasfromtheareacanberecoveredand
utilizedforpowerandheatgenerationforusebytheindustrieslocatedinthearea.
The presently planned The Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Management Project at Thilafushi
IslandinMaldivestobeimplementedfrom2013‐2020hastheobjectiveofestablishingafacility
ofcapacity200TPDtotreatmunicipalsolidwasteatThilafushi islandinMaldives.Thewaste
processing&powergenerationfacilitieshavebeenidentifiedforavailingcarbonbenefitsunder
CleanDevelopmentMechanism(CDM).Thewasteshallbeprocessedusinginvesselcomposting
andgasification technologies. TheCDM is an arrangementunder theKyotoProtocol allowing
industrializedcountrieswithagreenhousegasreductioncommitmenttoinvestinprojectsthat
reduce emission in developing countries as an alternative to more expensive emission
reductionintheirowncountries.CDMallowsacountrywithanemission‐reductionoremission‐
limitation(GreenHousereduction)commitmenttoimplementanemission‐reductionprojectin
developingcountries.
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9.3.1 Barriersforrenewableenergydevelopment
Developmentofrenewableenergytechnologyrequiresidentifyingandaddressingtheexisting
barriers confronted by the energy sector. At the initial stage limited information on the
renewable resourcespotential in the country, isoneof themainconstraints.Presently,detail
information onpotentials of renewable energy technology is required to design, develop and
utilize clean energy. Lack of policies on the utilization of renewable energy, and inadequate
regulations and procedures to support development of renewable energy based projects, are
limitations. Such policies, regulations and procedures need to be developed confirming to
internationallyacceptedbestpracticesinordertoattractinvestorsandfinanciersforrenewable
energy technology projects. Limited capacity in the government to design, develop and
implement renewable energy programs is also identified as a major limitation. Limited
institutional mechanism to support widespread dissemination of renewable technologies, as
well as in the dissemination of knowledge and skills in the operation and maintenance of
renewablesystemsaresomeofthebarriersthathavebeenidentifiedinvariousstudies.
9.3.2 Effortstoencouragerenewableenergy
In 1999, The Renewable Energy TechnologyDevelopment and Application Project (RETDAP)
wasimplementedwhichestablishedsomebasisnecessaryforrenewableenergydevelopment.
Advocacyandawarenessraisingactivities,on‐the‐jobtraining,seminarsandstudytourswere
undertaken under the project. In addition, a detailed assessment ofwind, solar and biomass
resourceswascarriedout,followedbyin‐housetrainingofrelevantgovernmentofficialsanda
assessmentofleast‐costrenewableenergytechnologies.
The country's first energy supply and demand balance and Wind Energy Resource were
developedin2003.Thiswasfollowedbyanassessmentofthepotentialforutilizationofsolar
energyand landfillgas in2004anddevelopmentofEnergyBalancesand Indicators.Fund for
Renewable Energy System Applications (FRESA), a revolving fund, has been designed and
established and loans are being disbursed. At present four loans have been disbursed
amountingtoatotalofRf3.176.580.Theeffortstodevelopanalternativeenergycapabilityled
to the establishment on pilot basis, of solar‐diesel, solar‐wind‐diesel hybrid systems. These
wererelativelysmallsystemswhichintheirinitialstagefunctionedwell,buthighmaintenance
costandlackoflocaltechnicalcapacitycreatedmanychallenges.
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A feasibility study forapplicationofgridconnectedPhotovoltaicpowersystems inMale’ (the
capital)andHulhumale’(asatelliteisland)wascarriedoutin2009.Thestudyproposestoplace
PVpanelsonlargebuildingsinMale’andHulhumale’includingthePresident’sOffice.Thestudy
foundPVsystemstobeafeasibleoptionbuttheinitial investmentcostcouldbeprohibitively
highfortheindividuals(FeasibilitystudyforApplicationofgridconnectedPhotovoltaicpower
systemsinMale’andHulhumale’,2009).
In February 2010, preparatory work on introducing grid connected PV
systems was carried out. The work included study of technical
requirements for the grid connection and developing a Manual for
PhotovoltaicGridConnection(Grid‐connectedPVsystem in theMaldives,
March2010)
AsolarpowersystemwasinstalledinPresidentialResidence, Muleeaage
on7thOctober 2010.which is capable of generating11.5 kWof installed
peakoutput.This isexpectedtosavemorethan$300,000overthelifeof
thesystem.Sungevitydesignedthesystemremotelyfromitsheadquarters
in Oakland, California and trained local staff at Presidential Palace to
install,manage andmaintain the system. Sungevity is also conductingan
energy audit of thePresidential residence to identifyways to cut energy
wastage. Renewable energy installation best practice always includes an
energy audit, to identify immediate savings and cost‐effective energy
conservation
measures.
Source:http://www.presidencymaldives.gov.mv/
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Inaddition,governmentisalsopromotingPublic–Private‐Partnershipstodevelopandscaleup
renewable energy usage in Maldives. The formations of Utility Companies have facilitated
Public Private Partnership as national and international companies couldpartnerwith utility
companiestodevelopandimplementrenewableenergyprojectsinMaldives.(Table9.3)
Island Renewableenergysource Capacity
Adh.Mandhoo SolarDieselhybridsystem 12.8kWp PVpanels+108kWhbatterybank
R.Faninu Wind‐Solar‐dieselhybrid 5kWpsolar– 3.5kWwind
B.Goidhoo Wind‐Solar‐dieselhybrid 5kWpsolar– 3.5kWwind
L.Fonadhoo Solar‐dieselhybrid 5kWpSolar
L.Gan Solar‐dieselhybrid 10kWpSolar
HA.Uligamu Solar‐Wind‐diesel/LPGhybridsystem 45kWhybridmini‐gridsystemconsistsof:2.64kWpPV43.2kWWindTurbines
M.Raimandhoo Solar‐Wind‐Dieselhybrid 45kWhybridmini‐gridsystemconsistsof:2.64kWpPVArray+32.4kWwindturbines+Battery
GA.Kondey Solar‐Wind‐DieselHybrid 25kWhybridmini‐gridsystemconsistsof:5.28kWpPVArray+10.8kWwindturbines+BatteryBackup
SonevafushiResort SolarSystem 70Kwpsolararray
K.Girifushi WindSystem 2kWwindturbine
Muliaage SolarSystem 11.1kWpSolarPVGridConnectedSystem
TelecomApplication Solarhybrid Total258kWin174islands
Totalinstalledcapacity Solar:47.8kWpWind:93.4kW
Table9.2:ExistingRenewableenergyprojects
Source:MinistryHousingandEnvironment,2010
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Project Renewableenergysource Capacity
ProjectforCleanEnergyPromotioninMale
SolarPVgridsystem Totalof675kWtobeinstalled395kWofrooftopsolarPVgridconnectedsystembeinginstalledin5publicbuildingsandisexpectedtobecommissionedbyFebruary2011280kWinanother5publicbuildingsisplannedtobeinstalledbyendof2012
GridConnectedPVsystemsin6islands
SolarPVgridsystem Total448kWin6islands
SupplyofelectricityusingREforGreaterMaleRegion
SolarWindHybridsystem 20MWwind+15MWLNGhybridsystemthatwillsupplyenergytoMaleRegion
DhiffushiIsland SolarPVgridsystem 40kWgridconnectedsolarPVsystem
Additionally, Research and Development of Carbon Capture and Sequestration projects
targetingreductioninGHGemission,isatpresentatthedesignstage,withdatacollectionand
preparation of project documents. Corresponding efforts are made towards improving the
standards for energy conservation. Standards for power plants and vehicles have been
established in2009and in2010respectively. Inaddition, a studywascompiledonachieving
fuel conservation and efficiency in different modes of transportation. Incentive schemes are
plannedforestablishingchargingcenterstosupportincreaseuseofelectricvehiclesanduseof
alternative cleaner fuels on existing vehicles.Work is also planned to reduce the supply side
energy losses. Standards are to be prepared to reduce emissions from appliances, and
encouragevesselstousecleanfuels.EnergyusagewithGHGemissions,bydifferentsectorsand
statusofcarbonneutralityistobeestablished
In2011aframeworkforenergyefficiencywasformulatedwhichoutlinesrecommendationsfor
energyefficiency.Foursectorswerestudiedandrecommendationswereoutlinedforachieving
energy efficiency including a framework to regulate and monitor energy usage to promote
protection of the environment and human health. Planned actions include developing,
Table9.3:Ongoingrenewableenergyprojectsbeingimplementedinthecountry
Source:MinistryHousingandEnvironment,2011
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regulations to facilitatemarketdriven tariffsandcompetitionsencouraging formationof joint
venturestoproduceenergyfromrenewablesourcesandestablishregionalandinterconnected
submarines gridsGuidelines anddesign requirementshavebeendeveloped to ensure energy
efficiency in buildings. In future, buildings will be qualified and certified as energy efficient
building.
Astudyon4resortsoutlinedmeasuresthatcancutdowntheirgreenhousegasemissionby25
percent, and identified the need for detail assessments prior to making general
recommendationsapplicablefortourismsector.Useofdesalinationtechnologybasedonwaste
heatisalsoestimatedtosavearound850tonsofdieseloilperannuminMale',Hulhumale’and
Vilingili. Use of energy efficient equipments and appliances are recommended for the
households and public buildings. In addition, exhaust gases from electric generator sets are
knowntoproducelargeamountofheat(about700degreesCelsiusatfullload),whichisbeing
wastedpresently.Itisrecommendedthatthiswasteheattobeutilizedfordifferentpurposes.
9.3.3 PoliciesandStrategies
The SAP 2009‐2013, theNational Energy Policy 2009‐2013 andNational Energy Action Plan
2009‐2013 of the government provides the contextual background for energy policy of the
country.Electricity is abasic servicewhich thegovernmentplans toprovideat anaffordable
rate.Theproductionanddistributionofelectricityshouldnotcompromisehealthofpeopleand
theenvironment.
With climate change and its associated impacts looming, government targets to make the
countrycarbonneutralby2020andassuchpromotingrenewableenergytechnologyisamajor
intervention. Several activities initiated falls under programs planned for the period 2009‐
2013,andtable9.4showsprogressachieved.
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Strategy/Objective Actions/Program/Activities CurrentStatus
1.Accesstoaffordableandreliableelectricitysuppliesforall
1.Developandincreaseincentivesinformofgrantsandfinancingforpowersectordevelopment,2.Increaseprivatesectorparticipationindevelopingandmanagingsustainableelectricitysupplies3IncreasemorereliableandsafeREbasedelectricity4MaintainElectricityunitpricesinislands5.IncreasesubscriberstoRE‐basedelectricity
1.26loansdisbursedunderrevolvingfundestablishedatMOFT2.SixutilitycompaniesestablishedInitiateandfacilitateprivatesectorpartnershipwithutilitycompanies3.0.20%achievedby2009andcurrentstatustobemeasuredMaintainingaverageUnitpriceconstant(Tariff+surcharge).Currentlypossibilitiesforadoptingfeed‐intariffisbeingexplored0.2%~1%
2.Carbonneutralityachievedby2020
1Standardsestablishedforexhaustemissions,EEappliances,vehiclesandvesselsthatusecleanfuels2.Forecastsofenergyusagebydifferentsectors,GHGemissionsandstatusofcarbonneutralitydeveloped3ResearchandDevelopmentofCarbonCaptureandSequestrationprojectstargetingreductioninGHGemissionincreased4.Demandfordieselfueldecreased
1.Exhaustemissionstandardestablishedforpowerplantsandvehiclesin2009and2010respectively.Amonitoringmechanismwasalsoestablished.2.Energydemandandsupplystudycompletedfor2009,andenergyauditcompleted.Workingontheenergydemandandsupplystudyfor20103.ThedevelopmentofCCStechnology,DatacollectionProjectDocumentpreparationongoing4.‐3%
3.Costreductionthroughenergyefficiencyandenergyconservation
1.Studycompiledonallareasofimprovementstoachievefuelconservationandefficiencyindifferentmodesoftransportation2.Incentiveschemesdevelopedforestablishingchargingcenterstosupportincreaseduseofelectricvehicleanduseofalternatecleanerfuelsonexistingvehicles3.Supplysideenergylossesreduced4.Fuelimportcostreduced
1.Seatransportnetworkcompleted3.reducedtosomeextent4.8percent
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4.Nationalenergysecurityincreasedviadiversifiedenergysource
1.Indigenouslyavailablerenewablesourcesofenergydevelopedforuse,increased2.Studyconductedonenergydemandandsupplyatregional/provinciallevels3.RenewableEnergyCentreestablishedandcoursesonrenewableenergyintroducedinschoolandnationalcollegecurriculum4.Suppliersmandatedtoparticipateasstrategicpartnersinensuringtimely,qualityandquantityavailabilityofrequiredpetroleumproductsatselectedsupplycenters,increased5.Feasibleregionsopenedforfuelmarketforinvestors,increased6.CommunitiesgeneratingtheirownPowersuppliesfromhouseholdwasteandbiofuel,increased7.NonConventionalrenewableEnergy(biogas)installedcapacity,8.Electricityprovisionstohouseholdsthroughconventional/nonconventionalrenewableenergysuppliescreased
2.LocalEnergydemandandsupply20093.REcourseatFETandREkioskestablished4.Proposalstodevelopfuelstorage5.Proposaldeveloped8.Contractsigned,fundsapprovedInstall700kWSolarPV;REprojectatThinadhoo
5.InstitutionalandLegalframeworkoftheenergysector,strengthened
1.Frameworkstoregulateandmonitorenergyusagefocusedonprotectingtheenvironmentandhumanhealthestablished2.Regulationsdevelopedforfacilitatingmarketdriventariffs,competition,encouragingformationofJV,energyproductionfromrenewablesourcesandforestablishingregionalandinterconnectedsubmarinegrids3.Guidelinesanddesignrequirementsforensuringenergyefficiencyinbuildingdeveloped4.Buildingsqualifiedforcertificationasenergyefficient,increased
3.Energyauditsforbuildingscompleted
Table9.4:Policies,programsandstatus–energysector2011
Source:MinistryHousingandEnvironment,2011
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On May 24 2011 cabinet decided to establish specialist government agency, REIO identify
economic solutions to the country’s energy concerns and expedite implementation of these
solutions. REIO will assist the government to draw up investment plans and proposals for
foreignaidtofacilitateinvestmentsandsupportinalternativeenergyprojectsintheMaldives.
