Maldives 2011 - WordPress.com · 05/06/2012 · Dr Mariyam Shakeela Minister of Environment and...

State of the Environment

Maldives 2011

Ministry of Environment and Energy

Republic of Maldives

StateoftheEnvironment2011

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STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2011

MinistryofEnvironmentandEnergy


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WrittenBy

AminathLatheefa

DrAminathShafia

FathimathShafeega

Chapter1:MaldiviansettingupdatedfromSOE2004Contributors

AbdullaShibau

MareerMohamedHusny

AmjadAbdulla

HassanAzhar

AjwadMustafa

MiruzaMohamed

IbrahimMohamed

Zammathkhaleel

AkramWaheed

MohamedShumais

AishathAileenNiyaaz

Photos

AhmedAnwarAbdulAzeez

Gk’sPhotography

MinistryofEnvironmentandEnergy

Layout

JeehanHassanDidi

MohamedAflah

ProofReading

AhmedShareefNafees

TheMinistryofEnvironmentandEnergywouldliketothankthefollowingorganizationswhohaveprovidedtheinformationforthepreparationoftheStateoftheEnvironment2011

MinistryofHealth

EnvironmentProtectionAgency

MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture

MinistryofTransportand

DepartmentofMeteorology


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Foreword

DrMariyamShakeela

MinisterofEnvironmentandEnergy

ThefirstSOEreportoftheMaldiveswasproducedfortheUN

Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small

IslandStatesheldinBarbadosin1994.Todayit iswithgreat

pleasureIampresentingtheSOE2011,thefifthreportofSOE

series. The report addresses the objective of providing an

analyticaloverviewofstateoftheenvironmentfocusingon10

key environmental challenges confronting today. New issues

includingenergy,chemicalandtoxicology,andenvironmental

governance have been included in this issue widening the

informationanddata,andaddressingemergingissues.

Maldives has changed socially, economically and environmentally since SOE 2004, the last

publication. With the first democratic election held in November 2008 the country is going

through a political transition. With the passing of the Decentralization Act in October 2010

islandcouncilsandatollscouncilshavebeen formedpavingway forgrowth tobedistributed

equally between the atolls and the capital. With this change the importance of integrating

environmentprotectionandconservationintodevelopmentdecisionmakinghasbecomemore

importanttoday.Thereporthighlightschangingdrivers,suchaspopulationgrowth,economic

activities and consumption patterns have placed increasing pressure on the environment.

Seriousandpersistentbarrierstosustainabledevelopmentcontinuetopersist.

SOE 2011 highlights landmark developments. In March 2009 Maldives unveiled plans of

becomingcarbonneutralby2020.Todayuseofrenewableenergyisencouragedwithanumber

ofprogramsbeing implementedat thecountry level.Themostrecentdecisions toencourage

use of renewable energy includes waiving import duties on electric and renewable energy

poweredvehicles.Significanteffortstowardsbiodiversityconservationhavealsobeenmadeof

whichdeclarationofBaaAtollasaUNESCOBiosphereReservein29June2011beingamajor

milestone.TheBaaAtollConservationProjectinitiatedin2003isformulatedtodesign,testand

demonstrate a management system that will secure and sustain the rich biodiversity and

ecologicalprocessesoftheAtollforthebenefitofthefuturegeneration.


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SOE2011isthefifthoftheseriesofreports.Theobjectiveistocreateandbroadenawareness

andenvironmental issuesand toprovidedecisionmakersandplannerswithmeaningfuldata

andinformationtomakenecessarydecisions.TheprocessofpublicationofSOEalsohighlights

and identifies several issues in relation to availability, accessibility and management of

environmental information in theMaldives. Although considerable efforts had beenmade to

improveissuesrelatedtocollection,managementandaccesstoenvironmentalinformation,lack

ofacentralizedenvironmentalinformationsystemmakesaccesstoenvironmentalinformation

difficult.Thecompleteabsenceofsomeenvironmentalinformationpertainingtoissuessuchas

chemicalandtoxicologypresentsamajorchallenge,notonlyinevaluatingissuesandtheirstate

but also in assessing risks. A coordinated effort is required among the different sectors to

strengthentheinformationbase.

It is my sincere hope that this analytical overview will stimulate innovative thinking and

increase knowledge of the stakeholders of the environment. And it is also my hope that a

coordinated effort would take place to establish a centralized environmental information

system where scientific and technical literature on environmental topics such as global

warming, climate change, biodiversity and coastal zone management would be available.

Establishment of an environment information system that provides access to such material,

amongothers,isapressingissuefortheMaldivesatpresent.


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TableofContentsAbbreviations..................................................................................................................................................................10

Overview...........................................................................................................................................................................13

Maps....................................................................................................................................................................................20

1. TheMaldivianSetting........................................................................................................................................22

1.1 GeographyandLand.................................................................................................................................22

1.2 Climate............................................................................................................................................................24

1.3 MarineandCoastalAreas.......................................................................................................................26

1.4 Population.....................................................................................................................................................27

1.5 Administration............................................................................................................................................28

1.6 NaturalandCulturalHeritage...............................................................................................................32

2. Socio‐EconomicDevelopment........................................................................................................................34

2.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................34

2.2 SocialDevelopment...................................................................................................................................35

2.2.1 Demographicscenario....................................................................................................................35

2.2.2 Infrastructuredevelopment.........................................................................................................39

2.2.3 Poverty..................................................................................................................................................41

2.3 EconomicDevelopment...........................................................................................................................44

2.3.1 Growth..................................................................................................................................................44

2.3.2 Construction.......................................................................................................................................46

2.3.3 Tourism................................................................................................................................................47

2.3.4 Fisheries...............................................................................................................................................49

2.3.5 Agriculture...........................................................................................................................................52

Appendices.......................................................................................................................................................................55

3. ClimateChange.....................................................................................................................................................57

3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................57

3.2 ClimateChangeImpacts..........................................................................................................................58

3.2.1 Sealevelrise......................................................................................................................................58

3.2.2 Precipitation.......................................................................................................................................58

3.2.3 Temperature.......................................................................................................................................59

3.2.4 Extremeevents..................................................................................................................................61

3.3 VulnerabilitytoClimateChange..........................................................................................................63

3.3.1 Landbeachandhumansettlement...........................................................................................64

3.3.2 Criticalinfrastructure.....................................................................................................................65


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3.3.3 Tourism................................................................................................................................................66

3.3.4 Fisheries...............................................................................................................................................67

3.3.5 Water.....................................................................................................................................................67

3.3.6 Agriculture...........................................................................................................................................68

3.3.7 Health....................................................................................................................................................69

3.3.8 CoralReefBiodiversity...................................................................................................................70

3.4 AdaptationandmitigationtoClimatechange................................................................................70

3.4.1 Needsandpriorities........................................................................................................................70

3.4.2 AdaptationtoClimateChange.....................................................................................................71

3.4.3 Adaptationrelatedinitiatives....................................................................................................71

a)Useoflocallyappropriateadaptationmeasures...............................................................................71

b)SustainableLandManagement.................................................................................................................73

c)SustainableWaterManagement...............................................................................................................74

d)Strengtheningtheinformationbase.......................................................................................................74

3.4.4 AdaptativeCapacity.........................................................................................................................74

3.5 Mitigationrelatedinitiatives.................................................................................................................76

3.5.1 UseofRenewableEnergy..............................................................................................................77

3.6 PoliciesandStrategies.............................................................................................................................77

4. WaterandSanitation..........................................................................................................................................81

4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................81

4.2 Rainwater.....................................................................................................................................................81

4.2.1 Rainwaterharvesting....................................................................................................................82

4.3 Groundwater...............................................................................................................................................84

4.4 Desalinatedwater......................................................................................................................................85

4.5 Waterproductionandcarbonneutrality.........................................................................................86

4.6 WastewaterandSanitation...................................................................................................................87

4.6.1 Resorts..................................................................................................................................................88

4.7 Majorpolicyresponsesandinitiatives..............................................................................................89

5. WasteManagement.............................................................................................................................................92

5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................92

5.2 SituationAnalysis.......................................................................................................................................93

5.2.1 Male’.......................................................................................................................................................93

5.2.2 Intheatolls..........................................................................................................................................95

5.2.3 Existingsituationintheresorts..................................................................................................97

5.3 Healthcareandhazardouswastemanagement............................................................................97


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5.4 WasteandtheMaldivianeconomy.....................................................................................................98

5.5 Wasteandcarbonneutrality.................................................................................................................99

5.6 Regulatoryframework...........................................................................................................................101

5.7 Policiesandstrategies............................................................................................................................102

6. Pollution................................................................................................................................................................105

6.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................105

6.2 AirPollution...............................................................................................................................................106

6.2.1 Indicatorsofairpollution...........................................................................................................106

6.2.1.1Vehicles.................................................................................................................................................106

6.2.1.2ConstructionofBuildings..............................................................................................................108

6.2.1.3RespiratoryDiseases.......................................................................................................................109

6.2.1.4ImportofFuel.....................................................................................................................................110

6.2.2 Transboundaryairpollution.....................................................................................................111

6.3 NoisePollution..........................................................................................................................................112

6.4 Waterpollution.........................................................................................................................................112

6.4.1 Freshwaterpollution...................................................................................................................112

6.4.2 Marinepollution.............................................................................................................................114

6.5 PoliciesandStrategies...........................................................................................................................115

7. ConservationofBiologicalDiversity..........................................................................................................118

7.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................118

7.2 PressurestoBiodiversity......................................................................................................................119

7.2.1 PressurestoMarineBiodiversity............................................................................................120

7.2.1.1Demandforcoral,sandandbranchedcoral..........................................................................120

7.2.1.2Demandforreeffish........................................................................................................................121

a)SeaCucumber.................................................................................................................................................126

b)GrouperFishery............................................................................................................................................127

c)GiantClam........................................................................................................................................................128

d)Sharkfishing...................................................................................................................................................128

e)AquariumFishery.........................................................................................................................................130

f)Baitfishery.......................................................................................................................................................131

7.2.2 Otherpressuresonmarinebiodiversity...............................................................................131

7.3 Pressuresontheterrestrialbiodiversity.......................................................................................131

7.3.1 Removalofvegetation..................................................................................................................131

7.3.2 Invasivepestanddiseases..........................................................................................................136

7.3.3 Invasiveplantspecies...................................................................................................................137


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7.3.4 Useoffertilizers,herbicidesandpesticides........................................................................137

7.4 ConservationofBiologicalDiversity................................................................................................139

7.4.1 Protectedareamanagement......................................................................................................139

7.5 Policiesandstrategies............................................................................................................................141

8. Chemicalandtoxicology.................................................................................................................................148

8.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................148

8.2 Chemicalusage..........................................................................................................................................149

8.2.1 Chemicalusedforagriculturalpurposes..............................................................................150

8.2.2 Chemicalusedforhealthpurposes.........................................................................................154

8.2.3 Chemicalsforhouseholduse.....................................................................................................154

8.2.4 Chemicalsforconstructionpurposes.....................................................................................155

8.3 Disposalofchemicals..............................................................................................................................155


9. Energy.....................................................................................................................................................................159

9.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................159

9.2 EnergySector.............................................................................................................................................160

9.3 RenewableEnergy...................................................................................................................................162

a)Solarenergy....................................................................................................................................................164

b)WindEnergy...................................................................................................................................................164

c)BiomassEnergy.............................................................................................................................................165

9.3.1 Barriersforrenewableenergydevelopment......................................................................166

9.3.2 Effortstoencouragerenewableenergy................................................................................166

9.3.3 PoliciesandStrategies..................................................................................................................170

10. PostTsunamiStatusofEnvironment...................................................................................................174

10.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................174

10.2 Background.................................................................................................................................................174

10.3 Pre‐TsunamiStatus.................................................................................................................................175

10.3.1 Freshwatersupply........................................................................................................................175

10.3.2 Sanitation...........................................................................................................................................175

10.3.3 Solidwaste........................................................................................................................................176

10.4 ImpactsofTsunami.................................................................................................................................176

10.4.1 Freshwatersupplies......................................................................................................................176

10.4.2 Solidwaste........................................................................................................................................176

10.4.3 Sanitation...........................................................................................................................................177

10.4.4 Islandvegetation.............................................................................................................................177


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10.4.5 CoastalLandForms.......................................................................................................................177

10.4.6 CoastalVegetation..........................................................................................................................178

10.5 Post‐TsunamiRecovery.........................................................................................................................178

10.5.1 Freshwater.......................................................................................................................................179

10.5.2 Solidwaste........................................................................................................................................182

10.5.3 Sanitation...........................................................................................................................................182

11. Environmentalgovernance.......................................................................................................................183

11.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................183


11.2.1 StrategicActionPlan2009‐2014.............................................................................................184

11.2.2 NationalEnvironmentActionPlan3......................................................................................185

11.2.3 NationalStrategyforSustainableDevelopment2009‐2013........................................186

11.3 Lawsandregulations..............................................................................................................................187

11.4 DisasterManagement.............................................................................................................................188

11.5 Roleofthemainstakeholders.............................................................................................................190

11.6 MaldivesintheInternationalArena.................................................................................................192

11.6.1BiodiversityandConservation.......................................................................................................195

11.6.2ClimateChange......................................................................................................................................196

11.6.3OzoneLayerProtection.....................................................................................................................197

11.6.4PollutionandChemicalrelated......................................................................................................198

11.6.5EnvironmentalGovernance.............................................................................................................199

12. Recommendations........................................................................................................................................201

13 Projects..............................................................................................................................................................205

14. Reference..........................................................................................................................................................230


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Abbreviations

BACP BaaAtollConservationProject

CBD ConventionofBiologicalDiversity

CCA ClimateChangeAdaptation

CCAC ClimateChangeAdvisoryCommittee

CCHDC CentreforCommunityHealthandDiseaseControl

CFC Chlorofluorocarbon

COP ConferenceofParties

DOM DepartmentofMeteorology

DPH DepartmentofPublicHealth

DRR DisasterRiskReduction

EEZ ExclusiveEconomicZone

EIA EnvironmentalImpactAssessment

ENSO ElNinoSouthernOscillation

EPA EnvironmentProtectionAgency

ERC EnvironmentResearchCentre

FISIMFinancialIntermediationServicesIndirectlyMeasured

FRESA FundforRenewableEnergySystemApplication

HCFC Hydrochloroflurocarbons

HDPE High‐densitypolyethylene

GHG GreenHouseGas

GIS GeographicInformationSystem

ICZM IntegratedCoastalZoneManagement

IPCC IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange

IUCN InternationalUnionfor

IWMC IslandWasteManagementCentres

LPG LiquidPetroleumGas

MCS MaldivesCustomServices


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MED MinistryofEconomicDevelopment

MEMP MaldivesEnvironmentManagementProject

MDG MillenniumDevelopmentGoals

MOFA MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture

MFDA MaldivesFoodandDrugAuthority

MFF MangrovesfortheFuture

MHAE MinistryofHousingandEnvironment

MODNS MinistryofDefenseandNationalSecurity

MOHAF MinistryofHealthandFamily

MOT MinistryofTransport

MRC MarineResearchCentre

MSI MauritiusStrategyImplementation

MSL MeanSeaLevel

MTC Somethingrelatedtotransport

MTAC MinistryofTourism,ArtsandCulture

MWSC MaldivesWaterandSewerageCompany

NAP NationalActionPlan

NAPA NationalAdaptationPlanofAction

NBF NationalBiosafetyFramework

NBSAP NationalBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan

NC NationalCommunication

NCHLR NationalCentreforHistoricandLinguisticResearch

NDMC NationalDisasterManagementCentre

NGO NonGovernmentalOrganisation

ODS OzoneDepletingSubstances

OIEP Outerislandelectrificationproject

PPP Public–PrivatePartnership

REDTAP RenewableEnergyTechnologyDevelopmentandApplicationProject


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REIO RenewableEnergyInvestmentOffice

RET RenewableEnergyTechnologies

RWMF RegionalWasteManagementFacility

SACEP SouthAsiaCo‐operativeforEnvironmentProgram

SAICM StrategicApproachtoInternationalChemicalsManagement

SASP SouthAsianSeasProgram

SIDS SmallIslandDevelopingStates

SLM SustainableLandManagement

SLR SeaLevelRise

SME SmallandMediumEnterprises

SNAP StrategicNationalActionPlan

SRES SpecialReportonEmissionsScenarios

SST SeaSurfaceTemperature

STELCO StateElectricLimitedCompany

TRA TransportRegulatingAuthority

TPMP TerminalPhase‐outManagementPlan

UNEP UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgram

UNESCO UnitedNationsEducation,ScientificandCulturalOrganisation

UNCCD UnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertification

UNISDR UnitedNationsInternationalStrategyforDisasterReduction

UV Ultraviolet

WCCM WetlandConservationandCoralReefMonitoringForAdaptatonToClimateChange

WRM WaterResourceManagement

WHO WorldHealthOrganization


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Overview

TheMHEinitiatedthepublicationoftheSOEin1994toassesstheissuesanddevelopmentof

theenvironment.Theaim is tomake theenvironment informationeasilyaccessible toall the

stakeholders of our environment. The publication is a precise reference pertaining to the

environment within the scenario of information available in the country. SOE highlights the

changes that have occurred, socially economically and environmentally.SOE 2011 addresses

Energy,Environmentalgovernance,ChemicalandtoxicologyandTsunamirecoveryinaddition

tothe5keyenvironmentalissuesidentifiedinSOE2004.These5areasareClimatechangeand

sea level rise, Water and sanitation, Waste management, Pollution and Biodiversity

conservation. SOEalsohighlights the socio‐economic statusof the countrywhich emphasizes

theinterlinkbetweenenvironment,economicandsocialissues.

Socio‐economicDevelopment

IntheMaldives,whereonlylessthan1%ofthetotalareaislandsuitableforhumanhabitation,

populationgrowthhas farmore serious consequences thanmanyother countriesworldwide.

PopulationofMaldivesgrowsabout1.76%perannumandhadalarmingly increased inward

migrationtothecapitalcityforbetterlivelihoodcausingmajorenvironmentalimplications.The

Maldives population reached 319,740 by 2010 in which 56% is comprised of children and

youth.Onethirdofthepopulationlivesinthecapital,Male’,whichhasanareaoflessthan2sq.

km. The rest of the population is scattered over approximately 193 islands. The average

population sizeof these islands is900and theaveragehousehold size is6.5. With regard to

humandevelopmenttrends,thecountryrankshighamongtheAsia‐Pacificcountries.However

there isgrowingyouthunemploymentagainst thebackgroundofgenerally lowratesof labor

forceparticipationespeciallyforwomen.

Theecologicallyfragilecoralatollswithapopulationofover300,000peoplescatteredover194

islands is economically dependent on fishing and tourism; both sectors are fragile and

vulnerable to external factors as well as natural disasters. The Maldives’ economic base is

extremelynarrowanddominatedbytourismaccountingover27percentofGDPintherecent

years.Followingthetourismsector,fisheries,constructionandcommerceplayasignificantrole

intheMaldivianeconomybycontributingbetween5–10percentoftheGDPeach.TheAsian

tsunami of 2004 severely affected the Maldivian economy, causing major destruction of

infrastructureandassets,especiallythoseinthetourismandfisheriessector.Changingdrivers

such as population activities and consumption patterns places increasing pressures on the

environmentandseriouspersistentbarrierstosustainabledevelopmentremains.


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ClimateChange

Twodecadeson thescientificevidenceof climatechange isoverwhelming toMaldiveswhere

80%oftheislandsarelessthanameterabovesealevel.Nationalindicatorsandforecastsshow

that extreme events in terms of sea level rise, precipitations temperature and storm events

have theprobabilityofoccurringmoreoften in the future.Majoradaptation related initiative

include replicating locally appropriate coastal protection measures throughout the country.

SLM andWRM are initiated as part of the strategy tomainstream risk planning and climate

changeadaptationintothepolicyandplanningframeworkacrossallsectors.Achievingcarbon

neutrality by year 2020 is the priority and as such promoting renewable energy, energy

efficiencyandphasingofHCFCaremajormitigationrelatedinitiatives.

Thoughattheinstitutionandtechnical levelknowledgewithregardtoclimatechange

riskanddifferentoptiontomanagemayhaveincreasedovertheyears,atthelocallevel

understanding is poor and weak. This has contributed to local development choices and

individual actions that have unwittingly increased the vulnerability of the population and

economicassetstocurrentandfutureclimatechangerisks. TheSAP2009‐2013,NEAP3and

NSDS 2009 of the government provides the contextual background for environment

management, which highlights climate change as an extraordinary environmental challenge

focusingonadaptationanddisasterriskmitigationaspriorityareas.

Maldivescontinuetohighlightthespecialvulnerabilityofthelowlyingsmalldevelopingisland

statestothepredictedclimatechangeandingettingattentiontothisissueintheinternational

arena.Tocallattentiontoclimateanditsimpacttothecountryhadtheworld'sfirstunderwater

Cabinetmeeting in October 2009. A documentary feature filmwhich highlights theMaldives

efforts to combat climate change and rising sea levels is premiered at an international film

festivalin2011.ACCACrepresentingallstakeholdersincludinggovernment,businessandcivil

societywasformedinrecognitionthatclimatechangeiseveryone’sconcernandresponsibility.

WaterandSanitation

The shallow ground water aquifers have been extracted for years and in many islands the

aquifersaredepletedbecausetheextractionofwaterexceedsnaturalrechargethroughrainfall

andalsoduetointrusionofsaltandwastewaterintotheaquifer.Wastewaterincludessewage

water, waste water from industrial activities (including hazardous wastewater) and waste

waterfrompooragriculturalpractices.InMale’,desalinatedwaterhasbeenusedforhousehold

consumptionsince1985.CurrentlyeachhouseholdandcommercialestablishmentinMale’have


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accesstodesalinatedwater. Inthe islands, thesituation isdifferentrelyingonrainwatertoa

greatextent.Rainwaterharvestingisatraditionalpracticeandcurrentlyalmosteachhousein

the islands will have a HDPE tank donated by the government after the Tsunami of 2004.

Rainwater is the primary source of drinking water in 90% of the outer islands with

groundwater being used forwashing, and for other domestic uses. At present government is

encouraging private sector to participate and invest in the provision of water supply and

sanitation services. At the same time, utilities companies have been set up in 6 provinces to

managethedeliveryoftheseservicesintheislands.

WasteManagement

Wastedisposal isanactivity thatcompounds thevulnerabilityof the islands inMaldives.The

primarylandfillinMaldives,Thilafushi,liesinthemiddleoftheoceanand90%oftheislandsin

Maldiveshavetheirwastedisposalsiteswithin100mofcoastlineandontheocean‐wardsideof

the island.There are two collection yards inMale’ andone inVillingili.There is nomunicipal

collectionsystemforhouseholdwaste.InMale’wastecollectioniscarriedoutbyindividualson

bicycle, by individuals using hand cart and by twoprivate operators. Segregation ofwaste is

mostlydoneatthecollectionyardsatThilafushi.Itisuncleartowhatextenthazardouswasteis

identifiedassuchinMaldives.Wastedisposalpracticesvaryamongislandsdependingonaccess

todisposalfacilities,localcustomandgovernment/municipalintervention.Householdsusually

carry theirwaste tocollectionsites.Thesesites canrange fromadesignatedwastecollection

site,seaside(beachside),landreclamationsite,bushes,andback/frontyard.Inaddition,waste

isoftenburntregularlyatthecollectionsiteinsomeislands.

TheEnvironmentProtectionandPreservationAct(Law4/93)istheprimarylegalinstrument

for environmentalmanagement in theMaldives and EPA is the custodian of the law. ADraft

SolidWasteManagementRegulationswerealsoreleasedAugust2009andisyettobefinalized.

Tourismwasteisaddressedthroughaseparateregulation,theRegulationontheProtectionand

ConservationofEnvironmentintheTourismIndustry,Law2/99(2008).Theregulationoutlines

stringent waste management requirements for resorts, including source separation. The

Decentralisation Law transferred the responsibility of the waste management of islands to

island councils,whowere elected in February 2011.Male’ city council is responsible for the

managementofwasteinGreaterMale’Area.


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Pollution

Pollution in terms of air quality is more pronounced inMale’ while in the islands in can be

generally termed good, as islands are smallwith sea breeze flushing the airmasses over the

island.InMale’,thecapitalpollutionisoftenstatedasanemerginghealthhazard.Thecapacity

to study the air pollution is limited and air quality standards are yet to be establishedwith

regular monitoring activities. The deteriorating status of air quality is evident through

increasingtrendinlandtransport,importsoffuel,andconstructionrelatedactivities.

Groundwaterpollutioniscommonthroughoutthecountry.Groundwateraquifervariesfrom

islandtoislandandishighlyvulnerabletocontaminationfrominadequatesanitationfacilities

andotherhumanactivities,solidwasterun‐off,overexploitationandsalineintrusionthrough

soil erosion and flooding. The regulatory authorities EPA and TRA develop technical and

financialguidelinesandstandardsforassessmentandmonitoringprocedures.Theenforcement

ofthestandardsandguidelinesaretargetedtowardscontrollingpollution.

ConservationofBiologicalDiversity

The biodiversity or the degree of variation of life within the marine ecosystem is rich and

diversewhiletheterrestrialbiodiversityislimitedcharacterizedbythegeomorphicstructureof

theislands.Thepressuresandthreatsonbiodiversityhavebeeninexistenceoverlongperiods

oftimeandwillcontinuefordecadestocome.Thechallengeisthedifficulttradeoffsinfindinga

balancebetweeneconomicgrowth,socialequityandconservationofenvironment.Extractionof

branchedcoralandsand,overfishingofreefspeciesandreoccurringofcoralbleachingevents

are the major threats to marine biodiversity.Pressures to terrestrial biodiversity are caused

mainlybyremovalofvegetation,diseasestoplantscausedbypests,anduseof fertilizersand

chemicals.Thenegativeeffectsofthesepressuresarecontinuouslymonitoredandminimized

through enforcement of regulations and awareness programs which are set up under the

policiesandstrategiesofMHEandMOFA.Underthislegalprotectedstatushavebeengivento

differentareasandspeciesintheMaldivestonegatethepressuresandthreatstobiodiversity

andonemajor outcomewas thedeclaration of,BaaAtoll as a biosphere reserve in 29 June

2011.TheEnvironmentProtectionandPreservationAct1993providethelegaljustificationfor

the protection of the biodiversitywithMHE,MOFA, andMOTACplayingmajor roles towards

conservationofbiodiversity.


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ChemicalsandToxicology

Thecapacity tostudyandanalysis thesituation inchemicalusage is limitedwithnobaseline

information established, to determine whether chemical usage within the country is an

emerging health issue. Statistics pertaining to the chemicals imported into the country is

unavailable,althoughpriorpermissionfromtheMODNSisrequiredbeforeimportingchemicals

into the country. Rapid developments and urbanization of the country have resulted in an

increase in the import anduse of chemicals and related components.Data on imports reveal

that the inMaldives use of pesticides for agricultural purposes is common and increasing in

ruralislandswhichisacauseforconcern.