Other functions mandated to the REIO include finding and applying appropriate alternative
energysolutionsandassistingregionalutilitiescompaniesinseekinginvestmentsandcapacity
buildingintheareaofrenewableenergytechnologies.Theotherleadagencyresponsibleforthe
developmentoftheenergysectoristheClimateChangeandEnergyDepartment(CCED)ofthe
MHE.
Energybill isbeingdrafted forsubmission in theparliament.Theauthority is responsible for
approvingtariffproposedbyutilitycompanies. Italsoissues licensestopowerproducersand
regulatestheelectricitysectorandisalsoresponsibleforpreparingengineeringandregulatory
codesandorders.SomeofthesalientfunctionsperformedbyMEAare:
• Determine standards and operating the regulations for the administration and
monitoringofthepowersectorinaccordancewithgovernmentpolicyonenergy
• Develop the regulatory code and standards on the production and use of energy in
Maldiviancontext..
• Issue permits to the parties thatwish to provide electricity services and determine
guidelinesfortariffstructure.
TheAuthoritywas formed inApril2006replacing theMaldivesElectricityBoard.Shortageof
skilledpersonnel is hindering thedevelopment of energy sector.With technical and financial
capacity constraints confronting the sector, the government is relying on the support of the
internationalcommunity.MEAhasreceivedfundingfromWorldBankandAsianDevelopment
Banktostrengthenregulationsandtodevelopstandards.WorkisinitiatedtostartonJanuary
2010.
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10. PostTsunamiStatusofEnvironment
10.1 Introduction
Maldivesishighlyvulnerabletoclimatechangeanditsconsequences,whichwasprovenbythe
Asian Tsunami of 26 December 2004 in which 35% of the 198 inhabited islands were
categorized as high or very high impacted
islands. These islands experienced major
physical damage to infrastructure, crops and
natural vegetation. The damage to natural
vegetationandtotherestoftheenvironment
highlightedexistingthreats.
Thepre‐tsunamisituationoftheenvironment
oftheMaldivescanbeassessed,indetail,from
the State of the Environment Report 2004
(SOE2004),publishedjustaftertheTsunami.Thefollowingchapterwill,highlightsomeofthe
importantimpactsandrecovery.
10.2 Background
ThetsunamicauseddamageanddestructiononanationwidescaleintheMaldives.Eightytwo
peoplediedand26are stillmissingorpresumeddead.Overone‐thirdof thepopulationwas
directlyaffectedbythetsunami,andsome29,000peoplehadtoleavetheirhomes.Allbutnine
Keyfindings
Maldiveshascomealongwayinthetsunamirecoveryefforts
Allislandsareprovidedrainwatertanksafterthetsunamiand52islandshave
desalinationplantsthatcanbeusedinemergencies
Approximately66%oftheislandshaveIWMCsatvariousstagesofoperation
Effortsareunderwaytoinstallhealthysanitationsystems
Lackofcomparativedatamakeitdifficulttogaugerecoveryofcoastalareas
thatwereimpactedbytsunami
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inhabited islandswere either partially orwholly flooded. Seawallswere breached onmost
islands,causingsevereflooding,andinsomecasesislandsweresubmergedandremainedsofor
fewdays.Theeconomicdamageandlossesweretheequivalentof62percentofthecountry’s
GDP. Fifty three islands experienced severe damage to infrastructure and environment.
Floodingwiped out power plants, communication equipments, contaminatedwater supplies,
irrevocablydamagedjetties,harbors,causeways,agriculturallandandequipments,andfishing
vessels and equipment. The tsunami, thus, represented the worst natural disaster in the
country’shistory.
10.3 Pre‐TsunamiStatus
Lack of data compromises the information available for an accurate assessment of the
environment before the tsunami. However, from published reports, before and after, the
tsunamithefollowingcanbehighlighted.
10.3.1 Freshwatersupply
Male’ area (including Vilingili and Hulhumale’) water supply comprises of piped desalinated
water.Intheislands,watersupplycomprisesofcommunalandhouseholdrainwatertanksand
groundwater.SOE(2004)reportedthatpopulationanddevelopmentpressureshaveleadtoan
increasinggroundwaterextraction,resultinginthedepletionofthefreshwaterlens,whichin
turn, has led to salt water intrusion. Further, ground water is at risk from bacterial
contaminationcausedbyaffluentleakagefromsolidwasteandsewagefrompoorlyconstructed
andmaintainedseptictanks.
10.3.2 Sanitation
Sanitationinmostislandsconsistedofpour–flushlatrinesconnectedtoasewagesystemandto
alesserextentdefecatingtoholesmadewithinthehouseholdcompound.Indenselypopulated
islands, themaintenanceofseptictanks iscomplexwithabsenceor limiteddesludging.When
desludged,thematerialisdumpedintothebeachordirectlytosea.Inotherislands,smallbore
systemsusuallyconveyrawsewageintothelagoon.Inmanyislandsseptictanksareconnected
to a soak pit from which sewage migrate to the soil contaminating ground water. Sewage
treatmentinMaldiveswasnon‐existentexceptforresorts.
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10.3.3 Solidwaste
FormalsolidwastedisposalsystemsthatexistedbeforetheTsunamiwerelimitedtoThilafushi,
resortsandindustrialislands,KulhudhufushiandHithadoolandfillsites.Inotherislands,waste
was dumped to a designated area in the island or to the beach; some islands also practiced
regularburningofsolidwaste.
10.4 ImpactsofTsunami
The tsunami was perhaps the worst natural disaster in the known history of the country,
affecting the entire population. The worst impact was loss of family members, resulting in
psychological stress.Almost all facedhealth issues fromdamaged towater systems including
freshwaterwells,anddamagedtorainwaterharvestingequipments,compoundedbythespread
of the solidwaste throughout the islandswashedover and inundated.Other impacts, include
losses (both short and long term) to livelihoods, land and infrastructure. Damage to the
environment could not be easily addressed. Following the Tsunami, UNEP conducted an
environmentalassessmentinFebruary2005.Thisreporthighlightedthefollowing:
10.4.1 Freshwatersupplies
Groundwater lensweresignificantlyaffectedbysaltwater intrusiondirectly into theground
andthroughraisedsealevels.Insomecasesgroundwaterwasforcedupinthewellsandothers
were filledwith saltwater from flooding. In addition, as sewage systems (septic tanks)were
located close to wells, wells were contaminated. Post‐tsunami studies by the government,
reported that freshwater lenswas affected severely through pollutantmigration and sewage
contaminationofgroundwatersources(NRRP,2005).FurtherNRRP(2005)reportedthat the
duration for rehabilitation of the groundwater sourceswas uncertain. Rainwater harvesting
equipmentswerealsodamagedintheworstaffectedislands.
10.4.2 Solidwaste
Tsunami waste was categorized as hazardous waste,
vegetation,soil,sediment;municipalwastefromdump
sites,healthcarewaste,demolitionwaste,oil,leakage
from septic tanks and waste generated by relieve
operations. UNEP (2005) reported that tsunami
created approximately 290,000 cubic meters of
demolitionwasteandestimatedpre‐existingwasteto
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be about 50,000 cubic meters. Much of the waste was dispersed over the affected islands.
Dumpsiteswerecompletelywashedoverinsomeislands.
10.4.3 Sanitation
Extentofdamagetothesanitationsystemsaredirectlylinkedwithnumberofhouseholdsthat
needed repair and/ or reconstruction, which were estimated at approximately 50,000. The
number of septic tanks and associated connections lost to the Tsunamiwas estimated to be
1,500units,whilesmallboresewerandoutfalllossinhighlyaffectedareasneededreplacement
of126kmto2.4kmofoutfall.
Inadditiontotheabove,UNEP(2005)alsohighlightedthefollowing:
10.4.4 Islandvegetation
ADB‐UNJointAssessmentReportstated that thedamage to landandgroundwaterresources
resulted in severe negative impacts on vegetation of 35 agricultural islands and salt water
intrusionintothewaterlensresultedinbrowningofvegetationin112inhabitedislands.MOFA
estimatedthattsunamidamagedfieldcropsin2,103farms;destroyedbackyardcropsin11,678
homesteads and damagedmore than 700,000 fruit trees and 840,000 timber trees (ADB‐UN
2005).
10.4.5 CoastalLandForms
Very little baseline data existed in the Maldives before the Tsunami on coastal land forms.
Therefore,itwasdifficulttodeterminetheimpactoftheTsunamionthecoast.However,known
tsunamiimpactsincludedcompleteislandoverwashtoinundationofislands.Beacherosionof
theislandslocatedclosetotheeasternreefrimwerefoundbesignificantwhetherinhabitedor
otherwise. The tsunami appeared to have worsened chronic shoreline erosion problems in
many islands. In cases where islands were over washed, prominent scarps developed along
western sandy shorelines resulting in deposition of sediment westward into adjacent reef
flat/lagoon areas. Inside the islands, local scour around obstacles such as buildings, and
developmentofthin,patchysedimentdepositswerefound.
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10.4.6 CoastalVegetation
Ironically tsunami related impact on coastal
forest was due to clean‐up operations, which
causedsignificantdamagetocoastal forestona
number of inhabited islands by bulldozing
demolition debris and garbage into and over
thickets of vegetation along the coast. In
addition,becausenativespeciesaresalttolerant,
coastal forests were not affected much except
individual trees without much vegetation
around. In these cases, the treeswere found to
bepushedoveroruprooted.
10.5 Post‐TsunamiRecovery
Almost 7 years after the tsunami, recovery work has been almost finished for some of the
sectors. Communities impacted have revived their livelihoods. Reconstruction of houses and
settlements including redevelopment of public infrastructure are nearly completed. Both
educationandhealthsectorhaverecoveredfromtheimpacts.Informationonalltheseaspects
ofthetsunamirecoveryisavailable.However,informationontherecoveryoftheenvironment
islimited,intermsoftheircomparability.TherehavebeenreportspreparedincludingNAPAof
Action2007,NEAP2009,NSDS2008andvariousDisasterRiskAssessmentsformanyislands.
For a pre‐ and post tsunami status comparison are made with regard to the available
information.
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10.5.1 Freshwater
AftertheTsunami,governmentwithInternationalassistanceprovidedrainwaterstoragetanks
for all islands and desalination plants for some islands. The tables below show the potential
freshwateravailabilityintheatolls.
Atoll Totalstorage/Ltr) TotalRoofArea/m2
HaaAlif 9,600,264 155,671
HaaDhaalu 9,451,685 91,823
Shaviyani 4,339,900 93,944
Noonu 7,713,900 114,181
Raa 7,075,200 132,389
Baa 7,654,000 124,560
Lhaviyani 5,853,460 90,163
Kaafu 4,748,250 128,936
AlifAlif 1,658,800 35,673
AlifDhaalu 4,784,000 66,400
Vaavu 1,490,500 20,740
Meemu 3,673,200 50,031
Faafu 1,930,500 23,919
Dhaalu 2,917,500 40,778
Thaa 7,430,650 155,768
Laamu 6,251,000 174,871
GaafuAlif 6,339,500 359,352
GaafuDhaalu 2,712,800 30,544
Gnaviyani 8,271,000 224,226
Seenu 10,146,500 93,903
Table10.1:Statusofrainwaterharvestingcapability,2011
Source:AnAssessmentofRainwaterCatchmentandStorageCapacityintheMaldives,MHE2011
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Atoll Island PlantCapacity Status
HA Filladhoo 3Ton Notoperational
HA Dhidhdhoo 10Ton Notoperations
Hdh Kulhudhuhfushi NA Operational
Sh Komandoo 50/10Ton Operational
Sh Maroshi 10Ton Operational
Sh Funadhoo 20Ton Operational
N Holhudhoo 10Ton Operational
N Maafaru 10Ton NotOperational
N Velidhoo 10Ton Operational
N Manadhoo 10Ton Operational
R Meedhoo 10Ton NotOperational
R Maduvvari 10Ton NotOperational
R Alifushi 10Ton Operational
R Hulhudhuffaaru 10Ton Operational
R Ungoofaaru 10Ton NotOperational
B Goidhoo 10Ton NotOperational
B Thulhaadhoo 10Ton NotOperational
B Dharavandhoo 10Ton NotOperational
B Hithaadhoo 10Ton Operational
B Kendhoo 10Ton NotOperational
B Eydhafushi 10Ton Operational
Lh Naifaru 30Ton Operational
Lh Hinnavaru 30Ton Operational
K Maafushi 500Ton Operational
K Dhiffushi 10Ton NotOperational
K Guraidhoo 10Ton NotOperational
K Gaafaru 10Ton NotOperational
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K Thulusdhoo 10Ton NotOperational
Atoll Island PlantCapacity Operational
Adh Mahibadhoo 10Ton Operational
Adh Maamingili 30Ton NotOperational
V Keyodhoo 10Ton NotOperational
M Dhiggaru 10Ton NotOperational
M Muli 10Ton Operational
M Kolhufushi 10Ton NotOperational
F Nilandhoo 10Ton NotOperational
Dh Meedhoo 10Ton Operational
Dh Kudahuvadhoo 10Ton NotOperational
TH Buruni 10Ton Operational
TH Dhiyamigili 10Ton Operational
TH Guraidhoo 10Ton NotOperational
TH Madifushi 10Ton Operational
TH Veymandoo 10Ton NA
L Gan 240Ton Operational
L Isdhoo‐Kalaidhoo 10Ton Operational
L Maavah 10Ton NotOperational
GA Villingili 30Ton Operational
GA Dhaandhoo 10Ton Operational
GA Maamendhoo 10Ton NotOperational
GA Kolamaafushi 10Ton Operational
GDh Thinadhoo 160Ton Operational
GDh Gadhdhoo 10Ton Operational
Table10.2:Desalinationcapacityintheislands,2011
Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironmentnt,2011
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Foramoredetailedassessmentoffreshwatersituation,refertochapter4.
10.5.2 Solidwaste
Ingeneral,thereappeartobeaweaksysteminplaceforwastemanagement.Wastevolumehas
been increasingwith increasing population and development activities. There is however, a
lackofcorrespondingresponsesforeffectiveandadequatesolidwastemanagement.Thilafushi,
themainwastelandfillisawastedisposalfacility.
Thereissomerecyclingdoneatwastecollectionfacilities inMale’andThilafushi.Someofthe
recycled waste, mostly iron, are exported by private exporters. There are 134 IslandWaste
ManagementCentres(IWMCs)intheMaldives,coveringapproximately66%ofislandsbutmost
wereeitherneveroperationalornotoperationalanymore.Islandscontinuetodisposeoftheir
wasteinenvironmentallyunfriendlyandunhealthyways.
There isno formal system for collecting, treatinganddisposingofhazardouswaste,which is
currentlynotconsistentwithenvironmentalandpublichealthrequirements.Atpresent,efforts
to handle and dispose of hazardous waste are minimal, and the country lacks a secure
hazardouswastestorage,treatmentordisposalfacility.
Foramoredetailedassessmentofsolidwastesituation,pleaserefertochapter5.
10.5.3 Sanitation
Sewerage systems have been installed in 27 islands from2005 ‐2011 and during the period,
2009–2011(May2011)13seweragesystemshavebeencompleted indifferent islands.The
new systems consist of sewerage network for the whole island, with pump stations, sewage
treatment facilities and sea outfalls (MHE, 2011). Installation of proper sanitation systems
acrossthecountryisunderway.
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11. Environmentalgovernance
11.1 Introduction
Development in theMaldiveshas alwaysbeena challengedue to thedispersednatureof the
population.Smallislandswithpopulationdispersaltranslatedirectlyintoseverediseconomies
ofscaleinproduction,transportandprovisionofessentialinfrastructureandserviceswiththe
unit cost of schools, hospitals and other social infrastructure typically 4‐5 times higher than
those in continental developing countries. The country’s geography is unique even by the
exceptional standardsof small archipelagoes anddevelopment efforts are constraineddue to
this.
Atpresentthecountryisgoingthroughapoliticaltransitionwiththefirstdemocraticelections
held in November 2008. State level policies are being changed to adhere to a system of
democracy and better governance through decentralization. The country’s political transition
after30years ishavingaprofoundeffectonallsectorsand it isamajorchallengetoprovide
effectiveservices.WiththeDecentralizationActpassed,islandcouncilsandatollscouncilshave
been electedpavingway for decentralization. The political and institutional change, coupled
withvolatileexternaleconomicshocksandwiththedauntingenvironmentalproblemshave
resulted in new and challenging issues magnifying the existing internal socio‐economic
pressures. The ecologically fragile coral atolls with a population of over 300,000 people
Keyfindings
Environmentalgovernanceremainshighonthenationalagendaasthe
countryishighlysusceptibletotheeffectsofclimatechangewithrisingsea
levelsandcoastalerosion.
Bylawstateandthecivilsocietyhasanobligationtoprotectandpreservethe
environment.
Underenvironmentalgovernancetheroleandfunctionsofinternational
organizations,stateandcivilsocietyhavebecomeevermoreimportant
Fundingneedsforclimatechangeandadaptation,wasestimatedatUS$
175,890,345millionandwashighlightedintheMaldivesDonorConferenceof
2010
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scattered over 194 islands is economically dependent on fishing and tourism. Both of these
economicsectorsarefragileandvulnerabletoexternalfactorsandnaturaldisasters.
Maldives is recognizedasoneof themostvulnerablecountries in theworld in thecontextof
climatechangeandsealevelrise.Environmentalgovernanceremainsapriorityontheagenda
as thecountry ishighly susceptible to theeffectsof climatechangewith risingsea levelsand
coastalerosion.Theroleandfunctionsofinternationalorganizations,stateandcivilsocietyhas
become ever more important today. Conservation and protection of the environment is
essentialforsurvivalfortheMaldivesasthechallengesfacingthecountrydirectlyimpactsthe
people,economyandthesociety.
11.2 PoliciesandStrategies
TheStateandthecivilsocietyhaveanobligationtowardsprotectingtheenvironment.Article
22 of the Constitution of the Maldives states that it is a fundamental duty to protect and
preserve the natural environment of the country for the benefit of present and future
generations.TheStateistoundertakeandpromotedesirableeconomicandsocialgoalsthrough
ecologically balanced sustainable development. Article 67 of the constitution states that the
exerciseandenjoymentoffundamentalrightsandfreedomisinseparablefromtheperformance
of responsibilities andduties and that it is the responsibilityof every citizen topreserveand
protect the natural environment, biodiversity resources and beauty of the country and to
abstain from all forms of pollution and ecological degradation. Environment related issues
featurehighontheSAP2009‐2013andsectorpolicydocumentssuchastheNEAP3andNSDS
2009‐2013.
11.2.1StrategicActionPlan2009‐2014
AtthenationalleveldirectionstosustainabledevelopmentareoutlinedintheSAP2009‐2013.
Itcontainskeypoliciesandstrategiesrelatedtothedevelopmentofthecountryincludingthose
addressing environmental issues. The SAP 2009‐2013 recognizes the extraordinary
environmental challenges that Maldives is facing, especially climate change and SLR and its
associatedimpacts.AccordingtoSAP2009‐2013adaptationtoclimatechangeanddisasterrisk
mitigationandmanagementisapriorityofthegovernmentandit isbeingmainstreamedinto
policy making and programming in all sectors of development. The guiding principle of the
environmentpolicyoftheGovernmentistoviewthenaturalenvironmentasthekeytosocio‐
economicdevelopment.Itistoensureprovisionofthefundamentalservicessuchastherightto
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accesstosafedrinkingwaterandsanitationandsafedisposalofsolidwaste.(StrategicAction
Plan,2009,p390)
EnvironmentisaddressedinSAP2009‐2013underthethemeofEconomicDevelopmentwith
cross cutting sectors identified and addressed. Cross cutting sectors are Tourism, Fisheries,
Agriculture, Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs), Employment and human Resource
Development, Environment, Water and Sewerage Services, Energy, Land Reform,
Communication, Science and Technology Gender, Trade and Investment, Disaster Risk
Management, and National Security. Thus mainstreaming environmental protection into all
areasisrecognizedaskeyfocusinthecurrentplannedperiod.
Thegoalsoftheenvironmentalsectorincludesthefollowing
1.ManeuverMaldivesasacentralplayeronclimatechangeglobally.
2.Promotetherightsofallcitizensfromtheimpactsofclimatechange.
3.Protectandpreservethenaturalenvironmenttoensureprosperouseconomicdevelopment.
4.ReduceGHGemissionsandachievecarbonneutrality.
5. Minimize pollution for the development of healthy communities through proper waste
management.
6.Createpublicawarenessonenvironmentalvalues
The main challenges and constraints on ensuring environmental sustainability are also
identifiedasoneoftheweaknesswithinthelegislativeframeworkwithlackofamechanismto
assess and evaluate implementation of the environmental laws and regulations. Inefficient
utilizationof theexistingresourcesanddisparitiesbetweendonor fundsanddonee’ssectoral
needs isalsorecognizedasoneof theweaknesswithin thesectorwithpooraidcoordination
furtheraggravatingtheproblem.Poorinter/intrasectoralcommitmentandcoordinationwith
lackofacommonplatformfordatasharingorinformationdisseminationaremajorconstraints
limitingpropermanagementofthesector.Inaddition,lackofpublicawarenessonenvironment
friendlypracticesandinadequatefinancialresourceshindersthespeedyimplementationofthe
programsandstrategies.
11.2.2NationalEnvironmentActionPlan3
The environmental sector's actionplan is articulated in theNEAP and the sector is currently
guided by third action plan. The inception of the NEAP was in 1989 and it addressed
environmental planning andmanagement needs of the country and represented a combined
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approach to managing and solving the problems pertaining to the environment and
subsequentlyfindingwaysofovercomingtheseproblems.
TheaimoftheNEAPistoprotectandpreservetheenvironmentoftheMaldivesandsustainable
managementoftheresourcesforthecollectivebenefitandenjoymentofthepresentandfuture
generations.Theonusofaiding thegovernment tomaintainand improve theenvironmentof
the country falls within the ambit of the NEAP objectives. It is an expedient to make legal
provisioninordertomaintaincleanandhealthyenvironmentbyminimizingasfaraspossible,
adverseimpactslikelytobecausedfromenvironmentdegradation.