Control and regulation of chemicals is split between different organizations. Pesticides are

regulated through theMOFAwhichprocess the requestof importsof chemicals. MFDAalso

playanimportantrole inapprovalofpublichealthpesticides.TheMDNSismandatedbyLaw

4/75, Lawon ImportationofProhibited Items to theMaldives to regulate, amongothers, the

import of dangerous chemicals into the country. Planned efforts towards strengthening the

foundationsofchemicalmanagementincludesadraftbillonpesticideswhichiscurrentlyopen

forpublicconsultation.ThisNationalPesticideActwillbethemajorlegalinstrumenttoregulate

import,useanddisposeall typesofpesticide inthecountry.TheEnvironmentandProtection

and Preservation of Act (Law no 4/93) ofMHE has its provisions on environmentally sound

managementofhazardouswaste,chemicalsandoil.

Energy

In March 2009 the government unveiled plans to make the country carbon neutral. These

measureswere announced in the face of starkwarnings from scientists that rising sea levels

evenbyonemetercouldengulftheMaldivesandotherlowlyingnationsrenderingtheislands

almostentirelyuninhabitable.

Carbon neutrality is planned to be achieved in 2020. With an estimated forecast of energy

demandof85%increase intheMaleregionand77%intheprovincesby2020(Auditreport

2010),theneedforundertakingurgentmeasuresbecomesallmoretheimportant.ForMaldives

to become carbon neutral by the year 2020 the increasing demand for energy need to be

reduced.Thegovernmentappointedataskforcetodeliberateonthevariouspre‐requisitesand

requirements for reducing energy sector carbon emissions in line with overall objective of

carbon neutrality. A roadmap in the energy sector to reduce dependence on fossil fuelswas

developedwhichwasbuildon5 interventions.Theyarepromotinguseof renewable energy,


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becomingmoreenergyefficient,cleanertransportationsystem,,wastemanagementandcarbon

sequestrationandoffsetting.Todayuseof renewable energy is encouragedwithanumberof

national level initiatives being implemented. To encourage use of renewable energy import

dutiesonelectricandrenewableenergypoweredvehiclesarewaived.Atthesametimeimport

dutiesonsolarpanelsandsolarpanelbatteriesusedinmarinevesselsisalsowaived.Regional

utilities companies are planned to purchase electricity produced by renewable energy

companiestothegridattherateRf3.50perunitofelectricity.Topromotedandimplementthe

renewableenergypolicyREIOwasalsoestablished. TheSAP2009‐2013,theNationalEnergy

Policy2009‐2013andNationalEnergyActionPlan2009‐2013ofthegovernmentprovidesthe

contextualbackgroundforenergypolicyofthecountry.

PreTsunamiStatus

Maldivesishighlyvulnerabletoclimatechangeanditsconsequences,whichwasprovenbythe

Asian Tsunami of 26 December 2004 in which 35% of the 198 inhabited islands were

categorizedashighorveryhighimpactedislands.TheTsunamicauseddamageanddestruction

on a nationwide scale in the Maldives. Eighty two people died and 26 are still missing or

presumed dead. Over one‐third of the population was directly affected by the Tsunami, and

some 29,000 people had to leave their homes. All but nine inhabited islands were either

partiallyorwhollyflooded.Seawallswerebreachedonmostislands,causingsevereflooding,

andinsomecasesislandsweresubmergedandremainedsoforfewdays.Theeconomicdamage

and losses were the equivalent of 62 percent of the country’s GDP. Fifty three islands

experienced severe damage to infrastructure and environment. Flooding wiped out power

plants,communicationequipments,contaminatedwatersupplies, irrevocablydamagedjetties,

harbors,causeways,agriculturallandandequipments,andfishingvesselsandequipment.The

Tsunami of 26December 2004, thus, represented the worst natural disaster in the country’s

history.Almost7yearsaftertheTsunami,recoveryworkhasbeenalmostfinishedforsomeof

thesectors.Communitiesimpactedhaverevivedtheirlivelihoods.Reconstructionofhousesand

settlements including redevelopment of public infrastructure are nearly completed. Both

educationandhealthsectorhaverecoveredfromtheimpacts.

EnvironmentalGovernance

ConservationandprotectionoftheenvironmentisessentialforsurvivalfortheMaldivesasthe

challenges facing the country directly impacts the people, economy and the society. Under

environmentalgovernance theroleand functionsof internationalorganization, stateandcivil

society has becomes ever more important today as the country is highly susceptible to the


19 |P a g e

effectsofclimatechangewithrisingsealevelsandcoastalerosion.Article22oftheConstitution

of the Maldives states that it is a fundamental duty to protect and preserve the natural

environment of the country for the benefit of present and future generations. The State is to

undertake and promote desirable economic and social goals through ecologically balanced

sustainabledevelopment. Henceenvironmentalrelatedissueshavebeenfeaturedhighonthe

SAP 2009 ‐2013 and sector policy documents such as the NEAP 3 and NSDS 2009‐2013.

SimilarlyovertheyearstheNGOcommunityhasalsoprogressedwith700newNGOsregistered

in the Maldives though comparatively few are regularly active. The challenge for the

government and the civil society is finding a balance between economic growth and social

equityandtheconservationandprotectionoftheenvironment.

Acriticalopportunityforsupportwasthedonorconferenceheldin2010.Theforumwasoneof

themostopportunemomentsforinternationaldonorstoassistthecountryinunderscoringits

commitmentsandfulfillingitspeoples’expectations.OfthefiveprioritiesCCAwasakeyarea.

FundingneedsforclimatechangeandadaptationwasestimatedatUS$175,890,345millionand

washighlightedintheMaldivesDonorConferenceof2010.


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Maps


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Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning


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1. TheMaldivianSetting

1.1 GeographyandLand

TheRepublicofMaldivescomprises1,190small, low‐lyingislandsgroupedinto26atollsthat

togetherformachainover820kilometersinlength,overanareaofmorethan90,000square

kilometers in the Indian Ocean. These islands stretch from latitude 7° 6’35’’N, crossing the

equatorandextendingupto0°42’24’’Sandbetweenlongitudes72°33’19’’Eand73°46’13’’E.

Theislandsareflat,withverylowelevationofhardly1.5metersabovethesealevel.Locatedon

the600km longLaccadivesChagossubmarineridge, thesecoralatollsextend into thecentral

IndianOcean from the south‐west coast of the Indian sub‐continent. TheExclusive Economic

Zone(EEZ),boundariesof theMaldivesaresharedwithSriLankaand Indiaon thenortheast

andtheChagosIslandsonthesouth.

ItisbelievedthattheMaldiveswasformedabout65‐225millionyearsagointheMesozoicEra

(Maniku,1990).ThereismorethanasingletheoryonhowtheMaldiveswasformed,andoneof

themsuggests that theMaldivesgrewabove founderedcontinental crustal segments (Maniku

1990).Gardiner(1902,1903)suggeststhatcurrenterosionandsubsequentlyformedatollsby

thegrowthoforganismsformedthemainMaldivesplateau.

Geographically theMaldives is made up of 26 natural atolls which vary enormously both in

shapeandsize.ThelargestatollisHuvadhuAtollwithanareaofapproximately2800squarekm

(MPND2000)and thesmallestatollThoddooAtollhasanarea in theorderof5.4squarekm

(MHAHE,2001).Thecharacteristicsoftheatolls,reefsandreefislandsvaryconsiderablyfrom

northtosouth.Thenorthernatollsarebroadbanks,discontinuouslyfringedbyreefswithsmall

reef islandsandwithnumerouspatchreefsand faros in the lagoon(Woodroffe,1989). In the

southernatolls, farosandpatchreefsarerarer in the lagoon, thecontinuityof theatollrimis

greater,andlargerproportionoftheperimeteroftheatollsisoccupiedbyislands.

The islands differ depending on location, form and

topography (Woodroffe 1989). The variance of size

among the islands is from0.5 squarekm toaround

5.0 square km and in shape from small sandbanks

with sparse vegetation to elongated strip islands.

While storm ridges are foundat the seaward edges

of many islands, few have swampy depression


23 |P a g e

centre.ThelargestislandisGaninLaamuAtollwithanareaof5.16squarekm(MPND2000).

AlthoughadetailedlandsurveyoftheentireMaldiveshasnotbeenconductedyet,thetotalland

area of theMaldives is estimated at 300 square km. The distribution of inhabited islands by

islandsizeisshowninFig1.1andthetenlargestislandsintheMaldivesaregivenintable1.1.

Atoll IslandName Area(km) Population(2006)

1. Laamu Gan 5.166 2502

2. Seenu Hithadhoo 4.673 9465

3. Gnaviyani FuvahMulah 4.200 7636

4. Laamu Isdhoo 2.937 1559

5. Kaafu Kaashidhoo 2.765 1696

6. Seenu Gan* 2.649

7. GaafuDhaalu Gan** 2.636

8. HaaDhaalu Hanimaadhoo 2.595 1184

9. HaaAlifu Baarah 2.488 1203

10. HaaAlifu Filladhoo 2.259 548

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

0‐9

10 ‐1

9

20 ‐2

9

30 ‐3

9

40 ‐4

9

50 ‐9

9

100 ‐1

49

150 ‐1

99

200‐299

300‐399

400 ‐4

99

over 5

00

Number of islands

Area in hectares

Fig1.1Thedistributionofinhabitedislandbyislandssize

Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning2011

Table1.1:‐TenlargestislandsintheMaldives



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1.2 Climate

TheMaldiveshasawarmandhumidclimate.Theweatherisdominatedby2monsoonperiods:

thesouthwest(rainy)monsoonwhichoccursfromMaytoNovemberandthenortheast(dry)

monsoonwhichoccursfromJanuarytomarchwhenwindsblowpredominantlyfromeitherof

thesetwodirections.Therelativehumidityrangesfrom71%to84%.

The daily temperature of the country varies little throughout the year with a mean annual

temperatureof28.During2009,themeandailyminimumtemperaturerecordedforMale’was

26.3⁰CandthemeandailymaximumtemperaturerecordedforMale’is31.1⁰C.OnMay1991,a

temperature of 36.8⁰Cwas recorded at Gadhdhoometeorological office which is the highest

temperatureeverrecorded in theMaldiveswhile theminimumtemperatureeverrecorded in

theMaldiveswas17.2⁰CwhichwasrecordedattheNationalMeteorologicalCentreon11thApril

1978.

Eightrainfallstationsmeasuretherainfallpatternsthroughoutthecountryanditisevidentthat

therearevariationsinrainfallfromnorthtosouththroughtheatollchainwiththesouthbeing

wetter and the north being drier. In 2010 averagemonthly and annual rainfall forMale’ are

183.4mm and 2201.5mm respectively. During this year July, August and November are the

wettestmonthswhilethedriestisJanuary,FebruaryandMarch.Therehasbeenconsiderable

interannualvariationinrainfall from1407mmto2711mmoverthelast14years. Figure1.2

showsaverageannualrainfallandtotaldurationofsunshineforMale’forthisperiod.

2400

2500

2600

2700

2800

2900

3000

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009

sunshine (hrs)

rainfall (in m

m)

Years

Annual rainfall (millimeters) Total duration of sunshine (hours)

Fig1.2:Annualrainfallandtotaldurationofsunshine1995‐2009

Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2010


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On9thJuly2002Kaadedhdhoometeorologicalofficerecordedarainfallof219.8mmwhichisthe

highestrainfalleverrecordedintheMaldiveswithina24hourperiod.

Thecurrentregime in the IndianOcean isstrongly influencedbythemonsoonclimate. In the

regionoftheMaldivesduringtheNorthEastmonsoonperiodthecurrentsflowwestward,and

theyfloweastwardduringtheSouthWestmonsoonperiod.Theoceancurrentsflowingthrough

thechannelsbetweentheatollsaredrivenbythemonsoonwinds.Generallythetidalcurrents

areeastwardinfloodandwestwardinebb.

TheswellsandwavesexperiencedbytheMaldivesareconditionedbytheprevailingbi‐annual

monsoon wind directions and are normally strongest during April‐July in the South West

monsoonperiod.Duringthisseason,swellsgeneratednorthoftheEquatorwithheightsof2‐3m

with periods of 18‐20s have been reported in the region. However, the Maldives also

experiencesswellsoriginatingfromcyclonesandstormsoccurringwellsouthoftheEquator.It

is reported that strongstorms in the southernhemisphere in theareaofWestAustraliawith

directiontowardstheMaldivesoccursduetoswellwavesfromsoutheast.Theswellwavesthe

reachedmaleandHulhulein1987hadsignificantwaveheightsintheorderof3m(JICA,1987).

Localwavesperiodsaregenerallyintherange2‐4sandareeasilydistinguishedformtheswell

waves.

Hydrographically the Maldives is characterized by a seasonal fluctuating mixed layer of

relatively salinewater from the Arabian Sea (360/00) and less salinewater from the Bay of

Bengal (340/00). A rapid downward decrease in temperature to below 20⁰C occurs at 90 to

100m depth. The sea surface temperatures (SST) do not vary much throughout the year.

GenerallytheaveragemonthsSSTrangedbetween28‐29⁰Cwithmaximumtemperaturesrarely

over 30⁰C. The mean monthly SST rises

from low in December/January to high

usually in April/May. The average

seasonalrise isabout1.3⁰C in thecentral

atolls. However during May 1998 the

mean monthly SST was 1.1⁰C above the

highest mean monthly SST (30.3⁰C)

expected inany20yearperiod(Edwards

etal2001).


26 |P a g e

1.3 MarineandCoastalAreas

The dominant natural environment of the Maldives is the marine environment. Outside the

atollsthedeepoceancoversalargeareaandtheEEZandtheterritorialwatersoftheMaldives

cover an area of 859000 square km and 115000 square km respectively. The marine

environment insidetheatolls ismadeupof lagoonsandreefsmakingupabout21300square

km(MPHRE,1998).

ThewaterdepthvariesconsiderablywithintheMaldivianwaters.Thelagoonwaterswithinthe

atollshavedepthsrangingfrom30‐80mwiththedepth increasing fromnortherntosouthern

atolls.MostlagoonsoftheatollsopenintotheIndianOcean,andinsomeinstancesthechannels

throughtheatollmarginareasdeepasthelagoonitself.Theoceanfloorfallsabruptlytogreat

depthsmeasuringupto2000mormoreattheoutermarginofthetwoatollchains.However,at

theinnersideofthetwoatollchainstheoceanfloorhaslessdepth.Themainchanneldividing

theeasternandwesternchainofatollsisbetween250and300mdeep.Theeast‐westchannels

thatdividetheatollsaredeeperwithdepthsofmorethan1000.

Atoll lagoonsencloseavarietyof reefstructures including faros,micro‐atolls,patch‐reefsand

knolls.Farosareringshapedreefsemergingduringtidallowwaterwiththeirownsandylagoon

andarimoflivingcoralconsistingofbranchedandmassivecorals.Deepchannelsthatsurround

thesereefsandfarosareuniquetotheatollsofMaldives.Patchesriseto30mabovethelagoon

floor the top ofwhich have robustwave braking corals. Knolls do not reach the surface and

oftensupportprofusecoralgrowth(Naseer,1997).

Theislanditselfissand,andchangestocoralrubbleasthereefedgeisapproached.Theouter

slopesareverysteepandareadowntoabout15miscoveredlushcoralonahealthyreef.The

outer reef slope is characterized a series of reef terraces at depths of 3‐6m, 13‐30m, and a

deeper on at 15m representing past sea level skill strands. Themodern coral growth veneer

overolder reef rockbut theexisting community is constructionaldown toadepthof at least

15m.IntheupperlevelsreefbuildingisbyZooxanthellatecorals.Indeeperzonesreefbuilding

is sometimes by a Azooxanthellate branching corals. Several species Lithophaga, various

Polychaete worms and several species of boring sponges are some of the boring organisms

found in Maldivian corals. Cliona Schmidtii, the blue boring sponge is very common in the

Maldives.


27 |P a g e

Ageo‐chemicalanalysisof thereefsemphasized therelativelypristinenatureof theMaldives

marineenvironment.Analysisofcoralskeletonsforcommonheavymetalsshowedvaluesthat

were below detection limits in all cases. Values of extraneous organics in coral tissueswere

foundtobetypicallylowexceptforhydrocarbonresiduesfoundincoralsnearanislandwhich

stores fuel (RiskandSluka,2000).Thewhite sandybeachesand thevegetation foundon the

islandperipheryarehighlyimportantintheMaldivesislandecosystem.Theyformanimportant

protection for the housing and infrastructure near to the shore and are the main source of

incomeforthetourismindustry.70%ofthetouristswhovisittheMaldiveshasbeenidentified

astouristswhovisitprimarilyforbeachholidaying.

Oneof themost seriousenvironmental issues theMaldives islands face isbeacherosion.The

sandatthebeachandtheshorelinearebeingwashedoffatagreaterratethanitisaccretedon

manyislands.Theprocessofcoastalerosionandaccretionisextremelycomplexwiththeinter‐

relationstooceanographic,climatic,geological,biologicalandterrestrialprocesseswithhuman

intervention affecting the growth and the stability of the reefs and island structures. The

prevailingseasonalconditionsmaygraduallyshifttheshapeaswellasthepositionoftheisland

by strong beach erosion and accretion on either side of the island as the beach systems are

highlydynamicinnature.

1.4 Population

Of the total 1192 islands, only 194 are inhabited. The islands are small in size, 33 inhabited

islandshavea landareaofmore thanonesquarekilometers.Theregisteredpopulationasof

December 2009 is 332,992 of which 56% are comprised of children and youth. Percent of

femalepopulationremainsmoreorlessequaltothatofmen.Onethirdofthepopulationlives

inthecapital,Male’,whichhasanareaof lessthan2squarekm.Therestof thepopulation is

scatteredoverapproximately193islands.Theaveragepopulationsizeoftheseislandsis900.

Maldiveshasarelativelyyoungpopulationwithalmost41percentunder15yearsofageand

around3percentover65yearsofage.Withregardtohumandevelopmenttrends,thecountry

rankshigh among theAsia‐Pacific countries. The currentdemographic transitionposes a key

concern to young people, their families, and to the Government. There is growing youth

unemployment against the background of generally low rates of labor force participation

especiallyforwomen.Theremotenessandinaccessibilityoftheislandspresentsachallengein

deliveryofbasicservices.Theconcentrationofthepopulationonthecapitalislandhasalsoled

to problems of overcrowding, the rising cost of living and other social problems such as

narcoticsabuseandgangviolence.


28 |P a g e

1.5 Administration

SinceStateof theEnvironment (SOE)2004, therehavebeensignificant changes in legislative

andadministrativestructurewiththechangeofgovernmenton11November2008throughthe

firstmultipartyelection.TheGovernmentembarkedonestablishingalocalgovernancesystem

with the aim of strengthening local democracy and addressing economic and social

development issues arising from highly centralized government. Based on the principles of

decentralizedadministrationlaidoutinChapterEightofthe2008Constitution,governmenthas

aimedtoachievethisthroughtheimplementationofatwo‐foldProgramofRegionalizationand

Decentralization.Regionalizationwasplannedthroughdividingthecountryintosevenregions

withtheaimofachievingefficientandeffectiveservicedeliveryatlocallevels.Clusteringtwo

or more atolls to form a region or province can provide effective and efficient planning,

co‐ordinationandmanagementasameanstofacilitateeffectiveadministrativedecentralization

andacceleratedevelopmentintheislands.Thiswouldinturn,reducethesocial,economicand

developmentaldisparitiesbetweenthecapitalislandMale’andtherestofthecountry.

With passing of Decentralization Act, 184 administrative island divided among 19 atolls are

listeddeclaringSeenuatollasacityunderthenameofAdduCity.Followingthisthecountry's

firstever localcouncilelectionswereheldtoelect188islandcouncils,19atollcouncilsand2

citycouncils.FuvahmulahIslandelected8wardcouncils.Awardcouncilisatthesamerankof

anislandcouncil.ThiswasdonesinceFuvahmulahwasalsoanatoll,havinganatollcouncil.

Thegovernment’sobjectiveistofacilitatepeopleorienteddevelopmentbyempoweringcitizens

andpromotingdemocracyatlocallevelsthroughDecentralization.

Thestrategiesidentifiedtoachievethisobjectiveareasfollows:

1.Developingrepresentativelocalinstitutionsatisland/atolllevel,wherebythepeoplelivingin

theislandsandatollswilltakepartindecidingtheirownaffairs.

2. Bringing the Government closer to the people by delegating and devolving centrally

controlled functions including service delivery functions to the island, atoll/ province levels

throughelectedIslandCouncilsandAtollCouncilsineachprovince,andanelectedCityCouncil

inthecapitalislandMale’.

3. Creating an enabling environment and a vibrant civil society to strengthen governance at

locallevel.

4. Introducing new strategies for financing and sustaining development at all levels through

communityempowerment.


29 |P a g e

Island offices

Formulation and implementation of Island Development Plans according Atoll Development Plans and the national policies

Province and Atoll offices

Formulating and implemention of the Atoll Development Plans according to the national policies

Sector Ministries

Formulating policies at the national level

5. Developing local administrations and strengthening links between local functionaries and

nationalauthoritiesasawaytoseekcoordinatednationaldevelopment throughout theseven

regions.

6. Developing an operational framework and a process for planning and managing local

development,basedontheinspirationsofthepeopleinthelocalities.

7.Bringingeconomiesofscalewhichwouldfacilitatemarketdecentralization.

To implement regionalizationanddecentralization thePresidentappointedStateMinisters to

allsevenregions.Communityconsultationworkshopstofamiliarizethepublicwiththeconcept

of regionalization and decentralization are being conducted in all seven provinces. With

implementation of administrative decentralization, the Government envisions the

establishment of a three‐tier sub‐national governance structure,with the sectorministries at

the national level, the Province Offices and Atoll Council Office at the regional level and the

IslandCouncilOfficeattheIslandlevel(Fig1.3).

Province Offices established in each administrative province act as the government

representatives in their respective region. The Province Offices will be responsible for

formulatingandcoordinatingregionaldevelopmentprograminaccordancewiththe lawsand

nationallevelpoliciesandestablishingamechanismforefficientdeliveryofservicesatregional,

atollandislandlevelsinco‐ordinationwithsectorministriesatthenationallevel.TheProvince

OfficewillbeheadedbyaStateMinisterinconsolidationwiththeMinistryofHomeAffairsand

thenewlyestablishedLocalGovernmentAuthoritysupportedbytheappointeddeputiestothe

Fig1.3:Theadministrativestructure


30 |P a g e

State Minister. The functions of line Ministries will be carried out by Civil Servants under

Ministers.

The decentralization program has been planned with the vision that people will migrate by

choicetoregionswheremoreprosperityandbetterservicesareavailable.TheGovernmenthas

putinplaceanationaltransportationsystemasameanstoovercomethetransportationbarrier

throughout the nation. Thus, instead ofmeasures for resettlement in other localities through

incentive benefits, measures assisting voluntary migration will, in time, facilitate the

achievement of the policy of population consolidation. Table 1.2 outlines the administrative

regionsbyprovinceandpopulationandTable1.3outlinestheadministrativeatollsbyislands.

Provincelocal

Name

Province Atolls Capital Populationof

Provinceas

ofDecember

2009

MathiUthuru UpperNorth

Province

HaaAlifu,HaaDhaalu,

Shaviyani

HDh

Kulhudhufushi

59768

Uthuru NorthProvince Noonu,Raa,Baa,

Lhaviyani

LhNaifaru 59568

Male’ Male’ Male’ Male’ 56917

MedhuUthuru NorthCentral

Province

Kaafu,AlifuAlifu,Alifu

Dhaalu,Vaavu

Maafushi 29824

Medhu CentralProvince Meemu,Faafu,Dhaalu Dh.

Kudahuvadhoo

18709

MathiDhekuni UpperSouth Thaa,Laamu L.Gan 28120

MedhuDhekunu SouthCentral GaafuAlifu,Gaafu

Dhaalu

GDhThinadhoo 32108

Dhekunu South Gnaviyani,Seenu S.Hithadhoo 39978

Table1.2:AdministrativeRegionsbyProvince

Source:MinistryofHomeAffairs,2011


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AtollName Alternative

AtollName

Inhabited

Islands

Industrial

Islands

Airports Resorts2010

Thiladhunmathi

UthuruBuri

HaaAlifu 14 2 1 7

Thiladhunmathi

DhekunuBuri

HaaDhaalu 13 7 6

Miladhunmadulu

UthuruBuri

Shaviyani 14 5 6

Miladhunmadulu

DhekunuBuri

Noonu 13 4 8

Maalhosmadulu

UthuruBuri

Raa 15 6

Maalhosmadulu

DhekunuBuri

Baa 13 4 10

Faadhihpolhu Lhaviyani 5 8 6

Male’ Kaafu 9 1 60

AriAtholhuUthuru

Buri

AlifuAlifu 8 12

AriAtholhu

DhekunuBuri

AlifuDhalu 10 1 16

FelidheAtholhu Vaavu 5 3

MulakuAtholhu Meemu 8 1 3

NilandhiAtholhu

UthuruBuri

Faafu 5 1 1

NilandhiAtholhu

DhekunuBuri

Dhaalu 7 1 6

Kolhumadulu Thaa 13 5 5

Hahdhunmathi Laamu 11 7 1 4

HuvadhuAtholhu

UthuruBuri

GaafuAlifu 9 1 11

HuvadhuAtholhu

DhekunuBuri

GaafuDhaalu 9 2 1 9

Fuvahmulah Gnaviyani 1 1

AdduCity Seenu 1 1 5

Male’(capital) 1

MALDIVES 184 49 5 185

Note:Resortsincludeexistingandupcomingresorts

Table1.3:Administrativeregions,byAtollsandIslands

Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanning,MinistryofTourismArtsandCulture.GovernmentGazette,www.gazzette.com.mv,2011


32 |P a g e

1.6 NaturalandCulturalHeritage

Naturalheritageisanimportantcomponent,encompassingthenaturalenvironment,including

terrestrial andmarine environmentwith flora and fauna scientifically known as biodiversity.

Themarineenvironmentisrichwith248differentspeciesofcoralsover1100speciesoffishes,

285speciesofalgaebeingrecorded.(MRC2009)Thecountryhasdeclared39protectedareas

of which 25 are marine protected sites, 9 marines species are protected from fishing or

collecting and23birds are alsoprotected (MHE2011). Thesenatural heritages serve as an

importantcomponent in thecountry's tourism industryattractingmanyvisitors fromabroad.