11.2.3NationalStrategyforSustainableDevelopment2009‐2013
In April 2009, environment sector formulated the Maldives NSDS 2009 as the national
document forsustainabledevelopmentwhich includes thegoalofachievingcarbonneutrality
by 2020. It outlines the approach to address climate change, environmental degradation and
resource constraints. The NSDS identifies specific goals, objectives and targets that the
stakeholdershavetoachieveanditincludesindicatorstoassessprogress.Sevenkeygoalsare:
Goal1:Adapttoclimatechange
Goal2:Protectcoralreefs
Goal3:Achievecarbonneutralityinenergy
Goal4:Ensurefoodsecurity
Goal5:Establishacarbonneutraltransportsystem
Goal6:Protectpublichealth
Goal7:Achievefullemploymentandensuresocialsecurity
Other sectoralpolicydocuments formulatedunder specific goals and the themeofprotection
andpreservationofenvironmentalareoutlinedintable11.1
Goal Policydocuments
AdapttoClimatechange
NAPA2007 FirstNationalCommunicationofMaldivestoUNFCCC
ProtectingBiodiversity
NAPA2007 NBSAP‐2010
AchievecarbonneutralityinEnergy
NationalEnergyPolicy ScienceandTechnologyMasterPlan
TechnologyNeedsAssessment
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Ensurefoodsecurity NAPA2007 AgricultureMasterPlan
CarbonNeutraltransportsystem
TransportMasterPlan MaleInternationalAirportMasterplan
AchievePublicHealthNAPA2007 HealthMasterPlan
Sustainabletourism TourismMasterPlan
DisasterManagementMaldivesStrategicNationalActionPlan(SNAP)forDisasterRiskReductionandClimateChangeAdaptation
11.3 Lawsandregulations
The Environment Protection and Preservation Act was passed in 1993 to protect the
environment. The Act provided the framework upon which regulations and policies can be
developedtoprotectandpreservethenaturalenvironmentandresourcesforthebenefitofthe
present and future generations. The Actwas passed to support and promote the protection,
enhancementandprudentuseoftheenvironmentwhilerecognizingthefollowinggoals
Maintainingenvironmentalprotectionisessentialtotheintegrityofecosystems,human
healthandsocio‐economicwellbeingofthesociety
Maintaintheprincipleofsustainabledevelopment,including
Theprincipleofecologicalvalue,ensuringthemaintenanceandrestorationofessential
ecologicalprocessesandpreservationandpreventionoflossofbiologicaldiversity
The precautionary principlewill be used in decisionmaking so thatwhere there are
several threats of serious irreversible damage the lack of full scientific evidence
certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent
environmentaldegradation
The principle of pollution prevention andwaste reduction as the foundation for long
termenvironmentalprotectionincluding,
theconservationandefficientuseofresources
The promotion, development and use of sustainable scientific and technological
innovationsandmanagementsystems
Table11.1:Goalsidentifiedtoprotectandpreservetheenvironmentwithcorrespondingsectoralpolicydocuments
Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment,2011
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Theimportanceofreducing,reusingrecycling
TheprincipleofsharedresponsibilityofallMaldivianstosustaintheenvironmentand
theeconomybothlocallyandgloballythroughindividualandgovernmentactions
The linkage between economic and environmental issues recognizing that long term
economicprosperitydependsuponsoundenvironmentalmanagementandrecognition
thateffectiveenvironmentalprotectiondependsonastrongeconomy
The comprehensive integrationof sustainabledevelopment principles inpublic policy
makinginthecountry
The polluter pay principle confirming the responsibility of anyone who creates an
adverseeffectontheenvironment to takeremedialactionandpay for thecostof that
action
Takingremedialactionandprovidingforrehabilitationtorestoreanadverselyaffected
areaforbeneficialuse
Governmentplayscatalystroleintheareaofenvironmentaleducation,environmental
emergencies, environmental research and the development of policies, standards,
objectivesandguidelinesandothermeasurestoprotecttheenvironment
Encourage the development and use of environmental technologies, innovations and
industries
Provide a responsive, effective, fair and timely and efficient administrative and regulatory
system,recognizingthatwhereverpractical, it isessential topromote, thepurposeof thisAct
primarily through non‐regulatory means such as cooperation, communication, education,
incentivesandpartnerships.
11.4 DisasterManagement
Akeydevelopmentwithin this periodhas been thedrafting of a bill addressingdisaster risk
reductionanddisastermanagement.Thebillwhenpassedintolawwillgrantlegalauthorityto
theactivitiesofNationalDisasterManagementCentre(NDMC)andsupporttheimplementation
of various policies and action plans developed to mitigate and address natural and
environmentaldisasters.
On8June2011,TheGovernmentendorsedthefirstStrategicNationalActionPlan(SNAP)that
integratesDisasterRiskReduction(DRR)andClimateChangeAdaptation(CCA).SNAPconcept
ispreparedinaccordancewiththenecessarystrategicplansandManifestoofthegovernment.
ThenewactionplanwhichplacesDRRandCCAinthedevelopmentplanningoftheMaldivesis
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a collaboration led by of the Government of Maldiveswith support from the United Nations
system in theMaldives and the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
(UNISDR). SNAP is guided by both the Hyogo Framework of Action, a global blueprint for
reducing disaster risks which was adopted in Kobe Japan in January 2005, as well as the
objectivesoftheUNFCCC.
With consultations with key sectors including housing, construction, environment, health,
education,media,developmentplanningandtourism,SNAPbuildsupon lessons learned from
past disasters. It promotes good governance, empowers local communities, builds resilience,
and promotes risk sensitive regional and local development. SNAP focus on aspects of
governance, and decentralization, as key for successful DRR and CCA.Maldives is one of the
SmallIslandsStatesthreatenedbysealevelriseandstormsurgeswithmorethan1,192coral
isletsthatlieonaveragejust1.5meters(4.8feet)abovesealevel.Awarmerseawilltranslate
intohigherwaterlevelsandwillconsiderablydamagecoral,onwhichtheislandsdependonfor
fishingandtourism.Disasterreductionactioncannowdelaythisinevitableeventbydecades.It
ishopedthatSNAPwillprovideshortandlong‐termstrategicdirectionandactiontoreducethe
risk of disasters and enhance climate change adaptation in the country. It will identify and
present priority programs and projects which the Government, together with partners, may
undertaketoattainthecountry'sDRRandCCAgoals.
NDMC and related government and international agencies have beenworking on addressing
disastermanagementissues.Someoftheprojectsbeingundertakeninclude:
DevelopingaDisasterRiskProfilefortheMaldives
StrengtheningtheInstitutionalandLegalSystemsforDisasterRiskManagement
ReviewofinstitutionalandlegalframeworkforDisasterRiskReductioninMaldives
DisasterManagementandEnvironmentforSustainableDevelopment
CapacityBuildingforCrisisPrevention&RecoveryinMaldives
Strengthening National and Communities’ Capacities for Effective Early Warning
DisseminationandResponses
DisasterRiskReduction(DRR)MainstreamingandDisasterManagementinSchools
DetailedIslandRiskAssessmentinMaldives
DesignSafeSheltersintheMaldives
DetailedCostBenefitAnalysisforRiskMitigationMeasuresinthreeSelected3islands
Procurement and Installation of Early Warning Systems (Automatic Weather
Observation, DopplerWeather Radar, Seismometer,Weather Data Integration System
etc).
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11.5 Roleofthemainstakeholders
Environmental governance requires all stakeholders including international organizations,
governmentinstitution,andcivilsocietytoplayanactiveroleinimplementingthepoliciesand
strategiesformulatedfortheprotectionandpreservationoftheenvironment.Thechallengefor
thegovernmentandthecivilsocietyisfindingabalancebetweeneconomicgrowthandsocial
equity and the conservation and protection of the environment. The Non Governmental
Organizations (NGO) have also progressed,with 700NGOs registered in the country, though
comparativelyfewareregularlyactive.LiveandLearnCountryOfficeintheMaldives,EcoCare
and Blue Peace are notable active NGO’s working towards promotion of greater awareness,
understandingandactiontowardhumanandenvironmentalsustainability.
Foracountrywhichhasembarkedondemocratic reformas recentas2008 thedemandsare
overwhelmingandcritical.Structuraladjustmentprogramhavebeeninitiatedwithatargetto
balance the budget by end of 2010. Key priorities such as social protection and human
development, strengthened infrastructure, efficient and effective delivery of decentralized
services,anddecentemploymentforallarehighontheagenda.
The present government's key pledges for the period 2009 ‐20012 are based on providing
nationwide transport system, affordable living costs, affordable housing, affordable quality
health care and prevention of narcotics abuse and trafficking. The priorities are targeted on
addressing,newand longstandingsocial issuesandnarrowingdown thedisparitiesbetween
the capital Male’ and the outer atolls, and as well as within the atolls themselves. Human
resource capacity constraint in delivering basic services has always been challenge.Maldives
graduated from Least Developed Country to middle‐income status in January 2011, which
entailsarangeofnewchallengesrelatedtoremovalofdevelopmentandtradepreferences.
Withsuchanambitiousdemocraticagendaattheforefront,majorcomponentsofenvironment
protection continue to rely on the international support. Table 11.3 and Fig 11.1, outlines,
national government’s allocated expenditure, for the environment sector. Lack of financial
resourceshindersproperimplementationoftheprogramsandstrategies.
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Particulars 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Totalexpenditure
TotalPublicservices 36.6 35.9 37.8 40.5 38.4 41.4
Publicservice–environmentalprotection
1.7 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2
Socialservices 53.4 49.5 44.4 45.4 50.2 49.5
Acriticalopportunityforsupportwasthedonorconferenceheldin2010.Theforumwasoneof
themostopportunemomentsforinternationaldonorstoassistthecountryinunderscoringits
commitments. Of the five priorities climate change and adaptation was a key area. Climate
change poses an existential threat to the Maldives. Funding for these major environmental
programmes is essential. The following table shows amount of financing sought by the
government, forpriority areas, for thenext threeyearswhich thegovernmenthopes to raise
fromtheinternationalcommunity.
Table11.2:Percentageshareofgovernment’senvironmentalprotectionexpenditurefrombudgets2007‐2011
Source:DepartmentNationalPlanning,2010
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Areas AmountinUS$
TotalAssistancerequested 447,463,904
Budgetsupport 45,000,000
Macroeconomicreform 38,352,877
Publicsectorreform 3.304.752
Socialdevelopment 168,742,702
Governance 14,706,797
Climatechangeandadaptation 175,890,345
‐Waterandsewerage ‐ 43,700,000
‐CoastalProtection ‐ 15,095,500
‐Alternativeenergyprotection ‐ 4,905,820
‐Integrationofcommunities ‐ 112,190,025
11.6 MaldivesintheInternationalArena
Maldivesgiveshighimportancetotakingpartintheinternationalagendaonenvironmentand
assuchMaldivesisamemberofmanyinternationalorganizations,internationalagreementand
treaties. Table 11.4 gives a list of environment related conventions, treaties and agreements
signedandratifiedbytheMaldives
DESCRIPTION
InternationalOrganization/Convention
DATE
Signed,Ratified,Acceded
ENVIRONMENTALGOVERNANCE
1.UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme 15.12.1972
2.SouthAsianCooperationonEnvironmentProgram 10/22/2006
3.SouthAsianAssociationforRegionalCooperation 08/5/1985
4.GlobalEnvironmentalFacility NA
Table11.3:FinancingGaps2010‐2013identifiedfortheMaldivesDonorConference2010
Source:MinistryFinanceandTreasury2010
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5.SouthAsianSeasProgramme NA
POLLUTIONANDCHEMICALS
6.BasalConventionontheControlofTransboundaryMovementofHazardousWasteandtheirDisposal‐22Mar1989,Basel
28.4.1992
7.RotterdamConventiononthePriorInformedConsentProcedureforCertainHazardousChemicalsandPesticidesinInternationalTrade‐10Sept1998,Rotterdam
17.10.2006
8.StockholmConventiononPersistentOrganicPollutants‐ 22May2001Stockhom 17.10.2006
9.Male’Declaration NA
10.IntergovernmentalForumonChemicalSafety NA
StrategicApproachtoInternationalChemicalsManagement SAICAM NA
BIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION
11.ConventiononBiologicalDiversity–5June1992,RiodeJaneiro 9.11.1992
AccessandBenefitSharing NA
SubsidiaryBodyonScientificTechnicalandTechnologicaladvice NA
12.CartagenaProtocolonBiosafetytotheConventiononBiologicalDiversity‐29Jan2000,Montreal
3.9.2002
BiosafetyClearingHouse NA
13.UnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertification,14Oct1994,Paris 3.9.2002
14.Mangroveforthefuture(MFF) NA
OZONELAYERPROTECTION
15.ViennaConventionoftheProtectionoftheOzoneLayer‐22March1985,Vienna 26.041988
MontrealProtocolonSubstancethatDepletestheOzoneLayer‐16September1987,Monteal
16.51986
AmendmenttotheMontrealProtocolonSubstancethatDepletestheOzoneLayer‐29June1990,London
AmendmenttotheMontrealProtocolonSubstancethatDepletestheOzoneLayer‐25November1992,Copenhagen
27.9.2001
AmendmenttotheMontrealProtocolonSubstancethatDepletestheOzoneLayer‐3December1999,Beijing
3.9.2000
CLIMATECHANGEANDENERGY
16.UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)–9May1992,NewYork
9.11.1992
KyotoProtocoltotheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange‐11Dec1997Kyoto
30.12.1998
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17.IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange NA
RELEVANTTOOTHERMINISTRIES
19.WorldHealthOrganization–22July1946NewYork 05.11.1965
20.FoodandAgricultureOrganization 8.11.71
21.UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea‐10Dec1982MontegoBay 7.9.2006
22.InternationalConventiononCivilLiabilityforOilPollutionDamage1969 12.9.1981
Protocol(of1976)totheInternationalConventiononCivilLiabilityforOilPollutionDamage1969
12.9.1981
Protocolof1992toamendInternationalConventiononCivilLiabilityforOilPollutionDamage1969
20.5.2005
23.InternationalConventionontheEstablishmentofanInternationalFundforCompensationforOilPollutionDamage
14.6.81
Protocolof1992toamendInternationalConventionontheEstablishmentofanInternationalFundforCompensationforOilPollutionDamage
20.5.2005
24.InternationalConventionfortheControlandManagementofShipsBallastwaterandSediments
22.6.2005
25.InternationalTreatyonPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture 2.3.2006
26.WMO/ESCAPPanelonTropicalCyclones 21.6.1982
27.UN/Ad‐HocCommitteeontheIndianOcean 8.1980
28.UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganisation(UNESCO) 18.7.1980
29.UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram(UNDP) 21.9.1965
30.UnitedNationsChildrensFund(UNICEF) 6.4.1971
Following is a brief description of the some of the treaties, conventions and agreement for
whichMaldivesisapartyto.
Table11.4:MaldivesInternationalOrganization Participation
Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment,2011
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11.6.1BiodiversityandConservation
a.ConventiononBiologicalDiversity
TheConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD)focusesonthefollowingobjectives.
Theconservationofbiologicaldiversity
Thesustainableuseofthecomponentsofbiologicaldiversity
The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic
resources
Under the convention the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) has been
formulatedoutliningthreegoals.Thegoalsareconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversity;
capacity building for biodiversity conservation through a strong governance framework and
improvedknowledgeandunderstanding;andcommunityparticipation,ownershipandsupport
for biodiversity conservation. On November 2010 Maldives released the Fourth National
BiodiversityReportonthestatus,trends,andthreatstobiodiversity.Inadditiontothestatus,
trendsandthreatstobiodiversity,thereportalsohighlightsthestatusofimplementationofthe
NBSAPintheMaldivesandthepresenteffortstomainstreambiodiversityinnational,sectoral
andcross‐sectoralplansofthecountry.
b.TheCartagenaProtocolonBiosafety
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the CBD is an international treaty governing the
movements of living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology from one
country toanother. Itwasadoptedon29 January2000asasupplementaryagreement to the
CBDandenteredintoforceon11September2003.
The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living
modifiedorganismthroughmodernbiotechnology.ThefirmcommitmentoftheMaldivestothe
developmentandsupportof thebiodiversitypolicyhaspavedway for the formulationof the
NationalBiosafetyFramework(NBF)forthecountryin2006.TheNBF,developedwithfinancial
assistance from theGEF, is the result of collaborative efforts undertakenby the ERC and the
UNEP.TheNBFwillenableMaldivestofulfillitsobligationsasaPartytotheCartagenaProtocol
onBiosafety,towhichtheMaldivesjoinedon2September2002.
c.MangrovesFortheFuture
Mangroves For the Future (MFF) is amulti‐agency,multi‐country initiative for the long‐term
conservation and sustainable management of coastal ecosystems such as mangroves, coral
reefs, wetlands, forests, lagoons, estuaries, beaches and sandy shores. MFF focuses on the
countries' worst‐affected by the Tsunami of 29 December 2004, namely, India, Indonesia,
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Maldives, Seychelles, Srilanka and Thailand. The initiative also covers other countries in the
regionthatfacesimilarissues.MFFusesmangrovesasaflagshipforecosystembutisinclusive
ofallcoastalecosystems.
MFF provides a collaborative platform among the many different agencies, sectors, and
countries who are working towards common goal of addressing challenges to coastal
ecosystemsandlivelihoodissues.ThecostsharingagreementbetweentheInternationalUnion
for Conservation of Nature and UNDP Maldives took place in 02 April 2009 for the
implementationofMFFactivitiesinMaldives.SincethentheMFFNationalStrategyandAction
Planhasbeenformulated.
d.UnitedNationConventiontoCombatDesertification
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is formed to
combatdesertificationandtomitigatetheeffectsofdroughtthroughnationalactionprograms
that incorporate long‐termstrategiessupportedby internationalcooperationandpartnership
arrangements.MaldivesaccededtotheUNCCDinSeptember2002.Majorprogramsorprojects
thatcontributetowardsUNCCDincludebuildingcapacityforSLMandmainstreamingSLMinto
thenationaldevelopmentframework.Inaddition,ministriesanddepartmentshaveundertaken
steps forSLMincludingdevelopmentof landpolicyandhave initiatedactivities toestablisha
LandInformationSystem.
11.6.2ClimateChange
a.UnitedNationsFrameworkonClimatechange
MaldivesbecamepartytotheUNFCCCon12thJune1992.Maldivescomesundernon‐Annex1
parties. The National Communication (NC) to UNFCCC is an important strategic tool to help
countriesaligntheirinterestsandprioritiestotheoverallgoalsoftheConvention.Thisisalso
theprincipalinstrumentforhighlightinganddisseminatingclimatechangeconcernstoawider
nationalaudience.ThemainelementsoftheNCareinformationregardingemissionsincluding
reductiononemissions,anddetailsoftheactivitiesthePartyhasundertakentoimplementthe
UNFCCC.ThefirstNCwassubmittedbytheMaldivesinNovember2001.Plansareunderwayto
formulate the project document required to finance the second NC to be submitted to the
UNFCCC.
Maldivesparticipatedinthe16thCOPmeetingheldinCancun,MexicoinDecember2010.This
two‐weekmeetingisthesixteenthConferenceofthe194PartiestotheUNFCCCandthesixth
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meeting of the 192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. By June 2011 Maldives formulated SNAP
guidedbyboththeHyogoFrameworkofAction,aswellastheobjectivesoftheUNFCCC.
b.KyotoProtocol
TheKyotoProtocol(KP)isaninternationalagreementlinkedtotheUNFCCandthemajorgoal
ofKyotoProtocol is tosetbindingtargetsto industrializedcountries forreducinggreenhouse
gas emissions. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto Japan on 11 December 1997 and
enteredintoforceon16thFebruary2005.UndertheKyotoProtocolcountriesmustmeettheir
targets primarily through national measures but offers additional means of meeting their
targets by of way of three market based mechanism including Trading Emissions, Clean
DevelopmentMechanismsandJointImplementation.
In recognition of the possible negative impacts of climate change, sea level rise and
environmental degradation, Maldives played a key role along with Alliance of Small Island
StatesinthenegotiationsleadingtotheKyotoProtocolandbecamethefirstcountrytosignthe
KyotoProtocolon16March1998
11.6.3OzoneLayerProtection
a.ViennaConventionandMontrealProtocol
TheMontrealProtocolonSubstancesThatDeplete theOzoneLayerisdesigned toprotect the
ozonelayerbyphasingouttheproductionofnumeroussubstancesbelievedtoberesponsible
forozonedepletion.Dueto itswidespreadadoptionandimplementation ithasbeenhailedas
anexampleofexceptionalinternationalco‐operation.
MaldiveshastakenvariousstepstoregulateODStocomplywithobligationsundertheMontreal
Protocol. Maldives was able to meet phase‐out targets in advance to schedule applicable to
MaldivesthroughtheRefrigerantManagementPlanandTerminalPhase‐outPlan.InApril2010
HCFC Phase‐out Management Plan was prepared to phase out the HCFC in line with the
commitments.Theplanistophase‐outalluseofHCFCsby2020.
UndertheMontrealProtocolonSubstancethatDepletetheOzoneLayerMaldiveshasprepared
the Country Program in 1993 which was approved by the 10th Meeting of the Executive
Committee. From March 1994 onwards Maldives has implemented six phases of the
Institutional Strengthening program. To phase outODS, primarily CFC’s training program for
refrigeration and air conditioning firms, technicians, customs and enforcement officers,were
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conductedinthelasttenyears.Inaddition,awarenessandinformationoutreachandtechnical
assistanceprojectsforphasing–outODSwithenduserswerecarriedout.
11.6.4PollutionandChemicalrelated
a.BasalConvention
A central goal of the Basel Convention is to protect human health and the environment by
minimizing hazardous waste production through an “integrated life‐cycle approach”, which
involves strong controls from the generation of a hazardous waste to its storage, transport,
treatment,reuse,recycling,recoveryandfinaldisposal.InMaldiveshazardouswasteisdefined
asanywaste that isharmful tohumanhealthandenvironment.By lawdisposalofhazardous
wastewithin the territory ofMaldives is prohibitedwhile no restriction have beenmade on
exportofhazardouswastes.Maldivesrestrictstheimportofhazardouswasteandotherwastes
through Lawno4.93. Strengthening the reduction and elimination ofwaste through national
policiesandstrategiesisacontinuousprocess.BylawEIAaremandatoryfornewdevelopment
projects including those related to industries. Establishment of Basel Convention Regional
CentreforSouthAsiaisbeingplannedunderSACEPactivities.
b Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous
ChemicalsandPesticidesinInternationalTrade
The Rotterdam Convention, is a multilateraltreatyto promote shared responsibilities in
relation to importation of hazardous chemicals. The convention promotes open exchange of
information and calls on exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labeling, include
directionsonsafehandling,andinformpurchasersofanyknownrestrictionsorbans.Signatory
nationscandecidewhethertoalloworbantheimportationofchemicalslistedinthetreaty,and
exportingcountriesareobligedmakesurethatproducerswithintheirjurisdictioncomplywith
thetermsoftheconvention.
In October 2006, Maldives acceded to both the Rotterdam Convention and the Stockholm
Convention. The Prior Informed Consent procedure empowers countries tomake their own
informed decisions on the use and import of pesticides and prevents export of unwanted
pesticides.
c.StockholmConventiononpersistentorganicpollutant
TheStockholmConventiononPersistentOrganicPollutantsisaglobaltreatytoprotecthuman
health and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long
periods, and become widely distributed geographically, accumulating in the fatty tissue of
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humans and wildlife, resulting in adverse effects to human health or to the environment.
Exposure to persistent organic pollutants can lead to serious health effects including certain
cancers,birthdefects,dysfunctionalimmuneandreproductivesystems,greatersusceptibilityto
diseasesandevendiminishedintelligence.MaldivesAccededtotheConventionin2006
d.IntergovernmentalForumonChemicalSafety
Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) provides an open, transparent and
inclusiveforumfordiscussingissuesofcommoninterestandalsonewandemergingissuesin
theareaofsoundmanagementofchemicals.IFCSplaysauniquemulti‐facetedroleasaflexible,
open and transparent brainstorming and bridge‐building forum for Governments,
intergovernmentalorganizationsandnon‐governmentalorganizationsfromtheprivatesector.
This role has facilitated consensus building on issues and actions addressing the sound
management of chemicals. By its efforts it contributes to the implementation of the Strategic
Approach to International ChemicalsManagement (SAICM) and thework of other chemicals‐
relatedinternationalorganizationsandinstitutions.Thepurposeistoprovidepolicyguidance,
developstrategiesinacoordinatedandintegratedmanner,fosterunderstandingofissuesand
promote the required policy. Chemical safety is the prevention of the adverse effects, both
short‐ and long‐term, to humans and the environment from the production, storage,
transportation,useanddisposalofchemicals.
11.6.5EnvironmentalGovernance
a.SouthAsianCooperativeforEnvironmentProgram
SouthAsiaCo‐operativeEnvironmentProgram(SACEP)isaninter‐governmentalorganization,
established in 1982 by the governments of South Asia to promote and support protection,
managementandenhancementoftheenvironmentintheregion.SACEPmembercountriesare
Afghanistan,Bangladesh,Bhutan,India,Maldives,Nepal,PakistanandSriLanka.TheGoverning
Council is responsible for determining policy and programs of SACEP and it oversees these
activities by meeting regularly to review the ongoing programs and to endorse new
recommendations put forward by Secretariat. It consists of one representative from each
memberstateswhowillbeofministerial rank.SACEPsupportsnationalgovernment'sefforts
forenvironmentalprotectionandsustainabledevelopment.
Since itscreation,SACEPhas implementedanumberofprojectsandprogramsintheareasof
environmenteducation,environment legislation,biodiversity,airpollution,andtheprotection
andmanagementofthecoastalenvironment.SACEPisalsosecretariatfortheSouthAsianSeas
Program(SASP).TheMale’Declarationoncontrolandpreventionofairpollutionanditslikely
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trans‐boundaryeffectsforSouthAsiaisasignificanteffortwhichencouragesintergovernmental
cooperation to combat the trans‐boundary air pollution problem. In November 2010, 12th
Governing Council Meeting of the SACEP was undertaken in Colombo, Sri Lanka. Ongoing
programslistedincludepartnershipforcleanerfuelsandvehicles,environmentallysustainable
transport, environmental data, information and management and project on environmental
management.
b.SouthAsianSeasProgram
SASP is a co‐operative partnership, formally adopted in 1995 for the protection and
managementof thesharedmarinewatersandassociatedcoastalecosystemsof fivemaritime
SACEPcountries‐Bangladesh,India,Maldives,PakistanandSriLanka.SACEPSecretariatbased
inColombo,SriLankaisalsoSecretariattotheSASP.
South Asian Seas Program priorities changed significantlywith the December 2004 Tsunami
andpresently,thedevelopmentofstrategiestocopewithnaturaldisastersisthemajorareaof
focus. The Action Plan mandates SASP to focus specifically on Integrated Coastal Zone
Management (ICZM), development and implementation of national and regional oil and
chemical spill contingency planning, human resources development through strengthening
regional centers of excellence and protection of the marine environment from land‐based
activities.However,thisdoesnotprecludeSASPtoventureintootherareasofimportancesuch
as revising the South Asian Seas Action Plan based on current global and regional trends
Additionally,SASPencouragesandassistscountriestoimplementtheirresponsibilitiestowards
differentglobalandregionalconventionsandrelatedprogramsinacoherentandco‐ordinate
manner.