Thousandsofdiversgodivinginthesedesignatedmarineprotectedsites.Lawnumber4/93is

formulated for the protection and preservation of the environment. The law states that

environment of the Maldives is a valuable heritage that has to be preserved for the coming

generations. Under the law protected areas are identified by the Ministry of Housing and

Environment(MHE)andthenecessaryruleandregulationsareformulatedfortheirprotection

andpreservation.

ProtectedareasintheMaldiveslackthenecessaryelementsforeffectivemanagement.Thesites

are protected through legislation with no real funding for outreach and education and

enforcement toprotect them.Alsoduringthe last fewyears,arapidhumanencroachmenton

the terrestrial vegetation, reef andwetland ecosystems of uninhabited islands and inhabited

islands in the Maldives have occurred. Impacts on these islands in the Maldives are

unprecedented, their scale and speed alarming. Harbor dredging, channel blasting with

dynamite and massive reclamation projects modifying the coast and the topography of the

island.Theplacesandvaluesareunderthreatthroughdetrimentalwastemanagementplaces

withalackofunderstanding,skillsorresources.

TodaywiththeimplementationofBaaAtollEcosystemProjectsomepromisingapproachesfor

protectedareamanagementisemerging.Theprojectisbeingimplementedwithsupportofthe

UNDPandtheGlobalEnvironmentFacilitywiththepurposeofdesigninganddemonstratingan

effectivemanagementsystemforatollecosystemconservationandsustainabledevelopmentof

BaaatollwhichcouldthenbereplicatedthroughouttheMaldives.BaaAtollEcosystemprojectis

being implemented integrating cultural values and community participation into natural

resourcemanagementprograms.Baaatollwasselectedasthedemonstrativeatollonaccountof

its globally significant biodiversity. Taking into account the commitment and capacity of the

localcommunityon29June2011theareawasdeclaredasBiosphereReserve.


33 |P a g e

TheMaldivesisalsorichinculturalheritage,butthetaskofdiscoveringandpreservingtherich

heritageoftheMaldivesischallenging.NoofficialinventoryofMaldivianculturalheritagesites

and statement of significance exist although it is recognized that a systematic inventory of

Maldivian heritage sites are necessary for its preservation. Limited funding, the cost of

transportationandthelackofqualifiedpeoplearetheconstraintsconfrontingthesector.

The framework on protection and conservation of heritage is split between different

organizations.Bylawmuchoftheresponsibilityfortheculturalheritagemanagementreston

the Department of Heritage within the Ministry of Tourism, Art and Culture (MTAC). The

National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research (NCLHR), which functioned under the

President office from1979was abolished in 2010 and the functions of the Centre related to

culture, tradition and conservation of historic monuments were assigned to the MTAC. The

objectives of reassigning the functions of the Centre include expanding these functions in a

sustainablemanner.

Since2008Male'HukuruMiskiy/enclosingcemeteryandMinaretispartoftheTentativeListin

order to qualify for inclusion in theWorldHeritage List. Generally cultural heritage sites are

under threat through range of pressures including environmental decline, shifts in land use

pattern,demographicchangewithlackofunderstandingandskillsandresourcestomanagethe

site.


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Keyfindings

PopulationofMaldivesgrowsatabout1.76%perannumandthegovernmentgiveshighpriorityforhousingdevelopmenttoalleviatesocialandenvironmentalchallenges.

Maldiveshasanarroweconomybasedrivenbytourismwhichisvulnerabletoexternalshocks.

AbjectpovertydonotexistintheMaldiveshowever,significantdisparityexist Maldivesfacechallengesinaddressingunemployment,especiallyforwomenand

youth.

2. Socio‐EconomicDevelopment

2.1 Introduction

Population, consumption of natural resources and climate change are considered the broad

factors or pressures of environment changes. Collective increase in human requirements had

lead tooveruseofnatural resources forcing climate change.Theworld’spopulationdoubled

duringthepast50yearsandreached6.2billionbymid2010.Duringthisexuberatinggrowth

period,humanshaddegradedtheEarth’secosystemtoanalarminglevel.Theglobalecological

footprint is currently estimated to exceed the Earth's carrying capacity by 20% (Millennium

EcosystemAssessment, 2005).Thismeans thatwe are livingbeyondourplanet'smeans and

that some renewable natural resources are being harvested at rates higher than they can be

replenished.

In theMaldives,whereonly less than1% of the total area is suitable forhumanhabitation,

populationgrowthhas farmore serious consequences thanmanyother countriesworldwide.

Nevertheless,populationofMaldivesgrowsabout1.76%perannum,andinternalmigrationin

searchofbetterlivelihoods,educationandhealthservices,hasleadtoanalarminglyincreasein

settlementinthecapitalresultinginmajorenvironmentalimplications.

The population policy of the Maldives highlights the need for sustainable development

providingdirectrelationshiptohealth,education,genderandenvironmentalissues.Thepolicy

promotes a healthy generation of people who have equitable access to natural resources,

employmentandincome,housingandinfrastructure,educationandhealthservices.

. Maldives has a relatively young populationwith almost a third below 15 years of age and

around3percentover65yearsofage.Withregardtohumandevelopmenttrends,thecountry

rankshigh among theAsia‐Pacific countries. The currentdemographic transitionposes a key


35 |P a g e

concern to young people, their families, and the government. There is growing youth

unemployment against the background of generally low rates of labor force participation

especiallyforwomen.

2.2 SocialDevelopment

2.2.1 Demographicscenario

Maldivespopulationhasgrownsteadilyduringthepast25yearsandreached319,740in2010.

Thisrepresentsa57%increaseinpopulationsizeoverthe25yearperiod(Fig2.1).

Most environmental problems tend to be aggravated by population size as well as the

populationgrowth.However,theimpactofpopulationsizeandpopulationgrowthisnotdirect

or linear since distinct population groups impinge on the environment in different ways.

Analysis of the existing population records of the Maldives during 1911‐2010, depicts four

significant peaks over the years. The highest peakwas 5.28% in 1958, followed by 3.95% in

1965,3.72%in1972and3.43%in1990(Fig2.2).

Population analysts estimate a 4% growth rate to double the population in 18 years. Recent

statistics compiled by the United Nations,World Population Report (2007),Maldives had an

averagepopulationgrowthrateof1.76%(worldaverage1.17%),ranking70thfastestgrowing

population in theworld.Since1990,demographicstatistics indicatesadecline ingrowthrate

whichcanbeattributedtotheintroductionofmodernpublichealthcareservicesandadopting

modestbirthcontrolprogramsmostlyamongthemoreurbanizedsegmentofthepopulation.

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

350,000

1911

1921

1931

1946

1953

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1974

1977

1985

1990

1995

2000

2006

2010

Fig2.1:‐Population1911‐2010



36 |P a g e

24000 20000 16000 12000 8000 4000 0 4000 8000 12000 16000 20000 24000

0‐4

5‐9

10‐14

15‐19

20‐24

25‐29

30‐34

35‐39

40‐44

45‐49

50‐54

55‐59

60‐64

65‐69

70‐74

75‐79

80+

Population

Age

group

FemalesMales

‐1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1911

1921

1931

1946

1953

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1974

1977

1985

1990

1995

2000

2006

2010

Fig2.2:Populationgrowthrate1911‐2010

Source:Census2006&DepartmentofNationalPlanning

Fig2.3:Populationpyramid2010



37 |P a g e

Since 1990, infant mortality rates have fallen significantly and the country has maintained

almost universal coverage for all vaccines for preventable childhood diseases for over two

decades.Government expendituresonhealth and educationhave increased significantly over

the last two decades. Health expenditures increased from US$24 million in 2000 to almost

US$70millionby2009.

In2006,over thirtypercentof thepopulationwasunder15yearsofage.This figureremains

similar in 2010bydecreasing only onepercentagepoint (Table 2.1). Theprojectedmid‐year

populationestimatesfor2010showsnosignificantdifferenceamongthetwogendercategories

inthedifferentagegroupshavinganaveragesexratio103(Fig2.3).Inbothgender,15‐25age

groupshavethehighestpopulationsizereachingalmost40,000each.

Oversixtysevenpercentofthepopulationfallsundertheworkingagegroupwhichisplacing

extra demand on infrastructure and natural resources. Ensuring food and nutrition security,

housing, employment and educational to the growing population can negatively impact the

country’senvironmenthealth.

Population distribution is the major concern in the Maldives. It is a driver of many

environmentalpressuresinthecountry,includinglossofbiodiversity,congestion,pollutionand

excessivewastegeneration. A significant amountofpeoplemigrates eachyear to the capital

cityforbetterlivelihoodoptions.Since2006,overathirdofthepopulation(Fig3)livesinthe

capitalcitymakingitoneofthehighestdenselypopulatedcitiesintheWorld.Thetotalareaof

Male’ is less than 2 sq. km. The rest of the population is scattered over approximately 193

islandsdisbursedinthearchipelago.

Agegroup Population2006 Population2010

Size Percentage Size Percentage

Under15 93,037 31.1 97,408 30.516‐64 186,904 62.5 215237 67.365andover 16,027 6.4 7,095 2.2Total 295,968 100.0 319,740 100.0

Table2.1:‐Maldivianagestructure2006‐2010

Source:‐Census2006&DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2011


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Theaveragepopulationsizeoftheseislandsis900.Outofthe194inhabitedislands,128havea

population less than a 1000.BesidesMale’ only 2 islands have a populationmore than5000

(table 2.2). Migration within the islands is near to non‐existing. High cost of providing and

maintaininginfrastructureandservicesforawidelydispersedpopulationisnotconsistentwith

No.ofinhabitedislandsbysizeofpopulation

Sizeclass Noofislands

2006 2010

TotalforRepublic 194 194

Lessthan100 5 7

100‐199 11 8

200‐299 18 18

300‐399 18 15

400‐499 20 20

500‐599 18 21

600‐699 12 9

700‐799 11 14

800‐899 12 10

900‐999 6 11

1000‐2000 47 22

2000‐4999 12 36

5000‐9999 3 2

10000andover 1 1

10mostpopulatedislandsintheMaldives

Island Populationsize

Male' 110,897

Hithadhoo 10,123

Fuvammulah 8,167

Kulhudhuffushi 7,484

Thinadhoo 4,751

Naifaru 3,943

Hinnavaru 3,227

Ugoofaaru 3,196

Feydhoo 2,913

Dhidhdhoo 2,687

0

100,000

200,000

300,000

400,000

Total population Population (Male') Population (Rural)

2000

2006

2010

Fig2.4:Populationdistribution(2000‐2006)

Source:Census2006&DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2011

Table2.2:No.ofinhabitedislandsbysizeofpopulationandthe10mostpopulatedislands



39 |P a g e

thepromotionofdevelopment that is economically sustainable.Population consolidationand

developingalternativedestinationstothemigrantsisakeyrequirementforsustainabilityand

reducingenvironmentaldegradationfromhumanactivities.

2.2.2 Infrastructuredevelopment

In the past Maldives have invested into social infrastructure while the services and utilities

infrastructure,especiallythetransportationhadbeenlaggingbehind.Toaddressthisshortfall

the new Government in its electionmanifesto pledges identified developing a transportation

network as a priority. The primary aim is to establish a new maritime/land based public

transportation network to increase accessibility and mobility of people and goods by

incorporating existing networks of private and public transportation networks. The network

haspartiallyestablishedintraatoll,interregionalornationallevelferryservices.Thecombined

terminalswhichincludeharbors,jettiesandothercommercialinfrastructureareintheprocess

ofestablishment.

There are five operational airports in the Maldives; two international and three domestic

airports;wherescheduledflightsoperatedailyfromMale’toallthefourairports.Elevenmore

domestic airports are under current development plan and expansion andmodernization of

IbrahimNasirInternationalAirportisunderway.Thetotaloftwowayinternationalpassenger

traffichashitover1.6millionintheMaldives. Morethan80percentofthistrafficistourists

andholidaymakersvisitingthecountry.Thesetouristsaretransportedtotheirdestinationby

seaplanesoperatedfromtheairportandbyspeedboats.Twoseaplanecompanies,operate72

planeswhichcoversasignificantproportionofthetransportationrequirementofthetourism

industry.

Atpresent,Maldiveshas three internationalports,oneat thecapitalMale’ (Male’Commercial

Harbor), one at North (KulhuduffishiRegional Port) and one at South (Hithadhoo Regional

Port).Atpresent,oneineveryfourforeignshipsthatcalltoMaldivianportsaresubjecttoport

state control inspections. The management of ports also give high priority for preventing

environmentalpollutionbyadoptingstrictpolicies tostopanyvesseldumpingordischarging

intoanyharbor, lagoon,orintoanypartofthewatersoftheRepublicofMaldivesanytypeof

refuse,bunkeroil,sewageandnoxioussubstancesoranymaterial.

Theprovisionofadequateandaffordablehousingacrossthecountryisakeypledgeofthenew

administration. In this regard, the government is seeking private sector participation in

building10,000newhousingunitsacrosstheMaldives.Bytheprovisionof7000housingunits


40 |P a g e

and related social infrastructure in the seven provinces, the Government aims to ease the

congestion in the capital city Male’. The housing units is developed using the neighborhood

conceptwithmajor social infrastructure likemosques, parks and green areas, schools etc at

walkingdistance.

Social infrastructure in termsofhealthandeducationarewelldistributed innumberswithin

the country. More than 195 health and 310 education institutions are in existence however,

quality and level of service are not up to the expectation. At island levelmost children have

accessonlytoprimaryleveleducation.Poorqualityteachers,lackofsupportingmaterialsand

facilities, poor quality classrooms, and poor child nutrition hamper the delivery of quality

education in outer islands. At the same time, over 10,000 studentswho complete secondary

education every year, require postsecondary and vocational education. Unemployment in the

country isnear4.4percentwithwomenandyouthrepresenting the largest share. Providing

suitable skills training is essential to replace expatriate laborwhich, at present, accounts for

nearly a quarter of the labor force. Recently the government has embarked on a vocational

trainingprogramtoprovideskillsfor8600peoplecoveringthemajorsectorstoreplaceatleast

20%oftheexpatriatelaborforce.Upgradingquality,scopeandrelevanceofpostsecondaryand

tertiary education including vocational education are main human resource development

challengesfacingtheMaldives.

Similarly, the existing health infrastructure suffers fromweak support services due to acute

shortageofhumanresourcecapacity.Corporatizingthehealthservicestoprovidequalityhealth

to all citizens is a major policy change that the new government had adopted however, its

impactwillbefeltinthemediumterm.

Harbordevelopment is amajor intervention in thenewdevelopmental agendaof the current

government.Theprogram is expected to contribute to furtherdiversificationof the economy

andimprovetheresilienceof islandandatolleconomies.Currently68harborsaredeveloped,

out of which 78 percent is completed by the new government administration. Harbor

infrastructure development in the islands also aims to promote commercial activities

surroundingtheharborsinanefforttogenerateeconomicactivitiesatislandandregionallevel

toprovidemeaningfulemploymentopportunities,particularlytotheyouth,atislandlevel,and

therebycreatemeansforincomegenerationbypromotingSMEs,tradeandentrepreneurship.

Adetaillistofexistinginfrastructureisprovidedinappendix1.1ofwhichthemostsignificantis

theexistinghotelinfrastructureintheMaldives.


41 |P a g e

2.2.3 Poverty

MaldiveshasachievedtheMillenniumDevelopmentGoal(MDG)1toeradicateextremepoverty

andhunger.Considering theMDGincome levelofonedollarperpersonperdayasreference,

very low levels of absolute and relative poverty can be observed in theMaldives. Therefore,

manycharacteristicsofpovertyfoundintherestofSouthAsiaarenotevidentintheMaldives.

Despite achieving the MDG goals, the concentration of poverty among particular population

groupsisofconsiderableconcern.Itrequirespublicinterventionsaimedatgreaterequityand

redistribution of the gains of economic growth. There is a need to have more relevant and

appropriate strategies forpoverty reduction,becausepoverty in theMaldiviancontextdiffers

from that ofmany other countries,with poverty issueswhich is often related to hardship or

remotenessoftheislandsandlackofservicesintheatolls.

ThepreliminaryresultsofarecentsurveyconductedbytheDepartmentofNationalPlanning

(DNP)reveals that theoverallpovertyhasdeclined in theRepubliccomparedto thestatus in

2003.Theanalysisused8incomepovertylinestocalculateheadcountratioandthepovertygap

ratio.Table2.3providesthepovertylinesandthepercentageheadcountratiowhichindicates

theproportionofthepopulationthatlivesbelowthepovertyline.

Goalandtarget Indication Baselin

e1990

Population

(%)

Target1.A

Havebetween1990and

2015theproportionof

peoplewhoseincomeis

lessthanonedollaraday

1.1Proportionofpeoplebelow$1PPPperday 24 1

‐ProportionofpopulationbelowMRF7.5perday 49 3

‐ProportionofpopulationbelowMRF10perday 59 8

‐ProportionofpopulationbelowMRF15perday 74 21

1.2Povertygapratio

‐ProportionofpopulationbelowMRF7.5perday NA 1

‐ProportionofpopulationbelowMRF10perday NA 2

‐ProportionofpopulationbelowMRF15perday NA 6

1.3Shareofpoorestquintileinnationalconsumption NA 6

MDG.1:‐ERADICATEEXTREMEPOVERTYANDHUNGER

Source:Statisticalyearbook2010


42 |P a g e

Headcountratio(%)

Povertyline Republic Male'(Capital) Atoll(Rural)

2003 2010 2003 2010 2003 2010MRF4.34 0.16 0.39 0 0.1 0.22 0.53

MRF7.5 2.75 1.23 0 1.63 3.76 1.04

MRF8.13 3.2 1.63 0 2.14 4.38 1.38

MRF10 5.02 2.31 0.11 2.67 6.83 2.14

MRF15 18.93 7.05 0.42 6.45 25.73 7.33

MRF18 24.86 9.94 1.41 9.01 33.47 10.39

MRF21 32.56 12.86 4.19 10.24 42.98 14.13

MRF22.83 40.01 14.96 10.72 11.37 50.77 16.69

Theresultsindicatethatpeoplelivingbelowthepovertylinesin2010(incomparisonto2003)

in the capital is increasing within all poverty lines while that in the rural islands has

significantlyreduced.Thesignificantimprovementofheadcountratiointheatollsisattributed

totheoverallenhancementofpovertystatusinthecountry.Adetailbreakdownofthepoverty

situationin2010atregionallevelindicatesthatpeoplelivingunderthepovertyline;MRF22.83

(povertylineathalfthemedianofexpenditure)isthehighestintheNorthfollowedbyCentral

SouthandUpperSouthprovince.CentralandNorthCentralprovincesclosertothecapitalinthe

dynamictourismzonereportedthehighestimprovementintheheadcountstudy.

Povertygapindicatorwasusedtoidentifytheincidenceanddepthofpoverty. Comparisonof

theresultsof2003and2010indicatesthatoverallpovertygapreducedinthecountry.Thereis

a significant reduction in the poverty gap in the Atollswhile the opposite is observed in the

capitalwherepovertygapisslowlyincreasinginallpovertylines(Table2.4).Breakdownofthe

poverty gap results regionally in 2010 shows that the gap is highest in the North Province

followedbySouthCentralandSouthProvince.

Table2.3:Headcountratioforpovertylines2003‐2010



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Povertygapratio(percentage)

PovertyLines Maldives Male'(Capital) Atolls(rural)

2003 2010 2003 2010 2003 2010Rf4.34 0.020 0.002 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.002

Rf7.5 0.005 0.004 0.000 0.002 0.006 0.005

Rf8.13 0.007 0.005 0.000 0.004 0.009 0.005

Rf10 0.013 0.007 0.000 0.007 0.018 0.008

Rf15 0.044 0.020 0.001 0.020 0.060 0.020

Rf18 0.074 0.031 0.002 0.030 0.100 0.032

Rf21 0.104 0.043 0.005 0.039 0.140 0.044

Rf22.83 0.125 0.050 0.010 0.045 0.167 0.053

Thestudyshowsthattheincomeinequalityisrisinginthecountry(Gini2003=0.38and2010

=0.44).Both in thecapitalMale’and in the islandspovertygap is increasing. Ginicoefficient

increased from 0.35 in 2003 to 0.45 in 2010 for Male’. Similar pattern is observed for the

islandswith Gini rising from0.32 to 0.41. Inequality is slightly higher in the capital in both

2003 and 2010. However inequality betweenMale’ and Atolls has decreased during 2003 &

2010.

TheGovernmentintroducednewpoliciesforpovertyreductionbyintroducingsocialassistance.

Theirmodeofassistance/servicedeliverystillleavessectionsofthepopulationvulnerableto

poverty.ConsiderablepercentoftheMaldivianpopulationisstillstrugglingtorecoverfromthe

impactsofthe2004tsunamithatcausedlarge‐scalelossofincomesandassets.Environmental

risksofglobalwarming leading toa rise insea levelsand increasing fiscaldeficitsareamong

other risks that may be concerns in the Maldives. At an individual level, health risks and

joblessnessisreportedtobeofgreatconcernleadingtopoverty.Healthshocksarereportedto

cause the largest and most frequent shocks to household incomes. Special focus on social

assistance to child and youth populations is needed, given their increasing vulnerability and

riskswith regard tounemployment anddisaffection, aswell as the issuesof drug abuse, and

growingviolenceandabuse.

Table2.4:Povertygapratio2003‐2010



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2.3 EconomicDevelopment

2.3.1 Growth

TheMaldiveseconomicbaseisextremelynarrowanddominatedbytourismaccountingover27

percent of GDP in the recent year. Following the tourism sector, fisheries, construction and

commerceplayasignificantroleintheMaldivianeconomyeachsectorcontributingbetween5–

10 percent of the GDP. Despite the risky narrow economic base, during the past decades,

impressive economic growth rates were recorded in the Maldives except in the times of

exogenousshocks.TheMaldivesisnowoneofthewealthiestcountriesintheregioninincome

percapitaterms.RealpercapitaGDPstoodatapproximatelyUS$2,800in2009.

The Asian Tsunami of 2004 severely affected the Maldivian economy, by causing major

destructionofinfrastructureandassets,especiallythoseinthetourismandfisheriessector.The

impactofthetsunamidisasterreducedrealGDPgrowthby‐4.6%in2005.

Investments for tsunami recovery and rapid revival of the tertiary sector particularly the

tourismwhichgrewbyover42%in2006ensuredstrongGDPgrowth.RealGDPgrowthrates

rose from ‐4.6 in 2005 to reach a record high of 18% in 2006 before slowing to more

conventional rates of under5% in2009. TheGDPgrowth rate continued toplunge in2010,

howeverisexpectedtostabilizeat2009ratein2011.

In2009,duetotheglobalcrisis,GDPgrowthwasreducedmorethantheexpectedof1.3%.This

wasmainlyduetotheturbulencesinthetourismsectorwhichreduceditsgrowthrateto0.5%.

Inaddition, the construction sector growth ratesdecreased to24.2 in2009 fromearlierhigh

rangingfrom20%.Similarly,thetransportandcommunicationandgovernmentadministration

‐10

‐5

0

5

10

15

20

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

%

Mil MRF

GDP Growth rate

Fig2.5:GDPandgrowthrate(2004‐2011)

Source:MMAApril2011statistics(at1995constantprices)


45 |P a g e

experiencedadeclineinrealgrowthrates in2009,comparedtoearlieryears,growinginreal

terms only by 1.1 and 12.5% respectively (United Nations, 2007) . However, the latest GDP

estimatesofNovember2010,realGDPisestimatedtohavegrownby4.8percentin2010,due

tostrongerthanexpectedperformanceofthetourismsector.Meanwhile,thepaceofgrowthis

projected to bemoderate at 4.0 percent in 2011 supported by continued buoyant growth in

tourismandrelatedsectorssuchasconstruction,transportandcommunications.

GDP contribution by sector is provided in appendix 2.2. The primary industry represents

agriculture,fisheriesandcoralandsandminingofwhichfishingisthemajoreconomicactivity.

Theprimarysectordepictsanunstabletrendduringtheperiod2004‐2010,whichexperienced

negativegrowthratessince2006.Thesecondarysectorincludesmanufacturing,electricityand

watersupplyandconstruction. In2009,thesecondarysectorshowednegativegrowthmainly

due to the short falls in the construction industry.Major players of the tertiary industry are

tourismfollowedby,transportandcommunication,wholesaleandretailtradeandgovernment

administration.In2006,thetertiarysectorgrowthratepeakedreaching21.3%andplungedto‐

0.6in2009.

Tourismsector'scontributiontoGDPremainsthestrongestwith26percentattheendof2009.

In2010 thesectorgrewby9.2percentrebounding fromthenegativegrowthof ‐5.2 in2009.

Transport and communication sector contributed to GDP modestly at around 20 percent in

2010 and its growth remained positive at 2.5 although it declined to 1.1 percent in 2009.

Wholesaleandretailtraderepresentingthedistributionsectorcontinuedtogrowandexpanded

duringtheperiod.Thissectoriscloselylinkedtomajorsectorsoftheeconomysuchastourism

andconstructionandtheireconomicactivitiesdrovethesectorsgrowth.Thesectorcontinues

tocontributeabout3.8percentofGDPsince2004todate.

The expansionary fiscal andmonetary policies of the past Government, inherited huge fiscal

debts to the current Government since its election in October, 2008. Efforts to reign in this

deficitandtheassociatedcoststotheeconomyarecurrentlybeingexacerbatedandmademore

difficultbytheworldeconomicandfinancialcrisis.

As a percent of GDP, public debt levels have almost doubled from 55 percent in 2004 to an

estimated 97 percent in 2010. Public debt service as a percent of government revenues are

projected to more than double between 2006 and 2010 from under 15 percent to over 30

percent.TheIMFrecentlyclassifiedthecountryas‘athighrisk’ofdebtdistress.


46 |P a g e

InflationinMaldivesisontherise,mainlyduetothemonetizedfiscaldeficitin2008.According

totheestimatesoftheannualpercentagechangeinthemovingaverageoftheConsumerPrice

Index, inflation stands at 12.3 percent as at end of December 2008 (MMA website). Major

categoriescontributingtoinflationincludesoaringfood,transportation,andhousingprices.

Despite the impressive growth of the past, the mounting fiscal deficit and the concomitant

resourcegap,thecrisisfromdoubledigitlevelsofinflationhurtingthepoorandtheimpactof

the global recession is currently having a knock on effect on the government revenues. The

gross reserve for 2009 was calculated to be at US$386.1 million, which is equivalent to 4.3

monthsof import (MMAwebsite).Theadverseeconomicconditionshavealso impactedupon

employmentandhouseholdincomesduetolesserpay,enforcedleaveandsomelayoffs.

2.3.2 Construction

Theconstructionsectorcontinuedtoremainrobustduring2004‐2008owingtotheincreasein

developmental activities by the tourism sector as well as public sector infrastructure

developmentprojects.Asaresult,thevalueaddedtothesectorroseby16percentbytheendof

2008.Theindustrywashardhitduringtheyear2009andgrowthratefellto‐29.2.

The construction sector’s performance, asmeasured through the share of commercial bank’s

credittothesector,registeredatwelvemonthimprovementof54percentattheendof2008

compared to an annual improvement of 107 percent in 2007. As for construction related

imports, the total value of imports of construction materials increased by 13 percent from

‐40

‐30

‐20

‐10

0

10

20

30

40

0.0

100.0

200.0

300.0

400.0

500.0

600.0

700.0

800.0

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

MRF million

GDP GDP Growth rate

Fig2.6:ConstructionsectorcontributiontoGDP(2004–2010)

Source:Statisticalyearbook,2010,DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2010


47 |P a g e

$172.3million in 2007 to $194.9million in 2008, compared to 42 percent annual growth in

2007(MMAwebsite).

2.3.3 Tourism

Tourismsector is themain sectorof theeconomywhichcontributesovera thirdof theGDP.

Tourismsectorisvulnerabletoexogenousshocksandtheaftermathofthe2004Asiantsunami

whichhitthesectorhardbyreducingitscontributiontotheGDPbyaboutone‐third.However,

thesectorrecoveredremarkablywithgrowthreboundingstronglyin2006.Similarly,tourism

sector was increasingly affected by the volatile global economy during the past few years.

Followedby an outstandingperformance of double‐digit growth, during the year 2006 and a

moremoderategrowthin2007,thesectorobservedasteadydeclinein2009(graph2.7).

The tourist arrivals registered a significant growth in 2006 while it slowed down in 2008,

mainly due to a fall in arrivals from main source markets in Europe. A similar trend was

observedinthegrowthtrend.Thetouristbednights,whichisdirectlyrelatedtoarrivals,was

somewhatbetterthanarrivalsgrowthtrendpartlyreflectingtheincreaseintheaveragestayof

atouristvisitfrom8.3daysin2007to8.6daysin2009.

Duringtheperiodthenumberoftouristresortsincreasedfrom87to97.Similarly,thenumber

ofcityhotelsincreasedfrom8to14whilethenumberofyachtmarinasremainedunchanged.A

decliningtrendwasexperiencedinnumberofguesthouses(28in2005,and22in2009)while

safarivesselsincreasedfrom113to145from2005.Theaverageoccupancyrateincreasedby

5.8 percent from 2005 – 2009, which peaked during the 2007 showing an increase of 18.4

percent compared to thatof2005.Theoccupancy rate increasedby0.3percent from2005–

‐40

‐20

0

20

40

60

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

MRF million

GDP GDP Growth rate

Fig2.7:TourismsectorcontributiontoGDP(2004–2010)

Source:Statisticalyearbook,2010,DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2010


48 |P a g e

2009,depictingthehighestin2009.Withtheincreasingtrendinthetotalnumberofregistered

resorts,hotelsandsafarivesselsinthecountryattheendof2009,thetotalbedcapacityroseby

4480bedsbytheendof2009.

Withregardstotheutilizationofbedcapacitywhilethetotalnumberofregisteredbedcapacity

of the industryexpanded,while thenumberofbeds inoperation increasedby7.1percent to

20,137in2009.Thisindicatedonaverage,registeringanannualincrementofabout1000beds

duringtheperiod.However,thecapacityutilizationincreasedfrom69to82percentfrom2005

to2008despitetheslowgrowthintouristarrivals(fig2.8).

Maldives is a popular long‐haul destination for European travelers contributing near three

quarters of the total arrivals.With the rise in global fuel prices to record levels in 2008 and

reflecting the slowing of most European economies, the growth performance of European

marketdecreasedto‐0.4in2009comparedto2007.Thegrowthratewasexceptionallysluggish

by countries such asUK and Italywhichwere among the hardest hit countries by the global

financial crisis and were officially in recession by the end of 2008. However, other major

marketsfromEuropelikeRussia,recordedarobustgrowth,followedbymoderateperformance

by Switzerland and France. The Asian market contributes about 23% of the total arrivals.

Growth of the Asianmarket remainsmoderate at 6.9 percent at the end of 2009 due to the

strong performance of the fast growing Chinesemarket, although the scenario for the Asian

market remained sluggish in 2008. New and emerging markets in the Maldives includes

AmericaandtheMiddleEast inwhichthegrowthwasrecordedas4.7and3.5respectivelyat

theendof2009(Fig2.9).

0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Year

Operational bedcapacity (nos)Registered bedcapacity (nos)

Fig2.8:Touristbedcapacityutilization(2005–2009)

Source:MinistryofTourism,2010


49 |P a g e

2.3.4 Fisheries

The fisheries sector continues to remain imperative to the Maldivian economy. It is an

important sector in terms of foreign exchange earnings as fish and fish products account for

almost98percentoftotaldomesticexports.Thesectorprovidesakeysourceofemployment,

bothdirectlyandindirectly,averagingabout15percent.DespiteitsimportancetotheMaldivian

economy fisheries sector has been experiencing a prolonged set back since 2006 and its

contributiontoGDPhadbeendecliningsteadily.Thefisheriessectorgrowthratewasworsened

intheyear2007and2009duetothecontinueddeclineinfishcatchandrisingfuelprices(Fig

2.10).

‐30

‐20

‐10

0

10

20

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

MRF million

GDP GDP Growth rate

‐ 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0

2007

2008

2009Year

Thousands

Middle EastOceaniaAmericasAfricaAsiaEurope

Fig2.9:Touristarrivalbynationality(2007–2009)

Source:MinistryofTourism

Fig2.10:FisheriessectorcontributiontoGDP(2004‐2010)

Source:Statisticalyearbook,2011,DepartmentofNationalPlanning2011


50 |P a g e

Fig 2.11 depicts the distribution of fishermen and the fishing vessels within the country.

Accordingtothe2010statistics,Maldiveshas14,423fishermanand610vesselsarelicensedfor

fishing.

Fisheries sector experienced a declining in trend in total fish landing since 2005. Total fish

landingdecreasedby26percentin2009from158thousandMetrictonsin2005,to117Metric

tons.Decreasedfishlandingsareattributedtoeconomicalandenvironmentalfactors.Maldivian

fishermanstillgoesoutfishingonsingledaytripsreturningbacktotheislandbydusk.Majority

ofthefishingvesselsarelargeinsizewithhighpoweredengineswhichisnotcosteffectivedue

to high fuel prices andother operational costs involved. Thus, the fishing effortwas reduced

overtheyears.MorerecentlyMaldiveshasraisedconcernsovertheincreasedactivitiesinthe

IndianOceanwhichisclaimedtohavecontributedtothereducedthefishstockandhencepoor

catch. Furthermore , the recent climate change phenomenon’s which caused warmer sea

temperaturesisbelievedtohavepushedthefishdeeperthanthefishermancancatchbyusing

poleandlinecatchingsystems.

0

50

100

150

200

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

thousand mt

Years

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Malé

HA

HDh Sh N R B Lh K

AA

Adh V M F

Dh Th

L

Ga

GDh

Gn S

No. of fisherman No. of licensed fishing vessels

Fig2.11:No.offishermanandfishingvessels‐2010

Source:MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture2011

Fig2.12:Fishlanding(2004‐2009)

Source:MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture2010


51 |P a g e

The total volume of fish export and its earnings in table 2.7 indicate an overall reduction in

earningsexceptforthereeffish.Totalearningsfromexportsoffishandfishproductsestimated

MRF 17.1 billion in 2006, 13.5 billion in 2007 and 15.9 billion in 2008. The overall earnings

reduced by 20 and 7 percent in 2007 and 2008, respectively compared to that of 2006.

Similarly, during the same period the earnings from fresh or chilled tuna fell by 11 and 5

percent.Volumeoftunaexportfellby33percentin2008comparedtothatof2006.However,

due to the favorable global tunaprices during2008, tuna export earnings reducedby only 1

percent.Reef fish landingandexport trendwaspositive though thequantity isveryminimal.

Volumeofreeffishexportincreasedby6.76percent,theearningsby18.6percentfrom2006to

2008.Thecannedfishsectorperformedthepoorestduring2006–2008.Volumeandearnings

fromcannedfishexportfellby59and39percentrespectively(table2.5). Exportearningsdo

notreflectthevalueoftotalnationalfishproductionasthevalueoffishlocallyconsumedisnot

takenintoaccount.Thepoliciestoaddresstheissueofloweconomicbenefitisdirectedtowards

facilitatingbusinessdevelopmenttradeandexportpromotions,regulatingthemarkettoensure

changesinbuyingpricesoffishatinternationalmarketandenhancingregulatoryframework.

Fishandfishproduct Quantity(MetricTons) Value(F.O.BMRF'000)

2006 2007 2008 2006 2007 2008

Freshorchilledtuna 8,992.17 7,535.70 6,919.56 440,207.29 392,992.23 417,829.11

Freshorchilledreef

fish

317.00 318.01 340.10 16,424.12 18,768.18 20,178.86

FrozenFish 86,103.21 46,342.31 49,351.76 856,996.14 628,545.75 875,466.77

Cannedfish 4,727.14 3,684.51 1,940.21 146,263.39 137,920.80 88,726.35

Salteddriedfish 2,914.73 2,389.24 2,269.96 31,893.93 20,880.12 18,199.66

DriedFish 5,699.30 5,095.43 3,711.83 112,946.92 98,514.52 92,852.15

Tuna(inbrine) ‐ 0.53 0.01 ‐ 6.38 0.12

LiveReefFish 436,485.0

0

425,739.0

0

408,767.0

0

18,895.87 13,823.74 18,442.56

SeaCucumber(Dried) 87.87 112.95 84.01 12,707.46 10,945.97 7,891.33

SeaCucumber(Live) ‐ 50.00 ‐ ‐ 0.32 ‐

FishMeal 2,946.93 2,248.74 1,490.28 20,244.42 13,431.57 13,204.79

OtherMarineProducts 1,483.27 435.24 592.93 53,079.36 21,315.47 38,727.55

OtherMarineProducts

(litres)

9,580.50 3,469.00 14,801.20 330.53 77.13 419.95

Total 1,709,989.44 1,357,222.19 1,591,939.20

Table2.5:Exportandearningsfromfishandfishproducts(2006‐2008)

Source:MaldivesCustoms,2009


52 |P a g e

2.3.5 Agriculture

Theshareofagricultureinthenationaleconomyhasalwaysbeenrecordedaslowandstagnant

(fig2.13).However,recentanecdotalevidencessupportthefactthatthesectorisstrengthening

asproductioneffortsandoutputdeliveredtothemarketareincreasing.Agricultureisstillthe

principalpreoccupationandsourceoflivelihoodforalargenumberofpeopleparticularlythose

wholiveintheislands.Agriculturesectorhadamajorimpactofthe2004Asiantsunamiandthe

sectors growth fell from4.3 percent in 2005 to ‐0.5 percent in 2005. Since, then the sector's

recovery issteadyandasof2010growthhadreached1.7percent.Partly,agriculturesector's

contributions to GDP are depicted low due to the rapid growth of other sectors. Moreover,

agricultural statistics are poorly covered as, the landings inMale’market is only used as the

production figures. Direct sale to resorts and trade between islands are not included in the

agriculturalstatistics.Itisestimatedthatathirdoftheproductionisrepresentedbythedirect

trade and it is not included in the current data collection system. Unreliable data distort the

macroaswellasthemicro‐economicscenariooftheagriculturesector.

Agricultureisrecognizedasasupplementarysourceofcashandfoodinmorethan76inhabited

islandsandcommercialfarmingiscarriedoutextensivelythroughoutthecountry.Thesectoris

crucialtoaddressMDGgoalofpovertyalleviationandthenationalproblemofhighmalnutrition

andfoodinsecurity.

Farming is currently practiced 76 inhabited islands and 600 uninhabited islands leased as

‘varuva’(traditionalleasingsystem)wherebytheleaseholdersgointosemicommercialtypeof

‐1

0

1

2

3

4

5

0

50

100

150

200

250

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

MRF million

GDP GDP Growth rate

Fig2.13:AgriculturesectorcontributiontoGDP(2004–2010)

Source:Statisticalyearbook,2010,DepartmentofNationalPlanning2011


53 |P a g e

farming ventures and 60 islands leased for 21 years for commercial farming. In the 76

inhabited islands over 7500 are registered as farmers of which most of them are marginal

producinginanarealessthanahectare.Atotalareaof1025hectaresisleasedforcommercial

farming;howeverfewfarmersusethefullpotentialoftheavailableresources.

Developmentsinlocalproductionsintermsofearningsfromagriculturalcommoditiestradedto

theMale’marketandvalueofimportbillsiscomparedinfig2.16.

As depicted in fig 2.14, the earnings from 15 agricultural crops increased by 32% in 2009

compared to that of 2004. Farmers compete with imports from neighboring countries and

struggle to fetch goodprice for the local crops.Hence, as depicted in fig 2.17, comparison of

2009 imports and local production data for 15 major crops indicates that local production

exceeds importby23%nevertheless, theearningsare3%less thanthevalueof imports.The

scenarioisworstin2010inwhichproductionincreasedby13percentandtheearningswas40

percent less than the import. Thismaybedue the competitiveness in cost of production and

alsoduetotheabsenceofawell‐organizedandregulatedsupplychain.

‐

1,000.00

2,000.00

3,000.00

4,000.00

5,000.00

6,000.00

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

(Hundred Thao

usand )

Local production (Earnings MRF) Import Expenditure ( MRF)

Fig2.14:Importexpenditureandearningsfromagriculturecommodities

Source:Statisticalyearbook,2010


54 |P a g e

To address the issue of value chain and marketing system for the agriculture sector,

empowering theprivate sector, enablingand facilitativebusinessenvironment,public‐private

partnershipandpromotingmicro‐enterprisesandSME’sareconsideredaspolicydirectivesfor

theMinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture.

‐

200.00

400.00

600.00

800.00

1,000.00

1,200.00

1,400.00

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

(Hundred Thao

usand )

Quantity (Kg) Value (MRF)

Fig2.15:QuantityandEarningsofhorticulturalcropsgrownintheMaldives

Source:MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture,2010


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Appendices

EconomicInfrastructures NumberExistingAirports 4FutureAirports 11FishingActivityislands 56AgriculturalActivityislands 76ExistingAirports 4FutureAirports 11SeaplaneServices‐TransMaldivianAirways 31SeaplaneServices–MaldivianAirTaxi 41PlannedTransit/AirportHotels 9PlannedCityHotels 9BankofMaldivesPLCBranches 19AgriculturalActivityislands 76FishingActivityislands 56Fisheries&AgriculturalTrainingCenter 2Picnicislands 9FutureResort‐tobeopened2011 18ExistingResort 98FutureResort‐Contractsigned 31Harborsandjetties 68HealthandSocialInfrastructure TertiaryHealthCare(Atoll&RegionalHospitals) 32HealthCentre 158HigherSecondary(A‐level) 34AtollEducationCentre 20SecondaryEducation 117SingleSessionSchools 114DivisionPoliceHeadquarters 7PoliceStations 42TeacherResourceCenters 21FamilyandChildrenServiceCenters 19

MaldivesPostLimited‐Branches 26MaldivesNationalUniversity‐Campuses 02Hostels&RegionalVocationalTrainingCentres 02ZoneStadiums 05DefenseForceHeadQuarters 02YouthCentres 14FireStations 05Utilitiesandservices Desalinationplantinoperation 29SanitationProjects‐completed 22SanitationProjects–underconstruction 04ElectricityprovidedbySTELCO 07Islandswhererenewableenergyisused 09ElectricityprovidedbyUtilityCompanies 25

Appendix2.1:InfrastructureintheMaldives

Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanningwebsite,InfrastructuremapofMaldiveMarch2011


56 |P a g e

Industry/Economicactivity 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Primary

Agriculture 203.6 204.3 205.1 206.6 208.9 211.6 214.9

Fisheries 595.8 590.1 461.7 426.5 374.1 352.5 336.5

Coralandsandmining 49.5 52.1 53.4 54.5 52.5 52.7 53.3

Secondary

Manufacturing 593.6 680.2 703.2 722.8 694.2 703.0 708.9

Electricityandwatersupply 363.4 409.0 446.5 476.5 497.1 515.7 541.0

Construction 417.3 502.8 603.2 701.3 496.4 509.6 559.0

Tertiary

Wholesale&retailtrade 336.0 357.1 387.3 403.5 392.1 410.9 425.9

Tourism 1798.5 2559.7 2800.0 2883.9 2733.2 3127.8 3371.7

Transport&communications 1456.5 1725.4 1868.8 2043.8 2082.0 2163.1 2255.5

Financialservices 261.9 286.5 298.8 306.8 301.4 312.2 320.0

Realestate 574.5 594.8 610.0 623.9 623.6 643.2 660.8

Businessservices 222.4 233.3 238.9 243.5 240.4 246.6 250.9

Governmentadministration 1212.7 1380.3 1596.3 1814.5 1943.2 1909.9 1912.5

Education,health&socialservices 148.5 151.7 154.5 157.4 160.3 163.5 166.9

FISIM ‐308.0 ‐376.2 ‐399.4 ‐418.9 ‐397.8 ‐423.6 ‐442.6

Memorandumitems

NominalGDP(MRFmillion) 6357.0 6935.0 7348.0 7650.8 8201.0 8863.2 9938.7

NominalGDP(US$million) 540.1 589.2 624.3 625.1 640.7 690.8 776.5

GDPpercapita(inUS$atcp) 1840.2 1933.8 1986.4 2020.9 2117.7 2262.1 2439.3

GDPdeflator(percentchange) 2.0 1.7 1.1 0.6 0.6 ‐0.4 2.4

CPIInflation ‐1.4 3.0 ‐1.2 0.7 1.5 ‐2.5 3.9

Appendix2.2:GDPatbasicprice(inMillionsofMRF,at1995constantprices)

Source:DepartmentofNationalPlanningwebsite,InfrastructuremapofMaldiveMarch2011


57 |P a g e

Key findings: National indicators and forecasts show that extreme events in terms of SLR, precipitations

temperature and storm events have the probability of occurring more often in the future. Major adaptation related initiative include replicating locally appropriate coastal protection

measures throughout the country. SLM and WRM are initiated as part of the strategy to mainstreaming risk planning and climate change adaptation into the policy and planning framework across all sectors.

It is estimated that Maldivians emitted 1.3 million tons of carbon dioxide in 2009 (Becitizen

2010). Achieving carbon neutrality by year 2020 is the priority and as such promoting renewable energy, energy efficiency and phasing of HCFC are major mitigation related initiatives.

3. ClimateChange

3.1 Introduction

Maldivesislowlyingarchipelagowithmoreseathanlandwithlessthan1%ofthetotalareais

landsuitableforhumanhabitation.Morethanhalfofthepopulationofthecountryliveswithin

100metersofthecoastlinemakingtheentirenationhighlyvulnerabletoSeaLevelRise(SLR)

duetoclimatechange.

Climate change, driven by the increasing concentration of Green House Gases (GHG) in the

atmosphere, poses serious, wide‐ranging threats to Maldives. Intergovernmental Panel on

ClimateChange(IPCC),FourthAssessmentReport(2007)statesthattemperaturerisesofabout

0.2°C per decade is projected for the next two decades under all Emission Scenarios. It is

estimatedthatSLRwillbe18to38cm(7to15inches)inalowscenarioand26to59cm(10‐23

inches)inahighscenario.

Climate change is overwhelming toMaldiveswhere80%of the islands are less than ameter

above sea level. National predications and forecasts of climate change indicators in terms of

SLR, precipitation, temperature and extreme events are reviewed to understand the current

status the predictions and the severity of the climate change (table 3.1). The forecast shows

increasingtrendswiththeprobabilityof theextremeeventsoccurringmorefrequently inthe

future.


58 |P a g e

3.2 ClimateChangeImpacts

3.2.1 Sealevelrise

Global sea level is projected to rise under all scenarios of IPCC Special Report on Emission

Scenarios(IPCC2001)withanaveragerateof increaseof5mm/yearwithinarangeof2 to9

mm/year.Duringthe20thcenturytheglobalmeansealevelrose10to20mmattherateof1to

2mm/year.Between1990to2100sealevelsriseisprojectedtorisewithintherangeof9to88

cm.

ThenationalprojectionsrevealthatthatthemaximumhourlySLRof7mm/yearisaratefarin

excess of the observed local and global trends in mean sea level. A long term trend of an

increaseof 1.7mm/year isobservedwithforecastspredictingthattheprobabilityofevents

such as hourly sea level of 70 cm abovemean sea level are to occurmore frequently in the

future.

3.2.2 Precipitation

Global average water vapor concentration and precipitation are project to increase (IPCC,

2001),whileamarginaldeclineinprecipitationisprojectedfortheIndianOceanRegion.(Nurse

andSem,2001)


59 |P a g e

In line with this projection in Maldives no significant long term trends are observed daily,

monthly, annual or maximum daily rainfall. Figure 3.1 outlines the available data on annual

rainfall for the period 1995‐2009 which shows that annual rainfall has ranged from 1407

millimetersin1905to2711millimetersin2006.Similartootherindicatorsrainfallprojections

intermsofextremelyhighdailyrainfallsoccurringmoreoftenispredictedforthefuture.

3.2.3 Temperature

Elevenofthetwelveyearsbetween1995‐2007rankedamongthetwelvewarmestyearinthe

recordofglobalsurfacetemperaturesince1850(IPCC2007).Anincreasingtrendfrom1.4to5.8

percent is predicted for the period 1990‐2100 (IPCC, 2001), while for the Indian Ocean the

average increase is predicted at 2.1 percent for 2050 and 3.2 for the 2080 (Nurse and Sem,

2001). Figure 3.2 outlines the annual average of daily maximum andminimum temperature

between1995‐2009.According to thedata the temperatureranges from25.8 to31.1degrees

Celcius.

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

rainfall (m

m)

Years

Fig3.1:‐Annualrainfall1995‐2009



60 |P a g e

Indicator Status

Sealevel Increasingat1.7mm/year

Maximumhourlysealevelrise7mm/year

Anhourly sea level of 70cmaboveMSL is currently a100‐year event and

willlikelybeatleastanannualeventby2050

Precipitation Nosignificantlongtermtrendsareevidentintheobservedrainfallpattern

Dailyrainfallof160cmisrarewithareturnperiodof17years

Anextremedaily rainfallof180cm iscurrentlya100yeareventandwill

occurtwiceasoftenby2050

Anextreme threehourly100mmrainfall is rareand is25yeareventbut

willbetwiceascommonby2050

Temperature

Annualmaximum

dailytemperature

Projectedtoincrease1.5Cby2100

Maximumtemperatureof33.5iscurrentlya20yeareventandhasareturn

periodof3yearsby2025

SeaSurface

temperature

AnincreasingtrendinSeaSurfaceTemperature(SST)observed

The annual mean SST trends at Hulhule’ and Gan are 0.2±°C and 1.1 to

25.2

25.4

25.6

25.8

26

26.2

26.4

26.6

29.8

30

30.2

30.4

30.6

30.8

31

31.2

31.4

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

temperature (Degree Celcius)

Temperature (Degree Celcius)

Years

Annual average of daily maximum temperatureAnnua average of daily minimum temperature

Fig3.2:‐Annualaverageofdailymaximumandminimumtemperature1995‐2009



61 |P a g e

1.6°C/decaderespectively

During May 1998 mean monthly SST was 1.1C above the highest mean

monthlySSTexpectedinany20yearreturnperiod

Extremeevents–

stormsurge

Maximumstormsurgeheight isreportedat1.32mwithareturnperiodof

500years.Ifcoupledwithhightide,itcouldgenerateastormtideof2.30m

Islandinthenortheastcouldfacestormtidesof2.3m

Sealevelrisewouldcauseregulartidalinundationsinmostislandsevenat

the medium prediction. The high prediction could cause inundations in

almost all islands. A storm surge at high prediction could cause a 3.18m

wavethatcouldinundateeventhelargestofislands.

Extremeevent–

windgusts

Windgustof60knotshasreturnperiodof16yearsand will reduce to9

yearsby2025

Category 3 cyclone for the Northern Maldives with a 500 year return

period

Erosion 41islandhavereportedseverebeacherosioninyear2009

NationalAdaptationPlanofAction(NAPA),reportsthatforMaldivesthereisarelativelyhigh

confidenceinprojectionsofmaximumtemperature.Theannualmaximumdailytemperatureis

projectedtoincreaseby1.5percentbytheyear2100.AccordingtoSingetal,2001;Khanetal,

2002,increasingtrendinSSThasbeenobservedinMaldives.Noteworthyisthefactthatduring

May1998meansmonthlySSTwas1.1degreesCabovethehighestmeanmonthlySSTexpected

inany20yearreturnperiod(Clarketal,2001)

3.2.4 Extremeevents

Inadditiontoregularmonsoonalwindgeneratedflooding,extremeeventssuchasstormsurges

andcyclonicstormsarealsopredictedevents.Inacountrywhere90%oftheislandsareatan

averageheightof1.5metersaboveMeanSeaLevel(MSL)forecastsofstormtidesforpredicted

Sea Level Rise (SLR) shows many islands can be submerged. Islands in the north east of

Maldivesarepredictedasmorevulnerable forsuchdisasters.The probablemaximumstorm

surge tidebyregion for thenortheastern islandsstormtidesof2.30meters ispredicted.The

highpredictionforecastswavesof2.41–meters3.18meterswithapossibilityofinundatingall

islands in theMaldives.WithmediumSLRpredictionsstormtidesof1.86‐2.78meterscanbe

Table3.1:Summaryofnationalindicatorsofclimatechange

Source:NationalAdaptationPlanofAction,2007,StatisticalYearbook,2010


62 |P a g e

generatedsubmergingmost islandsof the country.Cyclonic stormshavealsooccurred in the

pastandprobabilityofsucheventshappeningexists.Predictedreturnperiodsofwindgustof

60knotshave increased from16years to9yearsby2025.Category3cycloniceventshavea

returnperiodof500yearsfortheNorthernMaldives.