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12.Recommendations
1. StrengthentheEIAprocesswithanemphasisonEIAmonitoring
Developandintroducedatacollectionprotocols
Developandenvironmentaldatabase(GIS)usinginformationfromEIA’s
Developmethodologyforsystematicmonitoringandphaseinthemonitoringframe
work
Establishanenvironmentalinformationdatabasetotrackreportingandother
performancebenchmarks
Completeareviewofexistingpoliciesandlegislationrelevanttoenvironmental
management,includingareviewofexistingEIAregulationandEIAprocess
StrengthenevaluationprocessofEIA’s
Undertakearesourceassessmenttodeterminethelevelofstaffing,trainingandother
supportrequiredtoimplementanefficientandeffectiveEIAmonitoringand
surveillanceprogram
IncreaseEIAawarenessandcapacitybuilding
Publishandannualnationalreportthatprovidesbothquantitativeinsightsintothe
outcomesoftheEIAprocess
StrengthenEIAmonitoringandimplementation
Developenvironmentalguidelinesforselectionofsitesfordevelopmentpurposes
IncreaseskillsofEPA/EIAunitstaffformonitoring
StrengthenpublicparticipationinEIAevaluationandmonitoring
DecentralizeEIAmonitoringandcompliancetoatollcouncils
2. Conserveandsustainabilityusebiologicaldiversityandensuremaximum
ecosystembenefits
Mainstreambiodiversityconservationintoallnationaldevelopmentandsectoral
policies
Definenationalgovernment,provincialandAtollCouncilOfficesandcommunity
responsibilitiesforbiodiversityconservation
Ensurebiodiversityconservationascorecomponentinallprovincialdevelopment
strategies,atolldevelopmentplansandislandlanduseplans
Introduceinformalagreementsandmarketbasedinstrumentsforbiodiversity
conservation
EstablishafullyfunctionalProtectedAreassystemintheMaldivesthatprovides
adequateprotectiontoterrestrialmarine,andmangroveecosystemsthreatenedspecies
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3. Developresilientcommunitiesaddressingimpactsofclimatechange
disastermanagementandcoastalprotection
Developlocallyappropriatecoastalprotectionandfloodcontrolmeasuresininhabited
islands
ProtectINIAandregionalairportsfrompredicatedsealevelriseandwaveinduced
flooding
ReviewnationaladaptationstrategyandprogramsandimplementNAPA
Improvebuildingdesignstoincreaseresilienceandstrengthenenforcementofbuilding
code
Integrateclimatechangerisksintoresilientislandplanning
DeveloptheconceptualandoperationalframeworkfortheResilientIslandProgram
(RIP)throughhareviewofRIPconceptanditscontributiontoDRR
Enhanceadaptivecapacitytomanageclimatechangerelatedriskstofreshwater
availabilitybyappropriatewastewatertreatmenttechnologies
Developclimatechangeadaptationimplementationstrategyformajordevelopment
relatedsectors
Protectionofhumansettlementbycoastalprotectionmeasuresonselectedislands
Increaseengagementofcivilsocietytocombatclimaterisks
ImplementnationalobligationsundertheUNCCC
Reinforceclimatenegotiations
Assesssocio‐economicimpactsofclimatechangeonfisheriesandagriculture
4. Strengthenadaptationandmitigationresponsesforbeacherosionand
developasystemtoassistcommunitieswherelivelihoodandpropertyare
affectedbybeacherosion
Developandintroduceguidelinesforcoastalmodificationtopreventerosion
Implementmeasuresforerosioncontrolinseverelyaffectedislands
Establishafinancingmechanismforbeacherosionandcoastalprotection
Protectionofsettlementsbycoastalprotectionmeasuresonselectedislands
Conductfurtherresearchintoviablealternativeprotectionmeasureswithagreater
appreciationofmorecosteffectivesoftermeasures
EstablishaclimateresearchbodyonintensifyMaldivesMeteorologicalServiceswitha
specificmandatetogatherweatherdataandmodelclimateimpactsfortheMaldives
Ensureaneffectiveearlywarningisimplementedinfullwithadequatecapacityfor
implementationatalllevels
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Developguidelinesforsettlementplanningfor,interalia,buildingcodes,land
reclamation,harbordevelopmentandlanduse,toensurethatanydevelopmentis
sustainableandresilienttoclimatechange
5. Ensuremanagementofsolidwastetopreventimpactonhumanhealthand
environmentthroughapproachesthatareeconomicallyviableandlocally
appropriate
Submittoparliamentabillonwastemanagementthatwouldclearlydelineaterolesand
responsibilitiesatindividuallevel,islandlevel,andatoll,provincialandnationallevel
Developthepolicyandregulatoryframeworkforpublicprivatepartnershipinwaste
managementservices
DevelopIWMConallinhabitedislandsandensurethatthecentersareequippedto
enabletheislandcommunitiestomanagethewaste
DevelopandconstructProvincialSolidWasteManagementFacilitieswithparticular
emphasisonrecoveryandrecycling
EnableestablishmentofwastecollectionandtransferservicesintheProvincesto
removehazardous,residualandrecyclablewastefrominhabitedislandsforsafe
disposal,storageorproceeding
6. Ensureprotectionofpeopleandenvironmentfromhazardouswasteand
chemicals
EstablishaNationalChemicalInformationSystemanddevelopregulationand
guidelinesforsafeuse,handlinganddisposalofalltypesofchemicals
InitiateaHazardousWasteCommunicationinoculationandmovementsystemtomeet
internationalstandards
7. Improveairqualitytosafeguardhumanhealth
EstablishafullyequippedAmbientAirQualityMonitoringStationsindenselypopulated
islands
Undertakemonitoringofemissionsfrompointandmobilesourcesandestablish
standardsforsuchsourcesofpollution
8. Ensureafullyfunctionaldecentralizedenvironmentalgovernancesystem
Definemandateofnational,provincialatollandislandforenvironmentaladministration
Strengthencapacitytoimplementthedecentralizedenvironmentalmandate
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Identifytheappropriateoptionsforfundraisingtoimplementthedecentralized
environmentalsectorresponsibilities
CreatepostofProvincialandAtollEnvironmentOfficers
9. DevelopalowcarboneconomytoachieveCarbonNeutralityby2019
FormulateandestablishandactionplanandlegalframeworktobecomeCarbonNeutral
by2020
Introducerenewablealternativetechnologies
Submittoparliamentabillonreachingcarbonneutralityby2020
Introduceincentivestoprivatesectortoengageinlowcarbonmeasures
Establishapolicytoprovideincentivesforbusinessesinvolvedinprovidingrenewable
sourcesofenergy
Undertakemonitoringofemissionsfrompointofmobilesourcesandestablish
standardsforsuchsourcesofpollution
10. Inculcateenvironmentalvaluesinthesocietyandenableand
environmentallyfriendlylifestyle
Developanddeliverwasteawarenessandtrainingcampaignsthatengageandinform
thecommunity,formalandinformaleducationsectors,themedia,commercialand
industrialenterprisesandgovernmentagenciesaboutthewastemanagementsystem
andpractices
Raiseawarenessaboutimpactsofglobalwarmingclimatechangeandtheimportance
andadvantageofbecomingcarbonneutral.
Source:StrategicActionPlan2009‐2013,DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2009
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13Projects
PROJECTNAME:COASTALPROTECTIONWORKS
SECTORS:Environment
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:
TheprojectfocusistoprotecttheislandsofMaldivesfromerosion.Thefollowingtableoutlinestheislandsidentifiedfortheprojectandthestatusoftheprojects.
Island/Infrastructure Status
HaDhidhoo initiated
RAlifushi initiated
MDhiggaru initiated
S.HulhudhooMeedhoo initiated
M.Naalaafushi completed
M.Maduvaree completed
M.Dhiggaru ongoing
N.Holhudhoo planned
Ha.Hoarafushi planned
Gn.Foamulaku planned
MaleInternationalAirport planned
PROJECTNAME:DREDGING,RECLAMATIONANDSHOREPROTECTIONWORKSFORTHAATHIMARAFUSHIAIRPORTDEVELOPMENTANDLANDRECLAMATIONPROJECT
SECTOR:Airport,Construction,EnvironmentandLand
STATUS:Planned
SUMMARY:
Anareaof31hectaresisproposedtobereclaimedfortheairportrunwayandotherservices.Another 10 hectares is proposed to be reclaimed as part of an expansion of the existingThimarafush island.A totalof 732mofshoreprotection isproposedtobeconstructedundertheproject.
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PROJECTNAME:MALDIVESPUBLICSECTORINFRASTRUCTUREPROJECT(SHOREPROTECTIONCOMPONENT)
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Planned
PROJECT NAME: RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT ASSISTPROGRAM(REDTAP)
SECTORS:RenewableEnergy
STATUS:Ongoing–Base activities completed, final evaluation pending
SUMMARY:
The RETDAPwill facilitate the promotion of the widespread implementation and ultimately,commercialization of RE technologies (RETs). The project seeks to establish an environmentconducivetotheadoptionandcommercializationofRETsinthecountry.Itinvolvesthedesign,development and implementation of appropriate policies, strategies and interventionsaddressing the fiscal, financial, regulatory, market, technical and information barriers torenewableenergydevelopmentandutilization.
StartDate:March2004
EndDate:November2011
FundingType:Grant
FundingSource:GEF,UNDP
PROJECTNAME:SOLARPOWERSYSTEMFORASMALLISLAND
SECTOR:Electricity,Environment
STATUS:Planned
SUMMARY:SolarHybridandMini‐griddevelopmentforsmallislands.ThisprojectdealswithinstallationandcommissioningofahybridsolarPVsystemintheIslandofK.Dhiffushiwhichwillserveaspilotproject.Theexperiencegainedfromthisexercisewillbeusedtoreplicatesimilarprojectsinothersmallislandsbyencouragingprivatesectorinvestments.Themainobjectivesofthisprojectincludethereductiononthedependencyonfossilfuelsandtomovetowardsthecarbonneutraltarget,producetechnicalcapacityatislandandutilitylevelsininstallationandoperating/maintenance,andcreatingawarenessatnationalandinternational
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levelsregardingglobalwarming,TheprojectisfundedbyADBandGlobalSustainableElectricityPartnership.
PROJECTNAME:HARBOURPROJECTS
SECTOR:Environment–Harbour
STATUS:Ongoing/Completed
SUMMARY:
Island/Infrastructure Status Scope
HaThakandhoo Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline
HaUligamu Ongoing Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline
HaMaarandhoo Completed NA
HdhKuribi Ongoing NA
HdhKumundhoo Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline
HdhNelaidhoo Ongoing NA
HdhFiney Completed NA
HdhKulhudufushi Completed NA
ShFoakaidhoo Planned NA
ShBilehfahi Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline
ShGoidhoo Completed NA
ShNarudhoo Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline
ShMilandhoo Ongoing Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline
NHolhudhoo Planned NA
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NLandhoo Completed NA
NVelidhoo Planned NA
NKudafari Ongoing NA
NKedhikolhudhoo Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline
RRasmaadhoo Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline
RFainu Ongoing NA
RAngolhitheemu Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline
RKinolhos Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline
RMaakurathu Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline
RMeedhoo Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline
RAlifushi Completed NA
RMaduvaree Completed NA
RVaadhoo Completed NA
BHithaadhoo Completed NA
LhKurendhoo Ongoing NA
LhNaifaru Planned NA
LhOlhuvelifushi Completed NA
KMaafushi Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline
KVilingili Completed NA
AARasdhoo Ongoing Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline
AAUkulhas Ongoing NA
AAThoddoo Completed NA
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AdhMaandhoo Planned NA
AdhMahibadhoo Completed NA
MMulah
Delayed
Harbourreconstruction
MMaduwaree Completed NA
MNaalaafushi Completed NA
FBilehdhoo Ongoing NA
FFeeali Planned NA
FMagoodhoo Planned NA
DhBandidhoo Completed NA
DhKudahuvadhoo Planned NA
ThKibidhoo Planned NA
ThVeymandhoo Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline
LMundoo Completed NA
LGan Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline
LMaamendhoo Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline
GaGemanafushi Planned NA
GaNilandhoo Completed NA
GaKolamaafushi Planned NA
GaMaamendhoo Planned NA
GdhFaresMaathoda Planned NA
GdhHoadhedhoo Planned NA
GdhMadaveli Planned NA
GdhNadalla Completed Dredgingharborchannel
GdhFiyori Completed Dredgingharborbasinandconstructingquaywall
Gn.Fuahmulah Planned Harbourbreakwaterheadrepairproject
SFeydhoo Ongoing NA
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SHithadhoo Ongoing NA
SHulhudhoomeedhoo Ongoing NA
SMaradhooFeydhoo Ongoing NA
PROJECT NAME: PROVIDE 2500 LTR WATER TANKS FOR ALL HOUSES IN 45ISLANDS‐PHASE2
SECTORS:Environment–Utilities/water
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:
Atoll Island Donor Status
Gdh Thinadhoo MWSC April‐11Completed
Hdh Kulhudhufushi MWSC March‐1Completed
K Maafushi MWSC March‐1Completed
Sh Komandoo Community Completed
Atoll Island Donor
Lh Hinnavaru USAID Ongoing
Ha Dhihdhoo USAID Ongoing
Gdh Gahdhoo AdaptationFund Ongoing
Adh Mahibadhoo AdaptationFund Ongoing
R Dhuvaafaru MWSC ongoing
Ha Ihavandhoo AdaptationFund Ongoing
S Feydhoo SouthernUtilitiesLimited/BiwaterInternational Ongoing
S Hithadhoo Ongoing
S Hulhudhoo Ongoing
S Hulhudhoo‐meedhoo
Ongoing
S Maradhoo Ongoing
S Maradhoo‐feydhoo Ongoing
Gn Fuvahmulah Ongoing
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Aa UkulhasClimatechangetrustfund
Agreementtobesignedshortly
PROJECTNAME: ASSISTANCE FROM GIZ (PROJECT TO BE DESIGNED)
STATUS:PreparatoryWork
SUMMARY
Attempt to develop zero carbon strategy (This project is on hold at present)
StartDate:TBD
EndDate:
FundingType:Grant
FundingSource:GIZ
PROJECTNAME: STRENGTHENING LOW‐CARBON ENERGY ISLAND STRATEGIES
SECTORS:ClimateChange
STATUS:PIFSubmitted
SUMMARY
Strengthennationalcapacitiestoformulateandmanageimplementationofpoliciesandstrategiesforanacceleratedpublic‐privatesectorpartnershipsforthemedium‐andlong‐termdeploymentoflowcarbonenergystrategiesandprograms.Alsoundertheprojectinvestmentswouldbemadeonenergyefficientinvestments
StartDate:2012
EndDate:
FundingType:Grant
FundingSource:GEF
PROJECT NAME: INCREASING CLIMATE RESILIENCE THROUGH AN INTEGRATED WATERRESOURCEMANAGEMENT PROGRAMME ( INHA. IHAVANDHOO,ADH.MAHIBADHOOANDGDH.GADHDHOOISLAND
SECTORS:ClimateChange
STATUS:PreparatoryWork
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SUMMARY:
The objective of this project is to ensure reliable and safe freshwater supply for MaldiviancommunitiesthroughtherolloutofanintegratedwaterresourcemanagementprograminHA.Ihavandhoo,ADh.MahibadhooandGDh.Gadhdhoo.Theprojectwillensureconsistent,safeandequitableaccessofall islandcommunitiestosafefreshwater inachangingclimate.Throughatargeted mix of the following investments, the project will address the effects of variablerainfall, extreme weather events, salinization and pollution of aquifers:Establishment of a sustainable freshwater supply system that incorporates and integratesrainwaterharvestinganddesalinationtechnology
Improvement of groundwater quality through artificial groundwater recharge andbetterintegrationbetweenfreshwaterandwastewatermanagement
Increasing community participation in the development, allocation andmonitoring offreshwateruseinachangingclimate
Replicationandupscalingofclimate‐resilientfreshwatermanagementStartDate:Quarter4of2011
EndDate:NA
FundingType:Grant
FundingSource:AdaptationFundBoard
PROJECT NAME: MALDIVES PUBLIC SERVICES INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECT‐SEWERAGESYSTEM
SECTORS:Environment–Utilities
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:
Atoll Island Donor Typeofsystem Status
L Isdhoo/Isdhoo‐Kalaidhoo
JICA SmallBoreSewer
Completed‐September‐07
K HuraPrivate
ConventionalGravitySystem
Completed‐2008
HDH Kulhudhuffishi GOM ConventionalGravitySystem
Completed‐Mar‐10
TH Guraidhoo ADBgrant SmallBoreSewer
Completed‐May‐08
L Dhanbidhoo UNDP SmallBoreSewer
Completed‐Jul‐08
R Dhuvaafaru IFRC SmallBoreSewer
Completed‐July‐08
K Maafushi IFRC/ARC SmallBoreSewer
Completed‐Jul‐08
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K Guraidhoo IFRC/ARC SmallBoreSewer
Completed‐Jul‐08
DH Kudahuvadhoo IFRC/ARC SmallBoreSewer
‐Completed‐Jul‐08
TH Vilufushi BritishRedCross ConventionalGravitySystem
Completed‐Jul‐08
R Ungoofaaru UNICEF Completed‐Feb‐09
N Manadhoo UNICEF VacuumSystem Completed‐Feb‐09
F Nilandhoo UNICEF VacuumSystem Completed‐Feb‐09
DH Meedhoo UNICEF VacuumSystem Completed‐Mar‐09
AA Rasdhoo USStateDept ConventionalGravitySystem
Completed‐April‐10
HA Dhihdhoo USStateDept ConventionalGravitySystem
Completed‐July‐10
GA VillingiliAmericanRedCross
SmallBoreSewer
Completed‐May‐10
GA DhaandhooAmericanRedCross
SmallBoreSewer
Completed‐June‐10
M MuliJBICLoan
ConventionalGravitySystem
Completed‐September‐10
SH FunadhooJBICLoan
ConventionalGravitySystem
Completed‐October‐10
B EydhafushiJBICLoan
ConventionalGravitySystem
Completed‐October‐10
TH Thimarafushi KuwaitFundloan ConventionalGravitySystem
Completed‐January‐11
LH Hinnavaru KuwaitFundloan ConventionalGravitySystem
Completed‐January‐11
V Felidhoo USStateDept ConventionalGravitySystem
Completed‐May10
B Kudarikilu Community Completed—2008
K Gulhi
Completed
Aa Thoddoo SEK/MNDF/GOVT.
Ongoing
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L Gan AFDLoan
Ongoing
Gdh Thinadhoo AFDLoan
Ongoing
Adh Mahibadhoo ADBLoan
Ongoing
L Fonadhoo ADBLoan
Ongoing
S Feydhoo SouthernUtilitiesLimited/BiwaterInternational Ongoing
S Hithadhoo
Ongoing
S Hulhudhoo
Ongoing
S Hulhudhoo‐meedhoo
Ongoing
S Maradhoo
Ongoing
S Maradhoo‐feydhoo
Ongoing
Gn Fuvahmulah
Ongoing
N Miladhoo
WorkscorporationLtd
Ongoing
M Kolhufushi AbuDhabiFund Ongoing
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PROJECTNAME:SUPPORTTOREHABILITATETHETAROFEILDONGDH.FIYOARI
SECTORS:AgricultureandEnvironment
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:
Todeviceandimplementanappropriatesystem/mechanismforthedrainageofsaltwaterfromtheaffectedareasoastoprovidebetterprotectionandsecurityforthecommunityfromisland‐wideflooding,andtherebyminimizeeconomiclossesbyminimizingdamagetotheTarofieldsandothervegetation,propertyandinfrastructureintheislands.
Theobjectivesare; RestorethelivelihoodsoftheFiyoarifarmingcommunity. Protect the islands’ indigenous vegetation, private and public property and
infrastructurefromthefuturefloodsrelatedtostormsurges. Managefloodsintheaftermathofstormsurgesthroughaproperdrainagesystem. Increaseproductionofsedge(hau)inGdh.Fiyoari.
PROJECTNAME:LEASEOFUNINHABITEDISLANDSFORENVIRONMENTPURPOSES
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Ongoing
PROJECTNAME:HUVANICONTROLPROGRAM
SECTOR:Agriculture,Environment
STATUS:Ongoing
PROJECTNAME:EMERGENCYPESTCONTROL
SECTOR:Agriculture,Environment
STATUS:Ongoing
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PROJECTNAME:MALDIVESCLIMATECHANGEMAPPINGPROJECT
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:
The general aim of the program is acquisition of environmental data, setting up tools anddevelopingindicatorstofacilitateevaluationandmonitoringoftheeffectsofclimatechangeintheMaldivesarchipelago.
Thespecificobjectivesareasfollows:
Nationalcapacity‐buildingintermsofinformationmanagementandthemonitoringofclimatechangeissues
Acquiringandprocessingenvironmentaldata Research&Development:_Monitoringmethodsandactionstoadjusttoclimatechange CreationoftheMaldivesEnvironmentandClimateChangeGeoportal
StartDate:Jan‐10
EndDate:Jun‐11
FundingType:Grant
FundingSource:AgentFranchicedeDevelopment(A.F.D)
PROJECT NAME: SECOND NATIONAL COMMUNICATION UNDER NATIONALOBLIGATIONTOUNFCCC
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:ProjectDocumentFormulationComplete
SUMMARY:
FulfillingtheobligationtoUNFCCCbyreportingnationalcircumstancesonaperiodbasisUnderthisGHGinventoryandCCvulnerabilityassessmentwouldbecarriedout
StartDate:January2011
EndDate:NA
FundingType:Grant
FundingSource:GEF
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PROJECT NAME: IMPACT2C ‐ QUANTIFYING THE IMAPCTS OF 2 DEGREE CELIUSTEMPERATURERISE
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:PreparatoryWork
SUMMARY:
Thisprojectfocusesonclimatechangeimpact,vulnerabilityandadaptationduetoaglobalaveragedsurfacetemperaturechangeof2°C(andifappropriateof1.5°C)frompre‐industriallevelforthecoastalregionsofsmallislands.Thisisachievedby; Analyzingsea‐levelimpactsusingaclimateimpactsmodel(DIVA),withafocusonsmall
islands Understandingtoday’sproblemsandengineeringsolutionstoprotectsmallislandssuchas
theMaldives,usingacasestudyofselectislands. Usingcasestudyislands,analysisfloodingandsubmergencethroughGISandpossible
adaptationoptions Investigatingotherclimateaspectsofcoastalchange.
StartDate:October‐11
EndDate:October‐14
FundingType:Grant
FundingSource:European Union
PROJECTNAME:ADBENERGYREGULATORYTECHNICALASSISTANCE
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:PreparatoryWork
SUMMARY:
StartDate:November‐11
EndDate:
FundingType:Grant
FundingSource:ADB
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PROJECTNAME:INTEGRATINGCLIMATECHANGERISKINTOISLANDPLANNINGINTHEMALDIVES
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:
Themainobjectiveoftheprojectistoanalyzerisksofclimatechangeandexistingmeasurestocounter impacts of climate change in the islands. The project involves assessment of climaterisks and existing adaptation options and its effectiveness in Maldives, capacity building ofisland administrators, development of guidelines on coastal protection activities anddemonstration of soft and hard adaptationmeasures. Project also focuses of on streamlininginformationdisseminationofclimatechangeinformationtothepublicStartDate:Feb‐10
EndDate:Mar‐14
FundingType:Grant
FundingSource:GEF‐LDCF
PROJECTNAME:WETLANDCONSERVATIONANDCORALREEFMONITORINGFORADAPTATONTOCLIMATECHANGE(WCCM)
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Planned
SUMMARYThemainaimoftheWCCMprojectistocontributetotheclimatechangeadaptationcapacityoftheRepublicofMaldivesinthecontextofwetlandandcoralreefmanagement.Accordingly,thisprojecthastwodevelopmentobjectives.
Twocommunity‐basedwetlandmanagementplans(CBWMP)areapprovedandunderimplementation.Atleastfivetouristresortsproducedata(baselineandonemonitoring)oncoralreefhealth.
Theimplementationperiodofthisprojectis18months.Duetotheshortduration,andpilotnatureoftheWCCMproject,theindicatorscaptureintermediateoutcomes.
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PROJECTNAME:GEOMAGNETICPROJECT
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Planned
SUMMARY:
Thescopeoftheprojectistostudyionosphericcurrentsystems(spaceweathereffects)andtostudycrustleanduppermantleelectricalconductivityintheregion.Theprojectalsofocusestoprovidedataforinternationalgeomagneticcommunity
Objectives:
ToinstallandmaintenanceofageomagneticobservatoryinS.GanandalsotrainingandeducationofyoungMaldivianscientiststomeasureprocessandanalyzegeomagneticdata
PROJECTNAME:REDUCEIMPACTSOFCLIMATECHANGEDRIVENDEGRADATIONTHROUGHPROTECTIONANDCONSERVATIONOFMANGROVEANDWETLANDECOSYSTEM
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Planned
SUMMARY:
ThetwowetlandswillbeidentifiedfromthefollowinginconsultationwiththeLocalCouncils:Hithadhoo’sEidhigaliKilhi(updatingofCBWMP);Hithadhoo’sSouthernWetlandArea[MaamendhooKulhiandFeheleKulhi],Fuvahmulah’sFuvahmulakuBandaraKulhiandDhandiMaguKulhi)developmentofCBWMP
PROJECTNAME:HCFCPHASEOUTMANAGEMENTPHASEOUTPLAN
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:
Theactivitiesoftheprojectinclude
HCFCphaseoutpolicies&enforcement(HPP) Promotionofozoneclimateco‐benefits. Enhancedawarenessandoutreach PlanforgradualreductionofHCFCs
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PROJECTNAME:MALDIVESENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENTPROJECT(MEMP)
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:
ThegeneralaimofMEMPistoupgradesolidwastemanagementintheNorthandNorthCentralProvince.TheMEMPmainobjectivesare
ToconstructaRegionalWasteManagementFacility(RWMF)andtheassociatedwastemanagementandcollectioninfrastructureinthevariousislandsandatoll.