STRONGTIDALWAVESHITMALDIVES:On15thMay, 2007 and for four subsequent

days,powerfulswellshitmanyislandsthroughouttheMaldives.AccordingtotheDepartment

ofMeteorology, theswellsweregeneratedbywavesbetween10‐15 feet fromadissipated

polar storm3,500miles southwest ofMaldives, off the coast of SouthAfrica. This climatic

phenomenonoccurseachyearthroughouttheMaldives.Thetideswerehigherthanusualand

thedegreeoffloodingalmostunprecedented.Whilethereisnoscientificevidenceyetthatthe

phenomenonisduetoglobalwarmingsuchevidenceseemstosuggestthatitmightbe.Atotal

of 88 island on 18 atolls were affected .The five island most severely affected were Fares

Maathoda,Rathafandhoo,Nadalla,Madavelli andFiyori. Fortunately therewereno fatalities

but1649wereevacuatedfromtheirhomestocommunityfacilities,familiesandfriendsonthe

island in the immediate aftermath. Six sectorswere assessed: infrastructure, health,water

andsanitation,livelihood,environment,andemergencyreliefneeds.Observationsonthefive

islandsdocumentedsubstantialfloodinganderosion.Damagetotheharborsandquaywallsof

theislandshasalsobeenobserved.Themaximuminundationmeasuredwasinexcessof5feet

ontheislandofFares‐Maathodaandtheminimumfloodedislandvisitedwasaboutlessthana

foot.Allbasic serviceshavebeen impactedsuchaselectricity,waterandseweragesystems.

Thegroundwaterqualityassessmentsshowthatthewaterhasbeencontaminatedinallthe

five islands. The total coliform count aswell as the faecal coliformcount is higher than the

referencerangeoftheguidelines.Anumberofhouseswereobservedtohavebeendamaged

byflooding.Longertermconsequencesarelikelytobestructuraldamagetowallsandfloors;

butmoreextensivedamagecausedby infiltrationofsalinewater is likelytohaveweakened

foundations, leading to theneed for repair and reconstruction.The saltwater intrusionhas

damaged crops and trees, visible immediately and it is foreseen that further damage will

become apparent Home gardens and othermeans of livelihood such as fish processing are

certaintorequirelongertermrecoveryintervention.Itwasevidentfromtheobservationfrom

alltheislandsthatlivelihoodsofthecommunitiesinthelongtermwillbeaffected.

Source:NationalDisasterManagementCentre,2007


63 |P a g e

3.3 VulnerabilitytoClimateChange

Withaboutthree‐quartersofthelandareaofMaldivesbeinglessthanameteraboveMSL,the

slightestriseinsealevelwillproveextremelythreatening.NAPAidentifiesthehighrisksectors

andassociatedvulnerabilitieswhicharereviewedintable3.2.

Highrisk

vulnerablesectors

SectoralVulnerabilities

Land,Beachand

HumanSettlement

Infrastructure, human settlements and facilities located on or

nearthebeachaffected

Habitability threatened due to reduction in island size or

completeinundation

Critical

Infrastructure

Airport, ports,harbours, power, water and sewerage systems

locatedatanelevationofabout1.5metersabovesea leveland

incloseproximitytothecoastlineathighrisk

Overwaterstructuresthreatenedbycompleteinundation

Tourism Accelerated beach erosion, degradation of coral reefs, and

bleachingwillallhaveimpactsonincomesfromtourism.

Saltwaterintrusionwillaffectthevegetation

Fisheries Live bait fishery, tuna fishery and reef fishery coral reefs

affectingfoodsecurity

Changesinfishproductionaffectstourismsector

HumanHealth

Salinizationoffreshwatersupplies

Sewageandwatersystemsaffectinghumanhealth

Heatstresswithoccurrenceofdisease

Waterresources Salinizationaffectqualityoflife,soilandvegetation

Rainwaterstoringfacilitiesaffected

Changesinrainfallandincreasedevaporisation

Agricultureand

FoodSecurity

Limited agricultural land, with poor soil vulnerable to heat

stressonplants,changesonsoilmoistureandtemperatureloss

CoralReef

Biodiversity

Coralreefswhicharehighlysensitivetochangeintemperature

Reefsmaynotbeabletokeeppacewiththepredictedsealevel

rise

Table3.2:Highrisksectorsandassociatedvulnerabilitytoclimatechange

Source:NationalAdaptationPlanofAction,2007


64 |P a g e

3.3.1 Landbeachandhumansettlement.

The low elevationwith over 80% less than 1m aboveMSL and small size of the islands are

inherentcharactersofthecountrymakingMaldiveshighlyvulnerabletoclimatechangeandsea

levelrise.Land isscarce in thecountrywhich ismadeupofover1192coral islandsofwhich

96%oftheislandsarelessthan1squarekm.Thetotallandareais235squarekilometersand

176 squarekilometer isutilized forhuman settlement andassociateuses. The coral islands

thatmakeuptheMaldivesaremorphologicallyunstablewithbeachesdynamicwithsubstantial

seasonal changes. Settlement footprints lie close to the sea with 44% of the settlement

footprintsofallislandswithin100mofcoastline.Intermsofpopulationandhousing42%and

47%arewithin100mof the coastline respectivelyplacing thepeopleathigh risk to climate

changeandsealevelrise.Intheabsenceofscientificdataobservedevidenceonsevereweather

eventsandstormsurgeconsolidatethisfact.Table3.3outlinestherecentrecordedevents.

Year Details

2000‐2005 90inhabitedislandshavebeenfloodedatleastonceayear

2000‐2005 30inhabitedislandhavefloodedregularly

15‐18May

2007

Swellsof10‐15feetaffected88islandsdamaging500housesaffecting1600

people

Aug2011 FloodinginHuvadhooAtollandAdduAtoll

ThevulnerabilityandthehighriskassociatedwithclimatechangeandSLRexacerbateswhen

coupled with other pressures such as use of unsuitable designing structure and housing

material.Coastalerosionisveryfrequent.Moreoverpopulationisincreasingandovercrowding

issignificantwith34islandhavereachedtheircarryingcapacitywhile17islandswillexhaust

the existing land by 2015 (Shaig, 2006). Analysis of the cause and effect of vulnerability to

climate change reveals that with population increase demand for housing justifies land

reclamation. Land reclamation requires suitable coastal infrastructure and harbors (Fig 3.1)

Land reclamation is also associatedwith removal of coastal vegetation and sandmining, reef

blastingdredging.Poorlydesignedcoastalinfrastructurewithsewagedisposalandsolidwaste

disposal affects thehealthof the reefs results in the imbalanceof reefswhichhas the critical

functionof protecting the coast.As such the vulnerability increasedas the causes andeffects

multiplies.

Table3.3:Availablerecentrecordedevidenceofsevereweatherevents

Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment2011,DisasterManagementCentre2011


65 |P a g e

3.3.2 Criticalinfrastructure

Scarcity of land forces critical infrastructure such as airports, ports, harbors, resort, and

associate infrastructure such as power generation, water production and sewerage system,

environmental services and utilities to be located close to the coastline. Due to the natural

geographyoftheislandall infrastructureareatalowelevationat1.5maboveMSLandsome

areoverwaterstructures.Theaverageheightofthecausewaysandbridgesis1.6metersabove

MSL.Generallyadaptationandmitigationhasnotbeenincorporatedintodecidingthelocation,

design and construction of infrastructure. Vulnerability increases in terms of frequent

inundation which can virtually obliterate the critical infrastructure damaging the economy,

threateningthesafetyandsecurityofthepeople.

The effects of climate change and its impacts on critical infrastructure are already felt as

revealedfromthepastexperiences(table3.4).

year Details

1987 DamageworthUS$4.5milliontoMaleInternationalAirport

2004 DamageworthUS$230milliontoMaleInternationalAirport

2004 Damage worth US $ 20.3 million to transport and communication

infrastructure

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Ha HDh Sh N R B Lh K AA ADH V M F Dh Th L Ga GDh

Numbers

Atolls

harbours reclamation

Fig3.3:‐Harborandreclamationprojectscompletedfrom2006‐2010

Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment,2011

Table3.4:Availablerecentrecordedevidenceofdamagetocriticalinfrastructure



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3.3.3 Tourism

Tourism is the main economic sector with forward and backward linkages to construction,

transport, communication, agriculture, transport and other local economic sectors. The

vulnerabilitytothesectorliesinthesmallsize,lowelevationandgeographicaldispersionofthe

islandswhiletheattractionoftheresortsliesinthemarinebiologicaldiversity,tropicalclimate

and small island environment. The resorts are located in uninhabited island based on the

concept of one resort one island. The increasing frequency and severity of extremeweather,

sea‐level rise and acceleratedbeach erosion, degradation of coral reefs (includingbleaching),

leadingtoinundationandfloodingarelikelytoreducetheattractivenessoftourismsector.

More than90%ofall resorts infrastructureand99%ofall touristaccommodationarewithin

100mofcoastline.Theaveragewidthofatouristresortis190mwhile6.3%ofresortislands

havewidthlessthan200mand88%havelessthan300m(Shaig2006).Thesefiguresillustrate

direct risks to the tourism sector. Indirect impact detrimental to the tourism sector includes

damage to other critical infrastructure such as airports, ports, harbors and other utilities

infrastructure. Likewise negative effect to the fisheries sector, agriculture sector, water

resourcesandhumanhealthwillalsoaffectthetourismsector.Over99percentofthetourists

arrivebyairandmostof theproductsare imported throughaircargoorships throughports

and harbors. Certain reef fish species such as lobsters and other reef fishes are exclusively

fishedtomeetthedemandsofthetourismsector.Theimpacttothetourismsectorwilloccurto

individuals, communities, enterprises and sectors dependent on the tourism sector. Adverse

affectswillimpactonthetouristexperience,health,safetyandthetouristdestination.

Statistics and other information recorded reveal that the effects of climate change and its

impactsonthetourismsectorarealreadyfelt(Table3.5).

Typeofimpact Details

Beacherosion 45percentoftheresortsreportsbeacherosion

Saltwaterintrusion Oftenreported

Coralbleaching Occurredin1977,1983,1987,1991,1995,1997,1998

Livecoralcoverreducedto5%aftertheevent

Damagetocoralreefofpopular

sharkdivingspot

1995‐1996lossofrevenueofUS500,000

DamagesfromTsunamiof2004 ExcessofUS$300million

Table3.5:Availablerecentrecordedevidenceofdamagetothetourismsector



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3.3.4 Fisheries

The fisheries sector is highly vulnerable as tuna is attuned to biophysical conditions of the

pelagicenvironmentparticularlyElNinoSouthernOscillation(ENSO)andassociatedchangesin

SST. Also as tuna fishery is part of the wider Indian Ocean tuna fisheries climate induced

changeswill affect the tuna fishing industry ofMaldives.Moreover the tuna fishing industry

depends on live bait which depends on a healthy coral reef for survival. These habitats are

highlyvulnerabletochangesinSSTandotherclimatechanges.Reeffisheryisalsoanimportant

industry supplying fresh reef fishes to the tourist resorts and exporting some species to

overseasmarket. Already the fisheries sector has reported decline in fish catchwith climate

changeanditsassociatedimpactsasoneofitsreasons.Specificimpactsrecordedareoutlined

intable3.6.


1998 Coralbleachingcauseddeclineoflivebait

1998 Coral bleaching caused the disappearance of two reef fish

species

3.3.5 Water

Watershortages fromthe islandsarereportedduringrecentyears.Between2004‐2010,each

yearonaverage,81 islandshavereportedwatershortages and over3000tonsofwaterare

provided each year costing over Rf 2 million( Fig 3.2). Water supply is likely to be

exacerbatedbyfutureclimatechange.Surfacefreshwaterislackingthroughoutthecountryand

the traditional practice of relying on shallow wells for drinking water does not exist today.

Freshwatersuppliesarealsothreatenedbysaltwaterintrusionduetostormsurgeandsealevel

rise. Thisaffectthequalityof lifeaspeopleoftheatollsdependongroundwaterforbathing,

and washing. Salt water intrusion also affects the soil and vegetation causing impacts to

agricultural and terrestrial vegetation. The fresh water aquifer is already stressed due to

increasedindemandforwaterandfacestheriskoftotaldepletionifdryperiodextends.

Rain water is the main source of drinking water in the islands. A marginal decline in

precipitation is projected for the Indian Ocean region which has the potential to impact on

rainwaterharvestingacrossallislands.Today90%ofthedrinkingwaterisrainwaterwhilein

Table3.6:Availablerecentrecordedevidenceofdamagetothefisheriessector



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Male100percentofthepopulationhaveaccesstopipeddesalinationwaterwhilein38islands

followingthetsunamidesalinationwaterissuppliedbytheGovernment.

3.3.6 Agriculture

Agriculturesectorisalreadyconstrainedintermsoflimitedcultivableland,poorqualityofsoil.

With these limitation and high import dependency contribution to GDP is low and declining.

WithsuchascenarioattheforefrontfoodsecurityinMaldivesisvulnerabletoclimatechange

impactsonagriculturesectorofother

countries as well. The critical impact

path ways include heat stress on

plant, changes in soil moisture, and

temperature loss of fertility of soil

througherosionoffertiletopsoil,less

wateravailabilityforcropproduction,

changes in height of water table,

salinizationoffreshwateraquiferand

lossoflandthroughsealevelrise.

Recentrecordedincidenceswhichindicatethevulnerabilitytosectorareoutlinedintable3.7.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Number of islands

Tons of water

Years

Total in tons

No of islands

Note:Datafor2010notavailable

Fig3.4:‐Numberofislandswithwatershortageswiththequantityofwaterprovided2005‐2011

Source:DisasterManagementCentre,2011


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2003 7%ofthepopulationexperiencesfoodcrisisandforhalfofthis

populationitlastedfor10days

2004 Damage to field crops, trees, agriculture tools, infrastructure

land and water resources, timber and forestry. Damage

estimatedatRf84million

2007 Seainducedfloodingcausedsaltwaterintrusionto33islands

causingsignificantdamagetoagriculturesector

3.3.7 Health

High incidences of water and vector borne diseases have been attributed to climate change.

Vectorbornediseases reported inMaldives includeoutbreaksofdengue fever, scrub typhus,

and Chikungunya. Morbidity due to diarrhea and acute respiratory diseases caused by

inadequate access to safe water and sanitation are also reported. Evidence also shows that

people in theatollsaremorevulnerable todiarrhealdiseases in theatolls thanMale’and the

disparity is more pronounced in children under five years. The number of cases of acute

gastroenteritis cases can also be attributed to climate change related water borne diseases.

Climate related communicable diseases such increase in the conditions of the skin,

subcutaneous tissue and eye has close linkages with climate change caused by increase in

exposuretoUltraviolet(UV)radiation.

The health sector is confronted with a lot of constraints even without the vulnerability to

climate change risks. This includes high level of malnutrition in children, accessibility and

qualityofhealthcarehighpopulationandlowlevelsofincome.Extremeweatherandeffectsof

climate changewill exacerbate the already overburdened sector. In such a situationmedical

evacuation is almost impossible.The climate change impactson fisheries andagriculturewill

affect the food security affecting thenutritional status of the population. Increase in flooding

andstormsurgescausingseainducedflooding,arelikelytoexacerbatetheshortandlong‐term

effectsonhumanhealth.

The recorded incidences of the dengue outbreak associated with ENSO events indicates the

vulnerabilityofthehealthsectortoclimatechangeimpacts.

Table3.7:Availablerecentrecordedevidenceofdamagetotheagriculturesector

Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment2011,MinistryofFisheries,AgricultureandMarineResources,2011


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1979 Dengueoutbreakoccurred

1983 Dengueoutbreak

1988 Dengue outbreak with 2054 cases and 9 deaths of children

under10

1998 Dengueoutbreakwith1750cases

2005 Dengue outbreak, increase in gastro enteritis by 50% from

10000to15000

3.3.8 CoralReefBiodiversity

Twomajoreconomicactivitiestourismandfishingarereefbased.Coralsarehighlysensitiveto

changes in temperature, with bleaching incidences forecasted to increase with the rise in

temperature.Table3.6outlinestheavailablerecordedcoralbleachingevents.

3.4 AdaptationandmitigationtoClimatechange

3.4.1 Needsandpriorities

Inresponse,toclimatechangeanditsimpacts,strategicprioritiesofthecountryaretomitigate

thecausesandadapttotheconsequencesofclimatechange(Fig3.3).

Climate Change Strategic Priorities

Mitigation

GHG inventoryEmission reduction

Interventions

Adaptation

Vulnerability Assessment

Climate Resilent Development

Table3.8:Availablerecentrecordedincidencesofvulnerabilitytohealthsector

Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment,2011,DisasterManagementCentre,2011

Fig3.5:StrategicPrioritiesforClimateChangeanditsImpacts


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3.4.2 AdaptationtoClimateChange

Priorityisgiventointegratingclimateriskconsiderationsintoislandlanduseplanning,coastal

protection and coastal development given the high degree of physical exposure of island

populationsandeconomicassetstoclimate‐changeinducedwindandwavedamageandshort‐

andlong‐termflooding.Benchmarkforadaptationandresiliencebuildingtoclimatechangeare

provided through a number of vulnerability and risk assessments. Disaster risk profiles and

detailedislandriskassessmenttohighriskhazards,suchastsunamis,swellwaves,andrainfall

floodingwasprepared fordifferent islands.ReportonGaafuDhalAtollThinadhoo,GaafuAlif

Atoll Viligili, and Thaa Atoll Vilufushi prepared in 2009 emphasized that SLR is the greatest

threattotheMaldives,withtherecommendationsstressingtheneedtoexplore“softer”options

such as improved settlementplanning and early‐warning systems thatwould allowadjusting

approachbasedonevents,whilereducingtheimpactofnaturalhazards.Thestudiesrevealed

the cost of adaptation is high and recommended a “wait and see” approach for the physical

protectionmeasures,particularly in lightof thegreatexpenserequired toprotectagainst sea

level.Intheshorterterm,a‘noregrets’approachisrequiredtoestablishbestpracticesinhigh

impact coastal and terrestrial developments, better land use planning and building socially

resilientsettlements,whiletimeisusedtoitsmaximumadvantagetoallowforgreateranalysis

and understanding of the likely impacts of SLR, as well as technological advances and

developmentofinnovativeapproachestoprotecttheislands.

3.4.3 Adaptationrelatedinitiatives

Buildingontheassessmentsmaininitiativesthatarebeingimplementedincludes

1. Useoflocallyappropriateadaptationmeasures

2. SustainableLandManagement(SLM)

3. SustainableWaterManagement(SWM)

4. Strengtheningtheinformationbase

a)Useoflocallyappropriateadaptationmeasures

Demonstratinglocallyappropriatedadaptationmeasuresforfloodinganderosioncontrolisto

be demonstrated initially in 4 islands in 4 different atolls, which have a total population of

14,200and42,000,respectively.Bytheendoftheprogram,atleast50%ofhouseholdsinthe4

islandsand10%ofthepopulationineachofthe4atollswillbebetterprotectedfromclimate

change impacts as a result of the adaptation measures. This is planned to be replicated

throughoutthecountry.


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Underthisprogrambaselineinformationonadaptationactivitiesandadaptationoptionsthat

arecurrentlybeingusedandwhichmaybesuitableforreplicationisidentifiedbysurveying40

islands including 25 residential islands 12 resort islands and 2 infrastructure islands. Useful

baseline informationpertaining to relativeeffectivenessandcostof adaptationmeasuresand

the factors thatmightaffectperformanceand thepotential implementationofsoftadaptation

measures and major barriers and constraints and opportunities at the island level were

revealed from the study providing the way forward. Table 3.9 provides a summary of the

findings.

Categories HardMeasures SoftMeasures

Usage Widelyusedininhabitedislands ExplicitlyUsedinResort

Types Seawall,breakwaters,Groynes Beachreplenishment,

artificialreeftemporarysea

wallsandgroins,coastal

vegetationrestoration

Impacts Generallyeffectbuthavecaused

unwarrantedeffectsonbeach

system

Highlysuccessful

Keyissues Poordesign,poorconstruction,

unsuitabletositeconditionand

overdesign

Lackofawareness,limitation

inmitigatingimmediate

severeerosionandperception

ofineffectiveness

Opportunities Shorttermsolutions Lowcost.Familiaritywith

method,benefitsoverthe

longterm

Requirement Designfaultsneedtoavoided

andcorrected

Trainingprogramand

demonstrationprojects

Existingguidelinesreviewed

andnewguidelinesformed

Awarenessbuilding.Soft

measureneedtointroduced,

Trainingprogramand

demonstrationprojects

Existingguidelinesreviewed

andnewguidelineformed

Table3.9:ComparisonofadaptationtechniquesusedinMaldives

Source:CompiledfromSurveyofClimateChangeAdaptationMeasuresinMaldives,MinistryofHousingandEnvironment,2011


73 |P a g e

The survey has revealed that hard techniques such as building sea walls, breakwaters and

groyneswidelyusedininhabitedislandsarepoorindesignandunsuitableforsiteconditions.

Though it does provide short term solutions design faults need to be corrected and training

programanddemonstrationprojectsandnewguildlinesneedtobeformulatedtomaximizethe

benefits.Perception regarding the effectiveness of the soft methods such as beach

replenishment, groynes and sea walls with low costs need to be changed through increased

awareness as a long term solution. Noteworthy is that in terms of the effectiveness against

controlling the causes of erosion artificial reefs is the only effective option used in the study

islands.Othermeasuresaremainlyusedtoaddresstheconsequencesoferosion(MHE2011).

The finding of the study will contribute to appropriate cost‐effective coastal management

underthebroadumbrellaofadaptationtoclimatechange

b)SustainableLandManagement

TheGovernment’s goal also includemainstreaming climate risk planning and climate change

adaptation into thecountry’sdevelopmentpolicyandplanning frameworksacrossallsectors.

Specificareas targetedatpresent include landuseplanning forcoastalprotectionandcoastal

development. The key policy is to overcome the intersectoral coordination gaps, by

strengthening and providing an enabling environment for future decentralized planning, by

integratingclimateriskreductionmeasuresintokeynationalpoliciesonenvironment,landuse,

decentralization,privatizationanddisaster risk reduction.Thiswork is tobedone in tandem

withdetailed technical guidelinesonclimateresilientcoastalprotection, coastaldevelopment

andland‐useplanningrelevanttotheMaldiviancontexttoassistplanners,decision‐makersand

technical specialists to evaluate climate risks when making development and investment

decisions.

TheSLMprogramincludestechnicalcapacitybuildingintheformoftrainingtostaffatnational,

atolland island levelandfarmsand localcommunity inpracticalaspectsof landmanagement

andagriculturalbestpracticesandworkshopsandconsultationwithcommunities to increase

theunderstandingandawarenessoflanddegradationandimplicationandthevalueofSLM.

To strengthen the policies and regulatory framework status reports on land use and land

degradation with a development of national land use plan with a computerized geographic

informationGISincludingacadastrallandusedatabaseandregistryandaprogramtomonitor

andevaluatelandusageisplanned.Thedevelopmentofalegalandregulatoryframeworkfor

landusemanagementisapriorityassuchthedraftrecommendationtorevisethelandlawand


74 |P a g e

the regulatory frameworkhasbeen formulated.Targets tobe achieved include integrationof

SLMintomacro‐economicpoliciesandappropriatesectorpoliciesandactionplans.

c)SustainableWaterManagement

Plansareunderwaytodevelopanintegratedwaterresourcemanagementprogramdeveloping

a nationalwater and sanitation policy,Water Act and regulation andmonitoring framework.

The final outcome is formulating of a strategy andmechanism for implementing. Part of the

intervention includes initiative to increase the resilience through integrated freshwater

resources.At the onset Mahibadhoo (Alifu Dhaalu Atoll), Ihavandhoo (Haa Alifu Atoll) and

Gadhdhoo(GaafDhaalAtoll) representingdifferentgeographical locationsacross thecountry,

which are densely populated and have a flat topography varying between 0‐0.5mMSL have

beenselected.

d)Strengtheningtheinformationbase

Findingopportunities forstrengthening thescientific informationbasewithregard toclimate

change isanongoingprocess.Strategieshavebeen formulatedtoaddressknowledgegapson

climatechangeeffectontheMaldives.AclimateriskinformationsystemlinkedtoNationalGIS

is to be established with plans to allow universal access to different datasets needed to

adaptation planning. Also information and the lessons learnt from the demonstration of

prioritizedadaptationoptions for floodinganderosioncontrol isalsoplanned tobeanalyzed

and disseminated. A direction is also on the way to enhance knowledge which quantifies

climate change impacts, and adopts a clear and logical structure, with climate and impacts

modeling,vulnerabilities,risksandeconomiccosts,aswellaspotentialresponses.Theplanisto

provideupdatedtoolsfordecision‐makingunderuncertainty,especiallyforvulnerableregions.

3.4.4 AdaptativeCapacity

ThecapacityofthecountrytoadapttoclimatechangeandSLRdependsontheabilityinterms

ofdecisionmaking taking into consideration the institutional, technical andhuman resources

capacity and the available financial resources. Specifically NAPA and Technical Need

Assessment(TNA)highlightsthatlackoftechnicalcapacity,financialandhumanresourcesand

lack of commonunderstanding andmechanism to coordinate climate change issues asmajor

constraints.Suchissuescontinuetopersistovertheyears.

Fromhistorical perspectiveMaldives has not beenprone tomajor natural disasters and as a

resulttheneedtodevelopexpertiseindisasterreductionbecameapriorityatlaterstage.One


75 |P a g e

of themajor constraints confronted is the limited knowledge and technical know‐how about

climate risk management and climate adaptation generally across all sectors. Oceanographic

meteorological information is still inadequate with 3 stations to measure SLR and 5

meteorologicalstationstomeasureonlythebasicparametersrequiredforweatherforecasting.

Consequentlytheinformationgenerationisminimalwithrecordedandpublishedinformation

rangingfromrainfall,sunshine,temperature(minimumandmaximumtemperature),humidity

andwinddirection.Withrainfallpatternvaryingoverdifferentlocationstheneedtoestablish

morestationstostudyrainfallpatternsandtheirspatialpatterncontinues.

Thereisashortageofskilledandprofessionalstaffwithintheenvironmentsector.TheClimate

ChangeDepartmentoftheMHEandtheNationalDisasterManagementCentre(NDMC)isweak

intermsoflimitedstaffandthelimitedinformationwithintheseorganizations.Overtheyears

efforts towards limiting such constraints have been ongoing. Mapping of the Maldives was

initiated in 2010 using a survey aircraft to do the aerial photography. In addition, local

bathymetry and reef parameters are being collectedwith help of divers.Work is ongoing to

strengthenthescientificinformationbaseinvolvingtrainingandinstallationofGIS.

Thoughknowledgeattheinstitutionandtechnicallevelwithregardtoclimatechangeriskand

optionstomanagemayhaveincreasedovertheyears,atthelocallevelunderstandingispoor

andweak. Thishascontributedtolocaldevelopmentchoicesandindividualactionsthathave

unwittingly increased the vulnerability of the population and economic assets to current and

futureclimaterisks.Overtheyearsthenaturalislandresilienceandthelocaladaptivecapacity

are being reduced unintentionally due to unsustainable practices in the areas of land use,

coastal protection and development increasing the physical vulnerability to climate changes.

Due to lack of capacity these practices have not been systematically addressed in the

development planningprocessmultiplying the vulnerability. Unsuitable design of the houses,

landreclamation,clearingofcoastalvegetationandinlandwetland,unsuitabledrainagesystem

areall altering island topographyand thepatternof coastal erosionandaccretion.Moreover,

methods of controlling erosion and flooding rely on coastal engineering and hard physical

structuresuchasseawallsandgroinsareexpensiveanddifficulttomaintainareperceivedto

bebetterthanthesoftmethods.(MHE,2011).Assuch,thelackofcapacitytoadaptcontinuesin

termsoffinancialandtechnicalcompetence.

The challenges of administering, financing and distributing public services, critical

infrastructure and other development benefits equitably across nearly 200 geographically

dispersed, inhabited islands continues. Decentralization introduced in 2010 through the new


76 |P a g e

constitution of the Maldives requires the government to devolve many of its planning and

decision‐making functions to the atolls and islands. With decentralization, atoll and island

councilsformed,atollandislanddevelopmentplansneedtobeformedinaccordancewiththe

sectorpolices.Yet technical,professionalandadministrativecapacityconstraints, constitutea

seriousbarriertoeffectiveimplementation.

The underlying weakness in the policy framework and weak intersectoral coordination

continues along with limited institution and individual capacity with gaps in technical

knowledgeandknowhowandmajorfinancialconstraints.Withsuchconstraintsattheforefront

adaptingtoclimatechangeandincreasingresilienceofthevulnerablesystemsagainstclimate

hazardsandriskisextremelychallenging.

3.5 Mitigationrelatedinitiatives

Climate change mitigation or action to decrease or reduce the potential effects of global

warminginvolvesreducingtheGHGortheirsources. TheAuditReportofBecitizenestimated

thatMaldivians emitted 1.3million tons of carbon dioxide in 2009 via electricity generation,

transport,waste and fishing.The totalworksout at4.1 tonsperMaldivian compared to23.5

tonsperpersonperyearintheUnitedStates.InMarch2009Maldivesunveiledplanstomake

the country carbon neutral .At the institutional level efforts are made to implement the

endeavorofbecomingcarbonneutral2020(Fig.3.6)

Interventions

Renewable energy

Solar, Wind and Biomass

Energy efficiency

Cleaner tranportation

Waste Management

Carbon Sequestration and Offsetting

Fig3.6:‐Keyareasofinterventionforachievingcarbonneutralitybyyear2020

Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment2011


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3.5.1 UseofRenewableEnergy

Underrenewableenergyuseofwindsolarandbiomassenergyistobeencouraged.Thedetails

oftheuseofrenewableenergyaregivenchapter9.

3.6 PoliciesandStrategies

TheStrategicActionPlan(SAP)2009‐2013,NationalEnvironmentalActionPlan(NEAP)3and

National Sustainable Development Strategy (NSDS) 2009 of the government provides the

contextual background for environmentmanagement, which highlights climate change as an

extraordinaryenvironmentalchallengefocusingonadaptationanddisasterriskmitigationasa

priorityareas.Thepoliciesandstrategiesofadaptationanddisasterriskmitigationarebeing

mainstreamedintopolicymakingandprogramminginallareas.

The principal planning document of the government SAP 2009‐2013 has outline the

governmentpledgesintermsofpoliciesandstrategieswithintheplanperiod.NEAP3outlines

theprinciplesofenvironmentmanagementwithanemphasisoncoordinationandcooperation

from all sectors towards the goal of integrating environmental aspects into the goals of and

actionsofallsectors.TheNAPAlaysthegroundworktomitigateandadaptstoitsimpactinan

efforttomakeMaldivesresilientandadaptabletotheimpactofclimatechange.Implementation

of the priority program depends on the capacity to implement and on the support from

internationalcommunitytoagreatextent.

At the centre of efforts to address climate change on the international stage is the United

NationsFrameworkConventionforClimateChange(UNFCCC).MaldivesratifiedtheUNFCCCin

November 1992. Maldives gives high importance to climate change and was one the first

country to sign the Kyoto Protocol which is the international agreement linked to the

Convention.Theprotocolwas ratifiedby theMaldives inDecember1998.UnderUNFCCC the

firstNational Communicationwas submitted in 2001. To understand the vulnerability of the

Maldives to this challenge, a vulnerability assessment was undertaken in 2001 and was

presented in the FirstNational Communication of theMaldives to theUNFCCC. Based on the

findingoftheFirstNationalCommunicationoftheMaldives,NAPA,TNA,NationalCapacityand

Self Assessment have been formulated. The target is to submit the second National

Communication at Conference of the Parties (COP) 18 and is listed as a program area in the

national agendawhich is currently in its initial stage. As a follow up of the second National

Communication NAPAwill be reviewed and is also listed as upcoming program areas at the

nationallevel.


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A Climate Change Advisory Committee (CCAC) representing all stakeholders including

government, business and civil society was formed in recognition that climate change is

everyone’s concernand responsibility.CCAC functions throughmutual respectandconsensus

buildingamongallstakeholderstodevelopintegratedpolicyandprograms.

Atpresentthegovernmentismeasuringtheprogressofthepoliciesandstrategiesoutlinedin

the SAP 2009‐2012. The current program areas in relation to adaptation and mitigation

initiativesareoutlinedintable3.11and3.12.

Strategy/Objective Actions/Program/Activities CurrentStatus

Increasecommunity

resilienttoclimate

change

1.Locallyappropriatecoastal

protectionandfloodmeasures

developedforimplementationin

inhabitedislands

2.Nationaladaptationstrategies

andprogramsreviewedand

NAPAimplemented

3.CurrentResilientIslands

Programme(RIP)reviewedand

revised

Civilsocietyengagementin

combatingclimaterisks

increased

Islandsinwhichcoastal

protectionmeasuresare

implementedtoprotecthuman

settlements,increased

Locationswhereappropriate

wastewatertreatmentprocesses

areimplementedtoavoidclimate

changerelatedriskstofresh

wateravailability

FinalReportoutliningthelocally

appropriatecoastalprotection

measuresformulated

Projectlaunched

Projectlaunched

Someworkshopconducted

Projecttobesubmittedto

NationalPlanningCouncil


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Adaptationand

Mitigationresponseto

beacherosion

strengthenedanda

systemdevelopedto

assistcommunities

wherelivelihoodand

propertyareaffectedby

beacherosion

1Developguidelinesfor

settlementplanningandcoastal

modificationtopreventerosion

2.Identifyviablealternatives

(morecostefficientsofter

measuresforpreventionof

coastalerosionandguidelines

forsettlementplanningand

coastalmodificationtoprevent

erosion)

3.Settlementsprotectedagainst

coastalerosion,increased

4.Nationalcoverageunderearly

warningsystem,increased

Surveyofexistingsoftcoastal

adaptationmeasuresconducted

andreportformulated

IntermsofmitigationinitiativeandparticularlyinrelationstoCarbonNeutralPolicytheaction

areaandthecurrentstatusisillustratedintable3.12

Objective/Strategy Actions/Programs/Activities CurrentStatus

Establishlegal

FrameworkandAction

Plantargetingcarbon

neutralityby2020

establish

1.NationalEnergydemandandsupplystudies

2009

2.CarbonAudit

3.EnactEnergyBill

4.ImplementationoftheInvestmentPlan

Completed

Completed

Billdrafted

Developincentive

schemetoencourage

businessesoffering

renewablesourcesof

energy

1.PublishaDhivehiVersionofEnergyPolicy

2.ImplementationoftheEnergyPolicy

3.Prepareaschemetoprovideincentives

Translationdrafted

Businessesengagedin 1.Prepareanactionplantoengagethepublic

Table3.11:Policiesprogramsandstatusadaptation2009‐2012

Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment.2011


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establishingand

servicingalternate

renewableenergy

systemincreased

andprivatepartnersinrenewableenergy

sector

Adoptandincrease

appropriatewaste

managementpractices,

Advocateclimate

changeissuesand

importanceand

advantagesof

becomingcarbon

neutral

1.ProvinciallevelAwarenessProgramme

Provinciallevel

AwarenessProgramme

EnvironmentalCamp

3workshop

completed

ObligationsUnder

UNFCC

1.SecondNationalCommunication Developing

preparatoryproject

documenttoseek

funding

Table3.12:PoliciesProgramsandStatus‐mitigation2009‐2012

Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment.2011,DepartmentofNationalPlanning2011


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4. WaterandSanitation

4.1 Introduction

InMaldives,freshwatercomesfromtwomainsources;theshallowgroundwateraquifersand

rainwater. Theshallowgroundwateraquifershavebeenextractedforyears. Inmanyislands

the aquifers are depleted because the extraction of water exceeds natural recharge through

rainfallandalsoduetointrusionofsaltandwastewaterintotheaquifer.Wastewaterincludes

sewage water, waste water from industrial activities (including hazardous wastewater) and

frompooragriculturalpractices.

InMale’, desalinatedwater has been used for household consumption since 1985. Currently

eachhouseholdandcommercialestablishmentinMale’haveaccesstodesalinatedwater.Inthe

islands,thesituationisdifferent. Intheislands,relianceonrainwater isgreatandrainwater

harvestingisatraditionalpractice.CurrentlyalmosteachhouseintheislandswillhaveaHigh

Density Polyethylene Tank (HDPE) donated by the government after the Tsunami of 2004

.Rainwater is the primary source of drinking water in 90% of the outer islands with

groundwaterusedforwashing,otherdomesticusesandagriculture(MHE,2011).

4.2 Rainwater

Maldives has two distinct seasons; the dry season and the wet season. The dry season, also

known as the northeast monsoon extends from January to March and the wet season, also

knownasthesouthwestmonsoonfallsonmid‐MaytoDecember.Duringwetseason,Maldives

KeyFindings

AlargepartoftheMaldivianpopulationdependsondesalinatedwaterfordrinkingpurposes

Currently51islandshavedesalinationplantswithacapacityof10litresperday.However,28areoperational

Since2005,governmenthasbeenprovidingdrinkingwatertoislands.ByMay2011,68islandshadbeenprovideddrinkingwater

Energyfordesalinationmayrepresentthehighestincreaseinelectricitygenerationinthefuture.

AdequatesanitationsystemsareinstalledingreaterMale’areaandafewislandsonly


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0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

mm

H.Dh Hanimaadhoo

Hulhule

L. Kadhoo

G.Dh. Kaadedhoo

S. Gan

experiencestorrentialrain.Central,SouthernandNorthernpartsoftheMaldivesreceiveannual

averagerainfallof1924.7mm,2277.8mm,and1786.4mm,respectively.Thehighestrainfallever

recorded in theMaldiveswithin 24hourperiodwas219.8mm, recordedon9th July 2002at

KaadedhdhooMeteorologicalOffice.

Thegraphbelowshowsthetotalrainfallfortheyears2005to2010.Duringthesefiveyearsthe

highestrainfallwasrecordedin2006and lowest in2008.Amongthemeteorologicalstations,

thehighest rainfall recordedvaries fromyear toyear.However, rainfall for S.Gan shows the

leastvariationandforL.Kadhooshowsthemostvariation.

4.2.1 Rainwaterharvesting

Whilerainwateristhemainsourceofdrinkingwaterintheislands,thefactthatMaldivesdonot

experiencerain throughout theyearnecessitated thepracticeof rainwaterharvesting. In the

islands roof of the house or other

establishmentsareretrofittedtocollectwater

through a simplepipe system, intohousehold

orcommunalstoragetanks.Astudyconducted

byUNEPin2005estimatedthatalmost75%of

the population used water from these

rainwater storage tanks. As seen in the

aftermath of the Indian Ocean Tsunami of

2004, the rainwater storage facilities at the

Fig4.1:‐TotalRainfall,2005–2010

Source:DepartmentofMeteorology,2011


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timewereveryvulnerabletofloodingandhighwaveincidences.Tsunamidamageassessments

by theMaldivesWater andSanitationAuthority revealed that ahighpercentageof rainwater

storagetanksand/orcatchmentareasweredamagedontheworstimpactedislands.

Evenwithrainwaterharvesting,drinkingwatershortageisacommonoccurrenceintherecent

history. For example, water shortages were reported by 30% of the population in the 2004

VulnerabilityandPovertyAssessment(MPND,2004).Asrecentlyas2011(byMay)68islands

had reported drinkingwater scarcity and government supplied drinkingwater up to 3919.5

tons.Table1showsthegovernmentexpenditureondrinkingwatersince2005.

Year Noofislands Total(tons) Totalexpenses(MRF)2005 91 2728 24552002006 86 2805 22440002007 82 2694 20205002008 74 2088 15660002009 86 7469 7280472.32010 NotAvailable2011 68 3919.5 2192390

Fig4.2:‐PublicandPrivateRainwaterStorageCapacity,2011

Source:Reproducedfrom:AnAssessmentofRainwaterCatchmentandStorageCapacityintheMaldives,MHE,2011

Note:Expensesincludecostofpurchasingwateraswellaslandandseatransport

Table4.1:Supplyofdrinkingwatertoislands,2005–2011(May)

Source:NationalDisasterManagementCentre,2011


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Thechartbelowshowswatersupplied to islandsand total rainfallbyyearand indicates that

waterprovisionstoislandsdonotrelatetothetotalrainfallduringaparticularyear.

4.3 Groundwater

In Male’, after desalinated water was introduced, people do not drink groundwater, as

groundwater is not fit for consumption.But a certainpercentageuse groundwater for other

domestic purposes such as washing. However, in some islands ground water is used for

drinkingaswellasforallotherdomesticpurposes.Intheislands,groundwaterisalsousedfor

irrigationinagriculture.

Freshgroundwater isascarceresourcebecausethefreshwateraquifer liesamere1to1.5m

below the surface and is nomore than a fewmeters thick.Where groundwater is used for

householdorotherconsumptionpurposes,forinstanceintheislands,waterisextractedfrom

shallowwells.

Thicknessofthegroundwateraquiferintheislandsisdeterminedbynetrainfallrecharge,size

oftheislandandpermeabilityofthesoilcolumn(NAPA2007).Asaresult,longdryperiodswill

leadtodepletionofthefreshwateraquifers.Globalwarmingandthepredictedconsequentsea

level risewill furtherexacerbate thesituationwith thepossibilityof saltwater intrusion.For

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Water supplied to islands (tons)

Total Rainfall (mm)

Fig4.3:‐Watersuppliedtoislandsandtotalrainfallbyyear,2005–2009

Source:DepartmentofMeteorology;MHE2011


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instance,ClimateRiskProfileofMaldives(2006)statedthatthemeansealevelrisefrom1990

‐2005wasunexceptionallyhighandthat‘suchexceptionallyhighsealevelsareassociatedwith

short‐termflooding,acceleratedcoastalerosionandsaltwater intrusion intogroundwater’(p

4). Saltwater intrusion will not only impact the supply of freshwater but also affecting the

tropicalvegetationduetoitsimpactonthesoil.Thiswillhavenegativeimpactsonthefledgling

agricultureindustry.

Sometimes,asstatedabove,intheislandspeopleextractfreshgroundwaterfordrinking.This

hasbeenfoundtoincreasethevulnerabilityofthepopulationtowaterbornediseasesbecause

mostislandshaveseptictanksnottoofarfromthegroundwaterwell.Sometimesseptictanks

and associated parts in the system are broken or damaged due to sludge buildup or other

processes.Forexample,tsunamicausedseptictanksinmanyislandstobecomedamaged.This

leadstotheleakageofsewageandwastewatertothegroundandultimatelythewaterlens.

4.4 Desalinatedwater

With increasing population in Male’, the city’s freshwater aquifer was over extracted to the

extent that an alternate freshwater supplywasprovided in1985.The governmentbegan the

service free of charge with public water pipes. Presently, every domestic and commercial

establishmenthaveaccesstodesalinatedwaterthroughpipeddesalinatedwatersuppliedona

meteredbasis.

Census2006reportedthatatotalof35%oftheMaldivianpopulationhasaccesstodesalinated

water. This includes every household in greater Male’ region (including Villingilli and

Hulhumale’)whichhavepipeddesalinatedwater suppliedon ameteredbasis, through a city

wide distribution pipe system. This service is provided by Male’ Water Sewerage Company

(MWSC). InMale’area,waterconsumptionhassteadily increasedascanbeseenby the table

below.

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009Male' 1,669.70 1,969.40 2,147.40 2,444.50 2,880.60 3,275.10Villingilli 87.61 94.46 132.75 153.44Hulhumale' 63.95 63.95 79.81 138.17

Table4.2:DesalinatedwaterdistributioninMale’area,2004‐2009(In'000metrictons)

Source:StatisticalYearbook2010,DNPirs


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MWSChascompletedtheinstallationofwatersupplynetworkinthreeotherislands,namelyK.

Thilafushi,K.Maafushi,Hdh.KulhudhufushiandGdh.Thinadhoo(MHE2011).Otherislandsthat

haveaccesstodesalinatedwaterasearlyas2004include,Sh.KomandooandR.Kandholhudhoo

(SOE2004).Currently51islandshavedesalinationplantswithacapacityof10litresperday.

However,28areoperational.While68islandshadrequestedforwaterbyMay2011,ofthose

islands which had operational desalination plants, only the following islands requested for

drinkingwaterin2011.Subsequently,waterwastransportedtotheseislandsbysea.

This may indicate that islands with operational desalination plants may not require water

provisions.However,moreinformationsuchascostbenefitanalysisofwaterprovisionversus

costofoperatingadesalinationplantneedstobecollectedtobeabletoformpolicyresponses.

4.5 Waterproductionandcarbonneutrality

DemandfordesalinatedwatersupplyinMale’hasincreasedtremendouslyandatpresentmore

than 10,000m3 per day is produced for distribution. Carbon Audit Report 2009, report that

undergrowingpopulationandgrowingpercapitawaterconsumption,energyfordesalination

represents the highest increase in

electricity generation in the future.

The report further states that energy

requirements for desalination will

increase by 441%, from4,307 toe of

diesel in 2009 to 22,259 toe in 2020.

This rise comes from both a higher

population and a higher consumption

per capita, notably in Male Greater

Area(CarbonAudit2009).

Atoll Island Population(2006) PlantCapacity(daily) Watersupplied(tons)

R Alifushi 2450 10Ton 127.5B Hithaadhoo 1221 10Ton 47.5L Isdhoo‐Kalaidhoo 1559 10Ton 75GA Villingili 3180 30Ton 111GA Maamendhoo 1373 10Ton 97.5GA Kolamaafushi 2568 10Ton 60GDh Gadhdhoo 1439 10Ton 35

Table4.3:IslandswithoperationalDesalinationplantswhorequestedforwaterin2011(May)

Source:NationalDisasterManagementCentreandMHE


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The MWSC, the only company who provides desalinated water in Male’ Greater Area, have

developedenergyrecoverysystemsfornewdesalinationplantswhichwillprovide50%energy

savings. In addition, in the State Electric Company (STELCO), water for the power station is

produced from the exhaust heat from the power station. The exhaust heat is fed into anME

desalinationplantwithadailyproductioncapacityof150tonsperday(STELCO2011).

Mineral water imports show a declining trend. This may be due to the fact that water

productionlocallyhasincreased(waitingforstats).

4.6 WastewaterandSanitation

Male’ Greater Area (Villingilli and Hulhumale’) has 100% sanitation coverage while the

percentageislessthan1fortherestofthecountry(MHE,20111).

Theprevailingsystemsofseweragedisposalinmostislandsareonsitesanitationsystemsusing

septic tanks and soak‐pits (See Box A for further information).These systems are causing

various environmental health problems and contamination of groundwater due to unsafe

disposalofsewageandwastewater.Theposttsunamienvironmentassessmentconductedby

UNEP in 2005 found that microbial contamination of groundwater supplies was a serious

chronicproblemthatpre‐existedthetsunami.

Government of Maldives with assistance from external agencies and the private sector is

workingtoimprovethesanitationfacilitiesintheislands.Seweragesystemshavebeeninstalled

in 27 islands from 2005 ‐2011 (May 2011). During the period, 2009 – 2011 (May 2011) 13

sewerage systems have been completed in different islands2. The new systems consist of

1ThisinformationisobtainedformtheEvaluationFrameworksubmittedtotheDepartmentofNationalPlanningduringtheprocessofpreparingtheM&EframeworkfortheStrategicActionPlan

2Seefootnote1

Year Quantity(Ltr)2005 3,156,309.582006 2,839,478.982007 3,383,826.952008 3,176,168.312009 2,407,541.692010 2,009,558.00

Table4.4:ImportsofMineralWater

Source:MaldivesCustomsServices,2011


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seweragenetworkforthewholeisland,withpumpstations,sewagetreatmentfacilitiesandsea

outfalls.

4.6.1 Resorts

Severallegalinstrumentsprovideforenvironmentalprotectionintouristresortdevelopments

and operations. The most pertinent of which is the Regulation on the Protection and

Conservation of the Environment in the Tourism Industry passed in 2006. The Regulation

essentiallyprohibitsuseof groundwater in resorts, fordrinkingor anyotherpurposes.This

Regulationalsoprohibitsdischargeofanychemicalstotheground.

More specifically, Section 6 of the Regulation on the Protection and Conservation of the

Environment in the Tourism Industry, every resort is required to have a desalination plant

registeredwiththeEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).Itfurtherrequiresthatdailylogsof

water quality are recorded andmaintained. Under this regulation, resorts also need to have

storageofwatersupplysufficientfor5days.

SanitationsystemsinMaldives

On most islands, sanitation depends on pour‐flush latrines and cistern flush toiletsconnected to septic tanksand, toa lesserextent,holes inbackyards.The septic tanksaretypically a combination of small scale pre‐sedimentation tanks and soak pits fromwhichsewage migrates freely through the highly porous island soil and contaminatesgroundwatersupplies.Theseunitsareoftenpoorlyconstructedandmaintainedduetotheunavailabilityofmaterialandskilledlabour.Mosthavealsobeenlocatedtooclose(lessthanone metre) from groundwater wells, thus providing additional sources of water supplycontamination. The remaining septic systems are connected to small‐bore sea outfalls.These systems are generally not well designed and maintenance is often deferred. As aresult,theyoftenmalfunctionandconveyrawsewagedirectlyintothemarineenvironment.

Although Male’ has an adequate sanitation system, a sewage treatment system is non‐existent.Sewagetreatmentintheislandsislimitedtothesedimentationtanks,whichcanhold 1m3, provide an average familywith suitable capacity for approximately 200 days,after which they require maintenance and sludge disposal. Most tanks are sealed withconcreteandare locatedunder topsoil,makingregularmaintenancenearly impossible. Inaddition, the surfaces of the tanks are too small to provide adequate retention time andsettling.Asaresult,mostoftheuntreatedsludgedischargesdirectlyintosoakpitsand,fromthere, into groundwater resources. Further, when de‐sludging is done, the sludge isdisposedofintheopenseaorburiedsomewhereintheisland.

ReproducedfromUNEP2005


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According to the Regulation on Protection and Conservation of Environment in the Tourism

Industry,sewagefromresorts,hotelsandguesthouseshavetobedisposedinamannerthatis

least harmful to the environment. Data on desalination plants and sanitation systems in the

resortsarenotaccessibleatthispoint,thusthissectionislimitedintheinformationprovided.

4.7 Majorpolicyresponsesandinitiatives

Sector policies and strategies are outlined in the SAP, which is the operational plan for the

Government’sManifesto.Asisthepolicyofthecurrentgovernment,thesectordevelopmentis

undertakenunderaheavyprivatizationeffort.Thus,governmentisencouragingprivatesector

toparticipateandinvest intheprovisionofwatersupplyandsanitationservices.Atthesame

time,utilitiescompanieshavebeensetupin6provinceswhowillmanagethedeliveryofthese

servicesintheislands.Atpresent,11watersupplyprojectsand38sewerageprojectshavebeen

tenderedthroughMinistryofFinanceundercontractorfinancescheme.Theseprojectsarenot

yet implemented. InadditionawaterpurchaseagreementhasbeensignedbetweenSouthern

UtilitiesLimitedwithan international companywhichwill deliver installationofdesalination

plantswithwatersupplynetworkandseweragesystemwillinAdduCityandFuahmulah(MHE

2011).Thetablebelowgivesdetailedinformationonthestatusofpolicyandstrategies.


90 |P a g e

Objectives/Strategy Programmes/Activities CurrentStatus FuturePlansAccesstosafedrinkingwaterimproved,includingvulnerablegroups

1.1. Waternetworkdeveloped 7islands Allislands1.2. Rainwaterstoragecapacity

onislandsimprovedAllislandshave2500litresprovidedtoeachhousehold

‐

1.3. TsunamiaffectedIslandsonwhichdesalinationplantsinstalledandfunctioning

85%ofallislandshavedesalinationplantsinstalled

AllTsunamiaffectedislands

Drinkingwatersafetymeasuresimproved

2.1. Adrinkingwatersafetyplandeveloped

Plandrafted Implement

2.2. Waterqualitytestingfacilitiesincreasedinouteratolls

none 10%in2011

Emergencywatersupplyresponseimproved

3.1. Outeratollswherefacilitiesdevelopedwithwaterstocksforuseduringemergencies/disastersincreased

35%ofinhabitedislands

Utilitycompaniesnowmandated

3.2. Establishmentofwaterstocksinthedesignated7regionsofthecountry

‐ ‐

Accesstosanitationfacilitiesimproved

4.1. Islandswithimprovedseweragefacilitiesincreased

27islands Allislands

Effectiveoperationandmaintenanceproceduresestablishedforwatersupplyandsanitationsystem

5.1. Localcouncilsandutilitiesengagementinoperation,maintenanceandmanagementofwatersupplyandsewerageincreased

Localcouncilsinplace

5.2. Watersupplyandsanitationprojectsoperationalisedwithrenewableenergysources,increased

‐ ‐

PrivateSectorInvestmentinthewaterandsanitationsectorincreased

6.1. Anincentiveschemeestablishedforpromotingprivatesectorinvestment

‐ ContractorFinanceschemedeveloped

InstitutionalCapacitycoveringtechnical,legalfinancialandhumanresourceneedsstrengthenedtoenhancesectorperformance

1.1 RegulatoryCapacitiesinlegal,technical,financialandhumanresourcesstrengthened

7professionalsworkingnow

15

1.2 Structures,systemsandfunctionsofresponsibleagenciesandcapacityofstaffstrengthened

Reviewandrevisesinstitutionalsystems/structurestomainstreamGESIBuildcapacityofstaffonGESImainstreaming

1.3 Developmentofresearchfacilitiesspecializedinwaterandsanitationfield

20(Bach.OfEnvironmentalManagement,MEMP,initiatedin2010)

20(Bach.OfEnvironmentalManagement,MEMP,expectedtoendin2010)


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1.4 AlternativewatersupplyschemesforAgriculturalandIndustrialactivitiesmadeavailable

none 5

CommunityandCivilSocietyparticipationinthewaterandsanitationsectorenhanced

1.5 Islandsandatollswhereprivatesector/civilsocietyengagedwithwaterandsewerageincreased

none 20(Awarenessprogramsonwaterandsanitationmanagement(focusedonaspectsofskillsandknowledgeforwomen))

Waterresourcemanagementimproved

9.1 Aninventoryofnaturalwatercatchmentareas

Nodata Collectdata

9.2 Assessfreshgroundwaterquantityinallislands

Inadequatedata Carryouthydrologicalsurveys

9.3 Mechanismtomonitorthewaterresourcequalityintheislandsdeveloped

Nomechanism Mechanismdeveloped

EnforcementofWaterandSanitationActofMaldives

10.1 WaterActorWaterLegislationdrafted

WaterActDrafted(MoUsignedwithMWS&D,SriLankaandGoMfortechnicalassistance

TheActimplemented

10.2 Drinkingwaterqualitystandardsdeveloped

Draftstandardsavailable

10.3 Watertariffsystemdevelopedforislands

‐ Tariffsystemdeveloped

Table4.5:PolicyprogramsandStatus,2011



92 |P a g e

5. WasteManagement

5.1 Introduction

It was estimated that 298Kton of waste was

generated in Maldives in 2009. Data on solid

waste are limited and possibly underreported,

StatisticsonsolidwasteindicatethatinMaldives

solid waste comprise of domestic waste,

industrial waste, construction debris, plastic,

glass, scrap iron, saw dust and wood. Liquid

waste generated in the Maldives also includes

hazardous wastes such as asbestos, oil/fuel,

fertilizers,pesticidesandhealthcarewaste.