TostrengthenthecapacityforenvironmentalmanagementintheMaldivesattheislandlevel
TheProjecthasfour(4)componentswhichinclude:
RegionalSolidWasteManagementProgram RegionalEnvironmentAssessment; EnvironmentalcapacityandHumanResourceInitiative;and ProjectManagementandprojectCommunications
PROJECTNAME:NATIONALCAPACITYSELFASSESSMENTFORGLOBALENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENT
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Ongoing
PROJECTNAME:NATIONALECONOMICENVIRONMENTDEVELOPMENTSTUDIES
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Completed
SUMMARY
Theproposedstudyintendstobridgethegapbetweeninitiativesintheclimatedomainandthenationaldevelopmentplan.Thisstudywillenablethegovernmenttoidentifyfinancingneedstoimplementmitigationandadaptationmeasuresinkeyeconomicsectorsandtoidentifyfinancialinstrumentsandpoliciesthatwillsupporttheimplementationofthesemeasures.ThemainobjectivesoftheproposedworkaretosupporttheGovernmentofMaldivesinthefollowingareas;
Toselectkeysectorsforclimatechangemitigationandadaptationmeasuresbasedonprioritiesidentifiedinthesecondnationalcommunications,NAPAandthecountry’s
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nationaldevelopmentplan(s)toserveasbasisforthefinancialneedsassessments.
Toassessfinancingneedsrequiredtoaddressmitigationandadaptationmeasuresinselectedkeysectorsandtoidentifyappropriatefinancialandregulatoryinstrumentstosupportthem
Toraiseawarenessandfacilitateinformedconsensusamonggovernmentagenciesonpolicy
actionsrequiredtomobilizefinanceandinvestmentStartDate:Mar‐10
EndDate:May‐10
FundingType:Grant
FundingSource:UNFCCC
PROJECTNAME:SMALLSCALEFUNDINGAGREEMENT
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:NA
PROJECTNAME:PREPARATIONOFNATIONALADAPTATIONPLANOFACTION
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Completed
SUMMARY:NA
PROJECTNAME:ETHICSANDINTEGRITY
SECTOR:Environment,HumanResourceDevelopment
STATUS:Completed
SUMMARY:NA
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PROJECTNAME:STRATEGICSUSTAINABILITYMASTERPLAN
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Planned
SUMMARY:NA
PROJECTNAME:NATIONALASSESSMENTREPORT
SECTOR:Environment,
STATUS:Completed
SUMMARY
National Assessment Report is the reporting mechanism under the Mauritaus StrategyImplementation(MSI)+5.ItoutlinestheachievementoftheMDGwithrespecttoMSIStartDate:April 2010
EndDate:September‐2010
FundingType:Grant
FundingSource:UNDP
PROJECTNAME:OUTERISLANDELETRIFICATIONPROJECT(OIEP)
SECTOR:Energy
STATUS:Completed
SUMMARY
UpgradeornewlyinstallElectrificationsystemsfor20+islandsStartDate:April2010
EndDate:December2010
FundingType:Loan
FundingSource:ADBandGovernmentofMaldives
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PROJECTNAME:CLEANENERGYMALDIVESSECTOR:Energy
STATUS:InProgress
SUMMARY:NA
StartDate:January2011
EndDate:
FundingType:Grant
FundingSource:JapaneseGovernment
PROJECTNAME:SCALING UP OF RENEWABLE ENERGY PROGRAM
SECTOR:Energy
STATUS:InProgress
SUMMARY
TheGovernmentofMaldivesisdevelopinganationalcleanenergyinvestmentplanforachievingthecarbonneutralitygoalandincreasingthepenetrationofrenewableenergyforpowergeneration.TheSREPIPwillbeamajorcontributortothenationalplanandwillidentifySREPinterventionsforachievingtheMaldivescleanenergygoals.StartDate:May2011
EndDate:May2016
FundingType:Grant
FundingSource:CIF
PROJECTNAME:SOLARGRIDCONNECTEDSYSTEMFORSMALLISLAND(DHIFFUSHI40KWPROJECT
SECTOR:Energy
STATUS:InProgress
SUMMARY
Kansaiasaleaderofe8projectinstallthePVsysteminMaldiveswhichwillbethepilotprojectfollowedbytheexpandinginstallationofPVsystemsallovertheMaldives,byutilizingADBfund.Moreconcretelyaboutthepilotproject,PVsystemuptomaxabout40kW(samelevelasTuvalu
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Projecttousethelessonlearnedthen)willbeinstalledtothelocalisland(Dhiffushi)whosemax
demandisabout100kW~300kW,andoperatedcooperativelywiththeexistingdieselgenerators.ThatwillcontributetothereductionofCO2emissionandthecurtailmentfordieselfuelexpense.StartDate:September2011
EndDate:Marc2013
FundingType:
FundingSource:ADBincollaborationwithGlobalSustainableElectricityPartnership(GSEP)
PROJECTNAME:DANIDAGREENFACILITY
SECTOR:ClimateChange
STATUS:InProgress
SUMMARY
TheDANIDAGreenFacilityPhaseIIaimsatcreatinganumberofCDMprojectsintheMaldivesand enabling The Maldives to fully participate in the global carbon marketObjectives and expected results of the project includes:TheMaldiveswill be able to identify, design, approve, financewhere appropriate, implementandmonitorCDMprojectsthatbothaddresstheircountry’ssustainabledevelopmentprioritiesandofferacost‐effectiveoptionforcarboncreditbuyerstocomplywiththeirobligationsundertheKyotoProtocol.
StartDate:September2011EndDate:Dec2013
FundingType:Grant
FundingSource:DANIDA
StartDate:September2011EndDate:Dec2013
FundingType:Grant
FundingSource:DANIDA
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PROJECTNAME:PREPERATIONOFFOURTHNATIONALNATIONALREPORTTOCBD
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Completed
SUMMARY
The project was funded by GEF ,the report is based on the status of Biodiversity ,threats toBiodiversity,trendsinbiodiversityandtheeffortsinconservationofbiodiversity.
PROJECTNAME:ATOLLECOSYSTEM‐BASEDCONSERVATIONOFGLOBALLYSIGNIFICANTBIOLOGICALDIVERSITYINTHEMALDIVES‐BAAATOLL
SECTOR:EnvironmentandAgriculture
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:
Theprojectobjectives:TomainstreambiodiversityintomajorinstitutionsandpoliciesToestablishmodelsustainablebiodiversityconservationpracticesinBaaAtollthroughstakeholderinvolvementTopilotsustainablenaturalresourcemanagementandlivelihooddevelopmentpracticesinBaaAtollthroughstakeholderinvolvement.
PROJECTNAME:SUPPORTINGCOUNTRYACTIONONTHECBOPROGRAMONTHEWORKONPROTECTEDAREAS
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:
Scopingtherequirementsandestablishingthemechanismsfordevelopingaprotectedareassystemplananddevelopingcapacitytomanageexistingprotectedareasbasedonappropriateformsofgovernancethatgeneratepositiveincentivestosupporttheirlongtermintegrityandmaintenance
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PROJECTNAME:SUPPORTINGCOUNTRYACTIONONTHECBDPROGRAMOFWORKONPROTECTEDAREAS
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:
TheprotectedareasofofB.Hithaadhoo,AA.HurasdhooandMayathilaisthefocusoftheproject.
Theprojectobjectives:
Toscopingtherequirementstoestablishthemechanismfordevelopingprotectedareas
Toplananddevelopcapacitytomanageexistingprotectedareasbasedonappropriateformofgovernancethatgeneratepositiveincentivestosupporttheirlong‐termintegrityandmaintenance
PROJECTNAME:MONITORINGCORALREEFECOSYSTEMHEALTH
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Planned
SUMMARY:NA
PROJECTNAME:STRENGTHENINGNATIONALANDCOMMUNITIESCAPACITIESFOREFFECTIVEEARLYWARNINGDISSEMINATIONANDRESPONSE
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:NA
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PROJECTNAME:ESTABLISHMENTOFREGIONALINTERGRATEDMULTIHAZARDEARLYWARNINGSYSTEM
SECTOR:Environment,InformationCommunicationTechnology
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:
Developingandsustainingregionalearlywarningarrangementsamong26countriesinAfricaand Asia against tsunami and hydro meteorological hazards. The collaborating countries tocontributeresourcestowardssustainingtheregionalarrangementsformultihazardwarnings
Theprojectobjectivesare
To facilitate establishment andmaintenance of core regional observation andmonitoringnetworksandensuredataavailabilityforearlywarningpurposes.
To provide research and development support to national meteorological hydrologicalservicesforprovidinglocalizedhydro‐meteorologicalriskinformation
Toenhance thecapacitiesofnational systems to respond toearlywarning informationofvariousleadtimesatnational,subnational,localandatriskcommunitylevelswithineachnationalearlywarningframework
PROJECTNAME:ESTABLISHMENTOFNATIONALEARLYWARNINGSYSTEM(Phase2)
SECTOR:Environment,InformationCommunicationTechnology
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY
Toestablishandmaintainareliablemeteorological,seismologicalnetworktoprovideaccurateweather,earthquakeandtsunamirelatedinformation/warningtothecountry.
Theprojectobjectives:
Toinstallmeteorological,seismologicalequipmenttomonitor,analyzeandforecastweatherrelatedphenomenonandtomonitorandanalyzeoceanographiceventsinthecountry.
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PROJECTNAME:ESTABLISHMENTOFNATIONALEARLYWARNINGSYSTEMPHASE1
SECTOR:Environment,InformationCommunicationTechnology
STATUS:Completed
SUMMARY:
Undertheprojectthefollowinginstallationswereundertaken weatherradarsystemswereinstalledinnMaldivesMeteorologicalservices, ashortperiodseismometer2automaticweatherstationsinBDharavandhooandF
Nilandhoo GlobalTelecommunicationSystemwasupgradedandaMeteosatReceivingSystemwas
installed
PROJECTNAME:SOUTHARIATOLLWASTEMANAGEMENTPROJECT
SECTOR:Environment–wastemanagement
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:NA
PROJECTNAME:HULHUMALEWASTEYARDDEVELOPMENTPROJECT2010
SECTOR:WasteManagement
STATUS:Completed
SUMMARY:NA
PROJECTNAME:TOURISMSECURITYPROJECT
Sectors:Tourism,Environment,JudicialServices
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:
Thefocusisto developandenhanceTourismPoliceUnit whichwasestablishedin29March2009withdraftingupregulationtoenhancetourismsecurity.
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PROJECTNAME:CAPACITYBUILDINGANDMAINSTREAMINGSUSTAINABLELANDMANAGEMENTINTHEMALDIVES
SECTOR:Environment
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:
Projectobjectivesare
Institutionalcapacitybuilding Policiesandreputationalframework National/Sectoralpoliciesandregionalplanning FormulationofNAP
PROJECTNAME:RECLAMATIONGADHAANDHOO
SECTOR:Environment–Land
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:NA
PROJECTNAME:CONSULTANCYWORKFORS.GANLANDUSEPREPERATION
SECTOR:Environment–Land
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:NA
PROJECTNAME:LANDMANAGEMENTDATABASEPROJECT
SECTOR:Environment–Land
STATUS:Ongoing
SUMMARY:NA
Source:http://isles.egov.mv/
MinistryofHousingandEnvironment
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14.Reference
Abdulla, A., A. 2007 Indepth Technology Needs Assessment on Transport Sector, Ministry of
EnergyandEnvironmentandWater,Male’,Maldives
Adam, A. (2007) In‐depth Technology Needs Assessment on Transport Sector, Ministry of
EnvironmentEnergyandWater,Male’,RepublicofMaldives
AustralianRedCrossandCanadianRedCross.(2007)TsunamiDebrisandWasteManagement
Project–HandoverDocument.Male’,Maldives
Abdulla,A.A.(2007)IndepthTechnologyNeedsAssessment onTransportSector.Ministryof
EnergyandEnvironmentandWater.Male’,Maldives.
AsianDevelopmentBank.(2007)Maldives;PovertyAssessmentReport.Male’Maldives
AsianDevelopmentBank.(2011)FrameworkforEnergyInvestmentintheMaldives,Ministryof
HousingandEnvironment,MaleMaldives
BeCitizen, (2010) The Maldives 2009 Carbon Audit, Ministry of Housing and Environment,
Male’,RepublicofMaldives.
DNP(2010)MillenniumDevelopmentGoals‐MaldivesCountryReport2010,Male’,Republicof
Maldives
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