Wastedisposal,whether solidorotherwise,posedifferentproblems forMale’ regionand the

restoftheinhabitedislandsinthecountry.SolidwastegeneratedinMale’,Vilingili,Hulhumale’,

IbrahimNasirInternationalAirport,mostofthewastesgeneratedinresortsofMale’atoll,few

resorts in other atolls and some inhabited islands, assisted by resorts are transported to

Thilafushidumpsite. Other inhabited islandseitherdumporburn theirwaste somewhere in

theirownislandsorperipherywhetheratadesignatedwastemanagementcentre,thebeachor

ownbackyard.Onsomeinhabitedislandssolidwasteisdiscardedonadesignated(occasionally

enclosed) area on the beach, while on others most of the trash is burned. However, some

KeyFindings

Wastevolumehasbeenincreasingwithincreasingpopulationand

developmentactivities

ThereissomerecyclingdoneatwastecollectionfacilitiesinMale’and

Thilafushi,someoftherecycledwaste,mostlyironandandPETPlastics,are

exportedbyprivateexporters

ThereareIslandWasteManagementCentresin134islandsbutmostarenot

operational

Emissionsfromwastesareestimatedtorepresent15%ofGHGemissions.


93 |P a g e

inhabitedislandscontinuetohaveproblemsoflitteringanddumpinginnon‐demarcatedareas.

Although this practice is less now since many islands have waste management centers

established, a process expedited after the Tsunami of 2004. Additionally after the

decentralizationprocesseachIslandorCityCouncilismandatedtomanagesolidwasteintheir

jurisdictions.

5.2 SituationAnalysis

Wastedisposal isanactivity thatcompounds thevulnerabilityof the islands inMaldives.The

only designated primary landfill in Maldives, Thilafushi‐ which was initially just an open

dumpsite, lies in the middle of the ocean. Currently, the island (formed of waste) has other

industrial activities going on such as cement packing etc and only part of the island is

designated a dumpsite. In addition, 90%of the islands inMaldives have theirwaste disposal

siteswithin100mofcoastlineandontheocean‐wardsideoftheisland(MHTE,2009).

5.2.1 Male’

Major sources of waste in Male’ are domestic waste, industrial waste, construction and

demolitionwaste,organicandnon‐organicwaste.SolidwastesgeneratedinMale’alsoinclude

hazardouswastessuchasasbestos,oil/fuel,andhealthcarewaste.

Thewaste generated inMale’ are first taken to the collectionyards.Thereare two collection

yardsinMale’andoneinVillingili:twoyardsinMale’areoneforconstructionanddemolition

wasteandoneformunicipalsolidwaste(SOE,2004).Thereisnomunicipalcollectionofwaste.

Wastecollectioniscarriedoutbyprivatepartiesandistransportedbybicycle,byhandcartand

also by two private operators providing collection and transport to collection yards. In each

case,collectionfromhouseholdsispredominantlybyexpatriatelaborers,whoworkafterhours

inthissector.Inthatsense,majorityofthehouseholdsandcommercialestablishmentsinMale’

payforwastedisposalexplicitly.

From the collection yards,waste is transported in dump truckswhich take thewaste to the

municipalwastedumpsiteatThilafushionabarge. Municipalwaste is transportedby large

staticcomposterunitswhilecommercialanddemolitionwasteistransportedbytippertrucks.

In 2009, approximately 123,549 tonnes of waste was transported to Thilafushi from Male’

region.This representsabout20percent increase from2004.CarbonAudit (2009)estimated

that79%ofthewastegeneratedinMaldivesistransportedtoThilafushi.


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Table5.1showssomestatisticsthatindicatethatwastegeneratedinMale’hasnotconsistently

increased,whichissurprisinggiventhatanecdotalevidencesuggeststhatresidentpopulation

andconstructionactivitieshasincreasedinMale’.

Typeofwaste 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Total 103,548 100,298 110,281 109,400 111,955 134,722 123,549

Industrial 42,944 33,055 38,901 43,648 40,179 52,791 47,881

Construction

debris

38,880 28,390 34,160 40,070 32,702 50,600 45,210

Domestic 60,604 67,243 71,380 65,752 71,776 81,931 75,668

Non‐organic 31,703 42,651 53,060 34,853 41,097 46,788 39,249

Organic 28,679 24,240 18,176 30,366 30,583 34,482 35,609

Plastic 7 222 119 533 75 640 412

Glass 215 130 25 ‐ 21 21 398

ScrapIron 1,062 789 438 726 1,193 70 22

Oil&Fuel 4 78 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐

SawDust 2,354 3,078 246 662 2,522 ‐ 479

Wood 645 720 4,057 2,190 3,762 2,121 2,170

Waste is not formally segregated at any originating site, whether households or commercial

sites.However, at the collectionyards,waste is segregated to someextent.Reusablewaste is

kept aside, which are then taken away by middle men representing exporters. Mostly

segregationofwasteisdoneatthecollectionyardsinThilafushi.Segregatedcategoriesinclude

paper, plastic, boxes, tins, aluminum, electronicmaterials, High‐density polyethylene (HDPE)

plastic,vegetablebaskets,woodenboxes,fibre,usedoil,drybatteries,coconuthusks,furniture

andtiles.

Mostofthewasteisburntopenlyandtheresidualashandunburntwasteisdumpedintoan

area of the lagoon with bund walls and land filling is done. While the inevitable odour and

smoke fill the atmosphere, the resulting litter, such as plastic bags, packaging and paper are

fillingthemarineenvironmentandleadstoleachingofenvironmentallydamagingsubstances.

Table5.1:WastetransportedtoThilafushifromMale’,2003–2009(tonnes)

Source:StatisticalYearbook2010,DepartmentofNationalPlanning2010


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Thepotentialofrisktohumanhealthandtheimpendingrisktothenaturalenvironmentofthe

area,especiallyunderwater,fromtheimproperlydisposedwasteisimmense.

5.2.2 Intheatolls

Solidwaste generated in the atolls varies from atoll to atoll from time to time. For instance,

where there is a lot of construction activity going on, construction debris would be high. In

islandslikeR.Alifushi,woodandsawdustwouldbehighbecauselotofboatbuildingactivities

would be going on throughout the year. Additionally, in islands practicing commercial

agriculturesuchasThoddu inAlifAtoll,a lotofagriculturalwaste isgenerated.Nevertheless,

generallyinallislandsdomesticwastewouldbehighest.Householdlevelwastesegregationis

donesofarasbackyardcompostingisdemandedbyindividualhouseholds.Somecommunities

thatdependonfirewoodmaysegregatewood,coconutsandothercombustiblewaste. Insuch

cases,organicwastedoesnotendupwithmunicipalwaste.

Waste disposal practices vary among islands depending on access to disposal facilities, local

custom and government/council intervention. Households usually carry their waste to

collectionsitesandusuallywomenareresponsibleforthetask,whopushawheelbarrowtothe

site. These sites can range from a designatedwaste collection site, seaside (beachside), land

reclamationsite,bushes,andback/frontyard(livingarea).Table5.2suggestssomeburningin

thehouseholdanduseofawastedisposalmachine.Inaddition,wasteisoftenburntregularlyat

thecollectionsiteinsomeislands.

Table5.2showthatalmost61percentoftheatollhouseholdsdumpgarbageintothedesignated

site(garbagecompound).Almostequalnumberofhouseholdsdumptheirsolidwasteintothe

bushesorburns it inthe livingarea. Insomeatolls,asignificantpercentagedumpsthewaste

intotheseaside,whichhasimplicationsforimpactonthemarineenvironment.Further,thesaid

garbage disposal site would usually be located in close proximity to the seaside/ beach

compoundingtheproblem.


96 |P a g e

Total

househol

ds

Garbag

e

compo

und

Sea

side

Land

Reclam

ation

site

Throwi

ng it

into the

bushes

Buryin

the

living

area

Burn

in the

living

area

Use a

waste

disposal

machin

e

Not

stated

Atolls 32087 60.8 10.2 0.6 12.5 0.6 12.5 0.4 2.4

HA 2425 63.3 10.0 0.0 20.2 0.6 4.6 ‐ 1.2

HDh 2988 55.4 0.3 0.8 39.3 0.6 3.3 ‐ 0.4

Sh 2099 32.8 10.2 2.7 51.7 0.4 1.8 0.0 0.4

N 1811 61.6 8.9 1.8 19.2 0.4 7.2 ‐ 0.9

R 2538 92.8 1.0 ‐ 0.1 ‐ 5.7 0.0 0.4

B 1552 93.1 0.5 ‐ 1.3 0.1 3.3 0.2 1.5

Lh 1449 73.6 21.0 0.2 ‐ 0.1 3.6 0.3 1.2

K 1526 84.0 0.1 ‐ 9.4 0.2 1.2 0.5 4.5

AA 774 77.6 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.9 18.7 0.1 2.1

ADh 1060 74.9 ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.3 6.9 8.1 9.8

V 260 82.3 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 12.3 0.4 5.0

M 793 84.5 3.0 0.1 8.2 0.1 2.1 0.1 1.8

F 567 90.8 0.2 ‐ ‐ 0.4 5.8 0.2 2.6

Dh 768 80.2 0.1 ‐ ‐ 0.3 1.4 0.3 17.7

Th 1454 75.0 17.2 0.1 0.4 0.3 2.8 0.2 4.1

L 1970 19.5 52.5 0.7 18.9 0.5 4.0 ‐ 4.0

GA 1472 34.4 45.0 0.3 2.6 1.8 13.4 0.1 2.3

GDh 2145 45.5 14.0 0.1 6.7 1.5 30.5 0.0 1.7

Gn 1332 40.0 0.3 1.6 2.8 1.4 51.0 0.1 2.9

S 3104 47.5 1.3 0.7 2.5 0.7 45.8 0.2 1.3

Afterthetsunamiof2004,theAustralianRedCrossandCanadianRedCrossundertookarange

ofreconstructionanddevelopmentactivitiesand79IslandWasteManagementCentres(IWMC)

were constructed throughout theMaldives, Some of the IWMCs are still functional. However

somewereneverusedorceasedbeingusedinashorttimeoncethecentreswerefullofwaste.

TheestablishmentofIWMCshadadirectimpactonoverallislandcleanlinessinmostcases,and

was instrumental inplacingwastemanagementon theagendaatan Island level.Thecurrent

Table5.2:WaysofDisposalofWasteintheislands,2006

Source:Census2006,DepartmentofNationalPlanning2007


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situationastotheestablishmentofIWMCsareshownintable5.3.Therearenow134IWMCsin

theMaldives,coverageofapproximately66%ofislands,althoughthepercentageofpopulation

able to access awaste facilitywould bemuch higher given population distributions (UNOPS

2010).

5.2.3 Existingsituationintheresorts

In general, waste practices on resort islands are decidedly better than those on inhabited

islands. The resort islands, as a result, appear clean. Combustible waste is incinerated and

kitchenwasteisdumpedoffshoreintotheopenseainaccordancewiththeregulationsofMOT

on deep‐sea disposal ofwaste.Waste that cannot be reused or incinerated is transported by

boattothecountry’scentraldumpsiteatThilafushi.

Awastesurveywasconductedin21resortsinNorthandSouthAriAtollin2009andfoundthat

alltheresortsinNorthandSouthAriAtolltransporttheirwastetoThilafushiforfinaldisposal.

Atourismsourceofwastethatisoftenoverlookedisthewastefromsafariboats.ResortinAri

atollreportedthattheycleanupwastesfromsafariboatsfromtheirbeaches.

5.3 Healthcareandhazardouswastemanagement

ItisuncleartowhatextenthazardouswasteisidentifiedassuchinMaldives.Themainsources

of hazardouswasteon the islands arepower stations, oil/fuel supply storage areas, fertilizer

andpesticidestorageareas,farmingactivities,andhospitalwaste.Hazardouswasteishandled

anddisposednodifferentlythanotherformsofsolidwasteexceptsomehealthcarewaste.The

resortislandstransporthazardouscomponentstothelandfillsiteatThilafushi,whichstoresoil,

batteries,accumulatorsandotherhazardouswaste.

Health carewaste generated inMaldives comes fromhealthcare facilities set up inMale’, the

islandsand theresorts. InMale’, thereare two facilitiesoperatedby thegovernment, Indhira

GandhiMemorialHospitalandahealthcentre.Thereisoneprivatehospitalandseveralprivate

clinics. In addition, there are government operated (from 2008 operated by health

corporations)6regionalhospitals,13atollhospitals,60healthcentresand26healthposts.All

registered hospitals are required to incinerate the waste they produce. However, this is not

practicedinmanyhospitalsandwasteotherthansharpsandinfectiousmaterialsaredisposed

ofalongwithotherwaste.Inallhealthcarefacilitiesintheislands,sharpsandinfectiouswastes

areburnedandburiedwhichisanenvironmentallyunfriendlypracticeaswellasbeingahealth

hazard.


98 |P a g e

5.4 WasteandtheMaldivianeconomy

Wasteistheby‐productofeconomicactivity.Wastecanbegeneratedatdifferenttimesduring

themateriallifecycle:whenrawnaturalresourcesareextractedorharvested;whengoodsare

manufacturedorservicesprovided;andwhengoodsarepackaged,transported,andconsumed.

Somewaste reflects the economic activities going on in a society. The volume of the certain

waste may also indicate the extent of these activities. So for example a high volume of

constructiondebrisinagivenyearmeansthatconstructionsectorwasmoreproductiveinthat

year. In this regard, the graphbelowshows that constructionactivitieshave increased in the

countrywithindustrialwasteshowsasimilartrend.

InThilafushi island,where60%of the country’swaste is stored, but also in other inhabited

islands, some of the waste still goes directly to sea and threatens the quality of the local

environment(waterandmarineresources).Inadequatesolidwastedisposalhaveimplications

foraffectingthehealthofthevulnerablereefsystemofMaldives.MHE(2011)statesthatsolid

waste disposal into the coastal vegetation is a major contributor to the degradation of the

vegetationbeltinsomeislandsnamely,Dh.Kudahuvadhoo,Ga.Kolamaafushi,Sh.Funadhooand

N.Velidhoo.Thismaybethecaseinmanyislands.Similarly,poorsolidwastedisposalincreases

theriskofvectorbornediseases,becausevectorbreedingsitesarecreated.

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Industrial Construction debris Domestic Non‐organic Organic

Fig5.1:‐Trendsinhighvolumewaste,inMale’,2003–2009

Source:Statisticalyearbook,2010,DepartmentofNationalPlanning


99 |P a g e

5.5 Wasteandcarbonneutrality

Waste is a source of greenhouse gas emission (through methane emissions resulting from

decompositionofwaste) . CarbonAuditReport (2009) report of two sourcesof emissions to

assessthegreenhousegasesemittedfromwasteintheMaldives:open‐burning(asisthecasein

Thilafushior insome islands)andsolidwastedisposal.Noemissions forwastedumping into

seaweretakenintoaccount.In2009,90%oftheGHGwereemittedfromThilafushiandother

landfills.TotalGHGemissionsfromwasteopen‐burninganddisposalamountedto217ktCO2eq,

outofwhich75%areCH4emissions,21%CO2emissionsand4%N2Oemissions.Intotal15

percentofthe1.3MTofcarbondioxideemittedwerefromwastein2009.(CarbonAudit2009).

15%isaconsiderablepercentageofGHGemission,especiallysincethatrapidgrowthofboth

thepopulationanddevelopmentactivities(suchasconstruction)areexpectedinfutureaswell.

Insearchofoptionstoreducewasteanditsbyproducts,awastetoenergy(WtoE)studywas

conducted by Environment Research Center (ERC) in 2007. The study revealed that while

quantitiesofwastegeneratedinindividualislandswereinadequatetosupportpotentialWtoE

solutions, WtoE options maybe financially viable, if waste from neighboring islands are

integrated.Soforexample,accordingtothisstudy,sufficientwastequantitiesaregeneratedin

SouthernAtollsofAdduandFuhamulah.

Thesamestudyalso foundthat therewereseveralpotentialapplications/products thatcould

be addressed throughWtoE solutions such as electricity generation to displace use of fossil

fuels;conversiontoalternatefuelssuchasgas(Syngas)orcharcoal(pellets),whichcandisplace

theuseoffirewoodorotherfuelsusedforcooking,dieselfuelusedforindustrialprocesses;use

of the generated energy to produce potable water, ice, etc; use of ash (a by‐product of the

combustionprocess)toproduceconcreteblocksandslabswhichcanbeused inconstruction,

etc.However,basedonstakeholder feedbacks, themost relevantandappropriateneedshave

beenidentifiedaselectricitygenerationanddesalinationofwatertomakeitpotable.Ingeneral,

theWtoEstudyreported,thereispotentialofgenerating91%fuelfromthewasteavailablein

Maldives.ThefinancialanalysisinthestudyshowedthatcostsassociatedwithWtoEsolutions

are justified for reasonably large quantities of waste (greater than 15 tonnes per day). For

smallerquantitiesitmaybemoresuitabletosimplyincineratethewaste.

Subsequently, the ERC conducted a detailed study in 2008 to assess the viability of waste

incinerationinMaldives.Thereportstatedthatgiventhelackofrevenuestreamsexpectedfrom

incineration,operatinganincineratorcanprovetobeahugefinancialburdenoveraperiodof


100 |P a g e

time. Unless, the heat produced by the incinerator are used for other useful purposes like

electricitygenerationorseawaterdesalinationtomakeitviablefromeconomicpointofview(1

kg ofwaste can generate upto 0.5 kwh of electricity + 0.5 litres ofwater or 1 litres of fresh

water). WtoE solutions will help in reducing dependence on fossil fuels, help in providing

adequatedrinkingwaterandwillalsoreducetheGHGemissions.

Otherexamplesofwastebeingused inasimilarwaywasreportedbyMHE, in2011,ontheir

report,SurveyofClimateChangeAdaptationMeasuresinMaldives.Thereportstatesthatwaste

had been used in ad hoc reclamation measures in islands such as Sh. Funadhoo and AA

Bodufolhudhoo.The survey also revealed that ‘theuseof constructiondebris topermanently

reclaim erosion hotspots is wide spread practice in the inhabited islands surveyed’. In this

regard, of 26 inhabited islands thatwere eroding, 19 islands had some section of the island

protectedbyconstructionwasteandoccasionallygreenwaste.Infact,amongthese19islands,

thismethodisusedasasolutiontoconstructionwastedisposalratherthanastrueadaptation

measure(MHE,2011)

Therearesomecompanieswhoexportrecycledwaste.

Material QuantityExported2009(tons) Quantity Exported

2010(tons)

Ferrous

Metals

6237.23 9,675.94

CastIron 388.5 0

Copper 134.62 273.11

Aluminium 87.4 131.86

Zinc 0 0

Plastics 0 35.00

Cardboard 0 0

WasteOil 195 57.20

The EconomicandTechnicalFeasibilityStudyforaNationalRecyclingStrategy (Medina, 2008)

producedatableofmaterialsthatwerepotentiallyrecoverableonadailybasisandstatedthat

in general terms a Material Recovery Facility (MRF) would be a feasible option as a central

Table5.3:Recyclingexportsbymaterial,2008and2009

Source:MaldivesCustomsService2011


101 |P a g e

processingandexportoperation.Table5.4calculatesthefullresourcestreamsineachcategory

(100%recovery)togiveageneraloverviewofresourcequantities.

Material Quantity

(T/day)

Quantity(T/A)

Organic 45.4 16,571

Paper 1.7 620.5

Cardboard 1.41 514.65

PET 3.3 1204.50

MixedPlastics 2.27 828.55

AluminiumCans 1.36 496.4

SteelCans 2.13 777.45

Glass 1.24 452.6

However,Medina (2008) also stated thatMale’smunicipalwaste does not appear to contain

enough recyclable material to attract and support public‐private partnerships (PPPs) for

individualrecyclablecommoditiesbasedonanexportmarketscenario.

5.6 Regulatoryframework

TheEnvironmentProtectionandPreservationAct(Law4/93)istheprimarylegalinstrument

for environmental management in the Maldives and EPA is the custodian of the law. The

followingsectionsspecificallyaddresswastemanagement:

Section37‐Standards,Classificationandidentificationofhazardouswasteandmaterials

Section38‐ClassificationofhazardousWaste

Section39‐SolidWasteManagementStandards

TheMHE has responsibility for the preservation and protection of the environment. A Draft

SolidWasteManagementRegulationswerealsoreleasedAugust2009andisyettobefinalized.

Oneof themost importantprovisions in thedraft regulations is theemphasison licensingof

wastemanagementactivitiessuchascollection,transport,storageanddisposal.

Table5.4:EstimatedWasteGenerationofRecoverableInMaldives

Source:TheTechnicalFeasibilityStudyforaNationalRecyclingStrategy(Medina,2008)


102 |P a g e

Tourismwasteisaddressedthroughaseparateregulation,theRegulationontheProtectionand

ConservationofEnvironmentintheTourismIndustry,Law2/99(2008).Thisoutlinesstringent

waste management requirements for resorts, including source separation. Each resort must

have an incinerator, compactor andbottle crusher. Foodwaste is permitted for sea dumping

providedwastedoesnotwashontoanyshoreline.Incineratorscannotbeusedtoburnplastics,

andallwastemustbedisposedoffinamannerthatisleastharmfultotheenvironment.

TheDecentralisationLawtransferredtheresponsibilityofthewastemanagementofislandsto

island councils,whowere elected in February 2011.Male’ city council is responsible for the

managementofwasteinGreaterMale’Area.

5.7 Policiesandstrategies

Managementofsolidwastehasremainedoneofthemostpressingenvironmentalissuesinthe

Maldives. The National Solid Waste Management Policy for the Republic of the Maldives

published in 2008 focused on establishing and activating waste management governance,

creatingwasteproducers’duties,establishmentofwastemanagementinfrastructure,activating

the waste management system; and influencing consumer choices and waste management

practices. Subsequently, theNationalFramework forSolidWasteManagement in theMaldives

adoptedbytheGovernmentin2008,istheoverarchingframeworkforallwasteinitiativesand

directions.

The Waste Management Corporation is a newly formed Government Enterprise with the

mandateofwastemanagementoperationthroughoutthenation.Intermsofwastemanagement

theactionareaandthecurrentstatusisillustratedintable5.5.


103 |P a g e

Objectives/Strategy Programmes/Activities CurrentStatus

Asolidwastemanagement

systemtopreventadverse

impactonhumanhealth

andenvironmentthrough

economicallyviableand

locallyappropriate

approaches,implemented

1.1.AWasteManagementAct

enacted

1.2.Developmentoffirstdraft

ofwastemanagement

Regulatoryframework,

Regulatoryframework

drafted

1.3Stakeholderconsultation

andreviewingthedraft

framework

Completed

1.4Finalizationofwaste

managementact

Tobefinalized

PolicyandRegulatory

FrameworkforPPPin

WasteManagement,

developed

2.1Developmentofwaste

managementRegulatory

framework

PPPincooperatedinthe

reg.framework

Facilitationforisland

communitiestomanage

theirwastemanagement

3.1Trainingsforisland

communities

Completedinsome

islands

3.2Trainingsforisland

communities/Handoverof

WMequipments

Completedinsome

islands

Islandwastemanagement

centresmanagedbyisland

communitiesincreased

4.1Allislandshavingwaste

managementfacilities

114 completed

ProvincialSolidWaste

Managementfacilities

establishedforrecoveryand

recycling,facilitated

5.1Selectionofsites

Northprovinceselected

underMEMPproject

5.2Surveyinganddeveloping

site

Surveyingconducted

Designofthesite

developed

5.3Establishmentofsitein

NorthProvince

Preparatoryworkgoing

on

5.4BuildawastemanagementfacilityinThilafushiwithanengineeredlandfillandGassificationplantaswellas

ContractbetweenMale’

CityCouncilandTatva

GlobalRenewable


104 |P a g e

invesselcomposters.

EnergyMaldives

Limitedsigned

Provincialwastemanagement

centresfunctional

6.1Allcentresfunctional Thilafushionly

functional

Peopleandtheenvironment

protectedfromhazardous

wasteandchemicals

7.1ANationalChemicals

RegulationFramework,

guidelinesandinformation

systemdeveloped

7.2Includingchemicals

managementintheEnvact

Draftprepared

7.3DevelopingaChemical

profileofMaldives

SAICMproposal

preparedforfunding

theproject

7.4NAPofconventions

developed

7.5 Guidelineofchemical

handlingprepared

Acommunicationsystem

fortimelyupdated

notificationofmovementof

hazardouswaste,meeting

internationalstandards

developed

8.1Reportingofinternational

conventionsstrengthened

Annualreporting

8.2AnnualReportingof

internationalconventions

strengthened

Annualreportingdone

8.3Guidelinefortrans

boundarymovementof

hazardouswasteprepared

8.4Updatednotificationto

conventions

Table5.5:Policies,Programsandstatus‐managingwaste2009‐2012

Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironment.2011,DepartmentofNationalPlanning2011


105 |P a g e

Keyfindings: Indicatorsoflocalairpollutionshowsincreasingtrendintermsofvehiclesin

operation,constructionofbuilding,importsoffuelandrecordedcasesofrespiratorydiseases.

Qualityofthegroundwateraquifervariesfromislandtoislandandishighlyvulnerabletocontaminationfrominadequatesanitationfacilitiesandotherhumanactivities,solidwasterun‐off,overexploitationandsalineintrusionthroughsoilerosionandflooding.Groundwaterpollutioniscommonthroughoutthecountry.

Waivingimportdutiesfromrenewableenergypoweredvehiclesisanoteworthydevelopmentwhichhasthepotentialofcontributingtowardsacleanerenvironment.

6. Pollution

6.1 Introduction

Pollution in terms of air quality is more pronounced inMale’ while in the islands in can be

generally termed good, as islands are smallwith sea breeze flushing the airmasses over the

island.InMale’,thecapitalpollutionisoftenstatedasanemerginghealthhazard.Thecapacity

to study the air pollution is limitedwith no regularmonitoring activities until 24 December

2011.On24December2011EPAbeganpublishingairqualitymonitoringdata.Theparameter

ofmajorconcerncurrentlyisparticulatematter(PM10)Withlimiteddataonthemeasuresofthe

level of pollution indicators of pollution are used to determine the level of pollution. The

deteriorating status is evident through reviewof certain indicatorsofpollution such trend in

land transport, importsof fuel, and construction relatedactivities.These activities generates

particulatesofsootanddustwhicharecirculatedintotheatmospherecreatingpollutantsinthe

formofsolidparticles,liquiddroplets,orgaseswhichcreatearangeofhealthissues.

Intermsofwaterpollution,contaminationoccurswhengroundwateraccumulatedinrainwater

rechargedaquiferswhich lie at adepthof1‐1.5metersbelow the surfacegets contaminated.

Quality of the ground water aquifer varies from island to island and is highly vulnerable to

contamination from inadequate sanitation facilities and other human activities, solidwaste

run‐off over exploitation; and saline intrusion through soil erosion and flooding. Marine

pollutionismainlylinkedtothewastemanagementpracticesofthecountry.


106 |P a g e

6.2 AirPollution

6.2.1 Indicatorsofairpollution

Male’thecapitalofMaldivesisapproximately2squareKmandisthemostpopulatedislandof

thecountrywithapopulationof103693.(DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2010).Duetothe

prominence as the capital city with opportunities of economic activity has encouraged an

inwardmigrationtothecapitalcity.Thepopulationisincreasingattherateof5.8percentper

annum.

Accordingtothesurveyconducted inMale’byEPA(2011)perceptionsofparticipantsofthe

surveyonexposuretoairpollutionarehighwith78%statingthathighestexposureisduring

walkingwhileabout14%alsofeltthattheyareexposedtopollutionwhileridingmotorcycles.

Indicators of air pollution reviewed includes trend in vehicles, construction of building,

respiratorydiseases,importsoffuel

6.2.1.1Vehicles

Amongthesourcesofpollution,Male’ transportsector iscontributingasignificantamountas

inhabitantsofMale’areusingmoreandmoremotorcyclesandcarsreplacingbicyclesuseda

fewyearsago.PublicroadpassengertransportinMaldiveswasonlythroughtaxisoperatedby

taxicentersuntilJune2011.On23June2011busserviceintroducedasatrailserviceandthe

impactsofitisyettobedetermined.Taxiserviceswereinitiatedin70’sandbymid80sformed

taxicenterswereformedandstartedtogivetaxiservicesthroughthesetaxicenters.Ministryof

Transport(MOT)startedtoregistertaxicentersfrom1989andtaxidriversfrom1997andby

year2000 taxi serviceswere totally regulated.The increasing trendofmotor carsandmotor

bikesareillustratedingraphs6.1.Thecarbonmonoxidegasfromamotorvehicleexhaustisa

primaryairpollutantasitisdirectlyemittedfromthevehiclesinoperation.


107 |P a g e

Over the years an increasing trend is observed and by 2009, there were 44380 vehicles

registered and most (80%) vehicles are motorbikes while cars account for 7% of the total

vehicles.Between2004and2009anaverageof3245motorbikesand230carswereregistered

peryear.Vehiclesareprimarysourceofairpollutionandvehiclesthatarepoweredbypetrol,

dieselnaturalgasoranyotherpetroleumproductemitorgiveoutpollutants.

Theincreasingpressureandimpactsarerevealedwhentakingintoconsiderationtheestimates

ofnumberofreturntripsbycarsandthepersonaltravelcostestimates.In2009itisestimated

that12500returntripsaremadewhileitiswidelyheldthatthisestimatewillincreasefurther

duringschooltimes.Itisestimatedthatpersonaltravelcostat108milliondollarswhichisone

percent of GDP (MTC 2007).Vehicle ownership is increasing at an alarming rate and it is

expectedtogrowby200percentinthenext15yearswiththeonlyimpedimentforthegrowth

isthelackofphysicalparkingspace.(MEEW,2007)

The situation gets aggravated with obstructions in commercial areas. Obstructions are

temporaryandiscausedwhenconstructionsitesusesthefootpathstostoretheirmaterialsand

equipments.Sometimesthewholestreetmaybeclosedduringconstructioncausingnuisanceto

all road users with traffic congestion occurring on the next available road. Also many small

retail shops and cafes aswell as tea shops are seen using the foot path to keep their goods,

blocking the movement of pedestrians. In addition, many vehicle repair and maintenance

workshopskeep thedamagedvehicleson footpaths and their activities suchaspaintingand

washingoftencreatesdiscomforttopedestrians.(p10,EPA,2011)

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

40000

45000

50000

1990

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Number of motor cars

Nu

mb

er o

f m

otor

cyl

es

Years

No of motor cycles

No of Motor cars

Fig2.2:Increasingtrendofcarsandmotorcycles1990‐2009



108 |P a g e

6.2.1.2ConstructionofBuildings

The growth of the construction industry also denotes the increasing trend of air and noise

pollution.Constructionactivitiesthatcontributetopollutionincludelandclearing,operationof

diesel engines, demolition of buildings and building activities undertakenwithin the site. All

constructionsitesgeneratehighlevelsofdusttypicallyfromconcreteandcementwhichcanbe

carried over a large area for a long period. Due to lack of space and increase congestion

construction work on high rise building in Male’ is on the increase. Table 6.1 outlines the

numberofbuildingauthorizedtobeconstructedovertheperiod2004‐2009whichshowsthat

onaverage47buildingsareauthorizedonamonthlybasisand13buildingarecompletedper

month. Fig 6.2 illustrates the floor area in construction building in terms of authorized and

completedbuildingswhichagainemphasizestheamountofconstructionactivitythataregoing

on inMale’.Thedust from the cementandcoralblocksused in the construction is circulated

withinthesurroundingareaoftheconstructionsiteandthroughout2squarekmMale’.

Type 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Authorized

Building

843 513 593 506 504 485

Completed

Buildings

166 170 153 153 167 175

0

50000

100000

150000

200000

250000

300000

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Floor area (sq m

)

Years

Authorised Residential Authorised Non‐ residential

Completed Residential Completed Non‐ residential

Table6.1:Buildingauthorizedforconstructionandcompleted.2004‐2009


Fig6.2:‐Floorareasintermsofauthorizedandcompletedbuildings2004‐2009



109 |P a g e

6.2.1.3RespiratoryDiseases

Urbanairpollution is agrowingconcernwith constructiondust invisible tonakedeyewhich

penetratesdeeplyintothelungsandcausewiderangeofhealthproblemsincludingrespiratory

illness,asthmaandbronchitis.Congestionwithinthehouseholdsisalsoontheincreasecreating

indoor air pollution another concern within the capital Male’. On 24 December 2011, EPA,

started monitoring the particular matter of size 10 (PM10) at one station in Male’, Friday

Mosque station. As highlighted in table 6.2, in December the average for 10 days were 20

micrograms permeter cubewhich is below the 150micrograms per cubicmeter on a daily

averageof24hours.TheUnitedStatesEPAstandardsforPMstatethatPM10shouldbelower

than150microgramspercubicmeteronadailyaverageof24hours.

PMorparticulatematterissolidorliquidparticleswhichremainsuspendedintheairforlong

periodsoftime.Theparticulatematterofsize10microndiameteraretermedasPM10,andare

ofgreatesthealthconcernastheycanpenetrateintosensitiveregionsofthehumanlungs.The

source of PM is stated as windblown dust from roads and from construction sites. Finer

particles are from vehicle exhausts with oxides of sulfur and nitrogen released from vehicle

emissionstransformedbychemicalprocessesintoPM.HealtheffectsofPMincludespremature

death,increasedhospitaladmissionsincreasedrespiratoryillnesses,alterationsinlungtissues

andloweringofrespiratorytractdefensemechanisms.Mostsensitiveareelderly,childrenand

peoplewithcardiopulmonarydiseasessuchasasthma.(EPA,2011,http://epa.gov.mv)

Increased respiratory illnesses are one of the effects of particulatematter. Acute respiratory

diseasesarerecordedbyDepartmentofPublicHealth(DPH)andareusedhereasanindicator

ofairpollution.AccordingtothestatisticspublishedbytheDPHrevealsthatovertheyearsthe

casesofrespiratorydiseasehasincreased.(Fig6.3)andisoneoftheleadingcausesofdeath.

Table6.2:‐LevelofpollutantmonitoredfromFridayMosqueStation

Source:EnvironmentProtectionAgency,2011(http://epa.gov.mv)


110 |P a g e

6.2.1.4ImportofFuel

Maldiveshasnoconventionalenergyresourcesthatitcanutilizetomeetitsenergyneedsand

dependson importsfor itsenergyneeds.Bulkofthesefuel imports ismarinegasoil,aviation

gas,lampfuel.Dieselfuelismainlyusedforpowergenerationbothbytheutilitycompaniesand

other electricity generators in the outer islands. Petroleum products are also used in land

transport(gasoline,high‐speeddiesel),includingaviation(jetfuel),industries,andhouseholds

(kerosene, Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG)). Nowadays, more outer island households are using

keroseneandLPGforcookinginsteadofbiomassmaterialssuchasshrubsandcoconuthusks.

Table 6.3 outlines the imports of fuel from 2004‐2010which shows that large quantities of

marinegas,lampfuelanddieselareimportedtothecountryindicatingthatpollutionlevelsare

onanincreasingtrend.

Description

unit 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Marine Gas Oil

(Diesel)

M/T 202,530 187,668 238,981 250,866 267,183 280,257 286,900

AviationGas M/T 15,830 13,037 16,951 13,383 23,460 25,495 21,351

KeroseneOil M/T 8,383 1,059 4,259 743 664 936

LampFuel Ltr 226,743 141,775 174,227 217,119 197,367 150,095 219,819

Petroleum

Ether

Ltr 9 83 4 11 19 47 51

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

40000

45000

50000

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Nu

mb

erof cases

Years

Fig6.3:CasesofRespiratoryDisease2004‐2010

Source:DepartmentofPublicHealth,2011


111 |P a g e

LiquidFluid Ltr 464 358 827 1,923 1,728 435 4,461

Butane M/T 6,488 7,150 6,403 6,048 10,317 11,538 11,780

Propane

Liquefied

M/T 2 0 1 3

Propylene

Liquefied

Ltr 41 18 71 694 662 160 45

Petrol M/T 18,461 19,209 23,051 28,116 26,477 28,323 29,865

6.2.2 Transboundaryairpollution

Efforts towards controlling and prevention of transboundary air pollution is undertaken as

collaborative activities with regional partners. Transboundary air pollution first became

apparentin1997whenlargepartsofthecountrywereaffectedbyahazecausedbyforestfires

inIndonesia.TheeffectsweresignificantfromOctobertoDecember1997asaresulttheIndian

OceanExperimentof1999wasinitiatedwithtwoairpollutionmeasuringstationsestablished

tomeasurethe longrangetransportofpollutants fromAsia to the IndianOcean.Thecloud is

causedmainly bydomesticwood anddung fires plus smoke from the burning of forests and

fields foragriculture. Inaddition ,vehicleexhausts,powerplantsand factorychimneysadd to

themix.Under theMale’DeclarationofControl andPreventionofAirPollutionand its likely

Transboundary Effects in South Asia ,significant efforts were made towards controlling and

prevention of transboundary air pollution in 1998.Under theprogramadditionalmonitoring

station was established in Hanimadhoo. The program emphasized the need for countries to

carryforward,orinitiate,studiesandprogramsonairpollutionineachcountryofSouthAsia.

TheMale’DeclarationonControlandPreventionofAirPollutionandItsLikelyTransboundary

Effects for South Asia is the first regional environment agreement in South Asia to tackle

transboundary air pollution through regional cooperation. The participating countries in the

Male’DeclarationareBangladesh,Bhutan,India,Iran,Maldives,Nepal,Pakistan,andSriLanka.

TheobjectiveoftheDeclerationistoaidtheprocessofprovidingacleanenvironmentthrough

clean air.The Declaration calls for regional cooperation to address shared local air quality

problemsandtheincreasingthreatoftransboundaryairpollutionanditspossibleimpacts.The

implementation has been done in a phasewisemannerwith the fourth phase ongoing from

March2010‐toMarch2012.Thefocusoffourthphaseisonsustainablefinancingmechanisms

and selection of regional centers on air quality and impact assessment studies. Under the

Table6.3:ImportsofFuel2004‐2009

Source:MaldivesCustom,2011


112 |P a g e

project pollutantsNO2 and SO2 andO3weremonitored inHanimadhoomonitoring station in

2008.

6.3 NoisePollution

IncreasingvehiclesforroadtransportinMale’notonlyraisestheissueofairpollutionbutalso

raisesseriousconcernofnoisepollution.The transport sectorhasevolved inanadhocbasis

without a comprehensive plan. Without an organized public transport system in Male’ the

motorcyclesandcarsareincreasingatanalarmingrateof18%perannumcreatinglotoftraffic

congestion andassociated issues.Thepavednetworkof roadsof varying length andwidth is

often concentratedwithvehicles creating trafficblockagewithin the small alleyways creating

excessivenoisewithlorries,carsandmotorbikessoundingtheirhornswithoutanyconcernof

noise pollution. Loading and unloading of lorries in front of rented godowns in small streets

causes traffic blockages and vehicleswhich are comes behind the lorries constantly sounds

their horns. The situation gets aggravated when over 70% of the car owners do not have a

parkingspacewithmanyofficebuildingandcommercialbuildingcomingupwithoutafraction

oftheparkingspacerequired.

Construction sites also producelots of noise from demolitions, concrete mixing, also from

vehicles, heavy equipment and machinery with movement of trucks loads of construction

materialwithinsmallalleyways

6.4 Waterpollution

6.4.1 Freshwaterpollution

Groundwateraquifersformedbytheaccumulationoftherechargedrainwaterontopofthesalt

waterarefoundinalltheislands.Theaquiferisnormallyatadepthof1‐1.5metersbelowthe

surface.Thethicknessoftheaquiferisnormallydictatedbyseveralfactorsincludingnetrainfall

rechargesizeoftheislandandpermeabilityofthewaterthroughthesoil.Qualityoftheaquifer

varies from island to island and is highly vulnerable to contamination from inadequate

sanitationfacilitiesandotherhumanactivities,solidwasterun‐offoverexploitation;andsaline

intrusionthroughsoilerosionandflooding.

A survey of 70 islands in 2010 reported that in most of the islands ground water is

contaminatedwiththewaternotsuitablefordrinking.Asfig6.4illustrates49%oftheislands

reportedthatgroundwater isnotusedatall,whileonly17%usesgroundwateroften.Most


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islandsreportedthatgroundwaterissalineandthatthequalityisbadintermsofcolorsmell

and taste. Of the islands reported, 55 percent has stated that water is saline while 28‐65%

statedthatthewaterqualityisbadintermsofcolorsmellandtaste.

Theuseofseptictanksandtheprimitivesewagesystemsintheseislandsaresomeofthecauses

for deteriorating ground water quality with sinking of effluent causing ground water

contamination. UnlikeMale’, the capital in the rural islands the people use groundwater for

washingclothes,dishesandforbathingmoreoften,aspipeddesalinatedwaterisnotavailable

andinsomeislandsrainwatergetsdepletedduringdryspells.

InMale’ thegroundwaterhasbeencontaminatedanddesalinatedwater isbeingprovidedby

the government for a number of years. In 1995 theMaldivesWater and Sewerage company

(MWSC) was formed which provided the desalinated water for Male’. Since then the use of

ground water has been steadily increasing as revealed from Fig 6.5 which shows that use

desalinatedwaterhasincreaseover11foldsoverthe14yearperiod.

49%

24%

10%

17%

not used very rarely used to some extent very often

Fig6.4:Useofgroundwater‐2011

Source:IslandOffices,2011


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In Male’ today hardly anyone uses the groundwater for drinking, but several households

depends on groundwater for washing clothes and some other purposes. Often two taps are

installedinmanyhouses,oneforpipeddesalinatedwaterandoneforgroundwater.

Unlike other inhabited islands in Male’ household effluent is collected in catch pits and

transferredtoMWSC’sCentralSewageSystem.Presentlymostofthehouseholdpitsarebuiltin

Male’ are insideabuilding, in a roomoroffice, in theground floor, coveredwitha lidon the

openingwithconcernsaboutthesafetyoftheuseofgroundwaterinMale’beinghigh.Reported

incidencesrevealedthatabsenceoftheproperdisposalfacilitiestomanageusedengineoilor

black industrial oil in Male’ has posed risks of ground water contamination. Used oil is

sometimesbeingdischargedintoditches. .MorerecentlydieseloilfromStateElectricLimited

Company(STELCO)waterpipeswerefoundleakingcontaminatingthegroundwaterwithinthe

surroundingareaandlagoonadjacenttothearea.Othersourcesofwaterpollutiononbuilding

sites includedieselandoilpaint,solvents,cleanersandat times largequantitiesofpetroleum

arereleasedfromleaksandspillsduringextraction,processing,anddistribution.

6.4.2 Marinepollution

Marine pollution is linked to the wastemanagement practices of the country. In the islands

thereisnosolidwastecollectionandwasteistakenbyhouseholdstodesignateddisposalsites

or to the edge of the inhabited areas. The waste management practices of 70 islands were

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

thou

san

d m

etri

c to

ns

Years

Fig6.5:WaterdistributioninMale1995‐2009



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reviewed tounderstand the currentwastemanagementpractices.As revealed from the table

wasteisfrequentlydumpedwithintheisland,burntorthrownintothelagoon.

Methodsofdisposal Percentage

tothebeach/sea 13

Withintheisland 31

Incinerator 1

bury 8

burn 28

Thilafushiorotherisland 4

recycle 0

compost 0

Combination 14

Disposal siteswithin the islandsare typicallyuncontrolledandunmanagedand locatedalong

theshorelines.Withnoprovisionsforcollection,treatmentanddisposalofhazardouswasteand

non‐biodegradableimportedproductswasteisalsodiscardedinthismanneroftenendingupin

thelagoonresultinginmarinepollution.AlsoinMale’engineoilinplasticcontainersareoften

dumped into lagoon fromvessels.Ashighlightedaboverecentlydieseloil fromSTELCOpipes

was found leaking and contaminating the ground water as well as the surrounding lagoons

adjacenttotheareawheremanyoftheinhabitantsgooutforswimmingasrecreationalactivity.

In response to the incident the area was banned for swimming purposes. Without proper

monitoringproceduresthelevelofmarinepollutionisdifficulttodetermine.


MHE is the main organization mandated for developing policies and strategies related to

controlling pollution. Among the organization’s policies improving air quality to safe guard

humanhealthhasdirectrelevancetocontrollingairpollution.Strategiesformulatedunderthe

policy include, establishing fully equippedAmbient Air QualityMonitoring Station in densely

populatedislandsandundertakingmonitoringofemissionsfrompointandmobilesourcesand

establish standards for such sources of pollution. With assistance from United Nations

EnvironmentProgram(UNEP)workisbeinginitiatedunderthesestrategies.

Table6.4:Wastemanagementpracticesprevailingintheislands2011

Source:IslandOffices,2011


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Preventionandcontrollingofwaterandmarinepollutionarebasedonthewasteandwaterand

sanitationmanagement policies. Thepolicy of developing solidwastemanagement system to

prevent adverse impact on human health and environment through economically viable and

locallyappropriateapproachesisputforwardasamajorpolicywithanumberofinterventions.

The implementing agencies and responsible sectors being MHE, Local Government Utility

Companies,EnvironmentProtectionAgency (EPA)andcivil society ingeneral.Thesectorhas

outlinedthepolicyofimprovingwaterresourcemanagementtopreserveenvironmentwiththe

followingstrategieswhichhasdirectrelevancetowardscontrollingpollutionofthewaterand

sanitation.

1.Seekingimmediatemeasurestostoppollutionofwatertablesduetoseepageofsewerageand

otherpollutants

2.Developinglanduseplanstakingintoconsiderationtheprotectionofnaturalandfreshwater

resources

3.Establishandeffectiveprogramformonitoringofwaterresourcesqualityintheislands

4.Prepareaninventoryofnaturalwatercatchmentareasincludingwetlandsandmarshareas

TheregulatoryauthoritiesEPAandtheTransportRegulatoryAuthority(TRA)developtechnical

and financial guidelines and standards for assessment and monitoring procedures. The

enforcementofthestandardsandguidelinesaretargetedtowardscontrollingpollution.EPAis

an independent legal regulatory entity, working under the supervision of a governing body

under the MHE. The EPA was formed merging Environment Research Centre (ERC) and

MaldivesWaterandSanitationAuthority (MWSA)on18December2008.TheEPAGoverning

Boardisastatutorybody,establishedundertheEnvironmentProtectionAct,withexpertisein

environment protection, industry, environmental science, regional issues, environmental law

andlocalgovernment

As a regulatory body EPA aims to reduce pollution through their work related to waste

management water supply and sanitation programs and mandatory Environment Impact

Assessment(EIA)priortodevelopmentactivities.EPAchargesfinesforanypartywhichstarted

developmentactivitieswithoutadetailedEIAandhaltsprojectsuntilEIA iscomplete.Alsoas

the administering authority for waste management at the national level EPA, work towards

puttinginplaceuniformmeasurestoseektoreducetheamountofwastethatisgeneratedand

where waste is generated to ensure that waste is reused, recycled, and recovered in an

environmentallysoundmannerbeforebeingsafelytreatedanddisposed.Thesemeasuresare


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to be implemented by the island council and city council at the island level with the

decentralizationandsettinguplocalcouncilsrecently.

Similarly theEPA is theadministeringauthority for formulationof regulationswith regard to

desalination plants and the registration procedures of desalination plants which directly

contribute in proper function of water resources. Moreover, water resource assessment and

monitoring,watersupplyandsanitationguidanceandregulationdevelopmentandwaterand

wastewaterqualitycompliancemonitoringisalsothemandateofEPA.

In addition toMHEother concerneddepartment such as Ministry ofEconomicDevelopment

(MED),MOTareworkingtowardsimplementingrenewableenergyprojectsasanalternative

sourceofelectricitygenerationwhichwillassistinachievingcleanerenvironment.Establishing

acarbonneutraltransportsystemundertheumbrellaofbecomingcarbonneutralbyyear2020

is a noteworthy strategy. Any development towards making Maldives carbon neutral

contributes towards controllingandpreventionof airpollution.Recentdevelopments include

decisions towaive importdutiesonelectricandrenewableenergypoweredvehicles toboost

thegovernment'sinitiativetopromotetheimportanduseofenvironmentallyfriendlyproducts.

Thedecisionalsoincludeswaivingimportdutiesonsolarpanelsandsolarpanelbatteriesused

inmarinevessels.WithmostofthevehiclesandmarinevesselsusedintheMaldivesrelyingon

fossil fuel–petrolanddiesel–giving adutyincentivetoencouragetheimportofeco‐friendly

vehicles and renewable energy products used in vessels in accordance with documentation

issuedby theEPAdeclaring their eco‐friendliness. In addition,deliberationson thematterof

introducingafeedintariffsystemtoencourageadoptionofrenewableenergyinordertoattain

carbonneutralitygoal, secureenergysecurityandreducedependencyon importedoilareall

landmarkdecisionstowardsacleanerenvironment.

The Land transport Act 5/2009 provides the legal frame for land transport. Under the land

transport Act, TRA develops rules and regulations to help the sustainable development of

transport sector. As a means of reducing emissions from vehicles government banned the

importofreconditionedmotorcycleswhichandenginecapacityoflessthan150cubicmeters.

Similarlyabanwasintroducedontheimportofcarsmorethan5yearsold.TheAuthorityhas

implemented regulation which states that all vehicles driving on the roads of the Maldives

should have a road worthiness certificate to reduce emission rate of vehicles used in the

country.TRAmonitorswhethervehiclesdrivingontheroadhavearoadworthinesscertificate

forvehicleswithoutcertificationandcompensationistaken.


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7. ConservationofBiologicalDiversity

7.1 Introduction

The biodiversity or the degree of variation of life within the marine ecosystem is rich and

diversewhiletheterrestrialbiodiversityislimitedcharacterizedbythegeomorphicstructureof

the islands. The islands of Maldives are small, low lying and isolated with limited natural

vegetationthatisdistributedrelativelyuniformfollowingthepatternofsalttolerantbushesat

theedgeandlargertreesandcoconutpalmsfurtherinland.Nativeplantsoftheislandscanbe

ecologically grouped into five

categories of vegetation (Adams

1988citedinP4SD,2011).Theyare

beachpioneers, littoralhedge, sub‐

littoral thicket, climax forest and

mangroveandswampforest(P4SD,

2011).With limited arable land

characterized by poor soil, low

freshwater supplies, the variety of

plantsandanimalsarelimited.

Keyfindings:

Mainpressurestomarinebiodiversitycontinuetobeillegalmining,mainlybranchedcoral and sand, over fishingof reef species and reoccurring of bleaching events.Pressures to terrestrial biodiversity are due to clearing of vegetation, invasivepestsanddiseases,anduseofpesticidesandherbicides.

AmajorconservationeffortistheBaaAtollConservationProject(BACP)initiatedin

2003.TheBACPisimplementedforachievingbiodiversityconservationwiththepurposetodesign,testanddemonstrateamanagementsystemthatwillsecureandsustaintherichbiodiversityandecologicalprocessesoftheAtollforthebenefitofthefuturegeneration.In29June2011BaaAtollwasdeclaredasaUNESCOBiosphereReserve


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Incontrastthemarinebiodiversitybasedonthecoralreefsishighlydiverseintermsoflife.The

reefslopesarecoveredwithlushcoralvegetationwithseriesofreefterraceswitharichmarine

biodiversity.Themarineresourcesisthemostsignificantandvitalresourcebaselinkedtothe

economicdevelopmentofthecountrywithtourismandfisheriesaccountingfor28percentand

2.8 percent of GDP respectively ( DNP, 2010). Biodiversity‐based sectors contribute 71% of

national employment (78,500 jobs), 49% of public revenue (Rf 2.5 billion), 62% of foreign

exchange (US$435million), 98%of exports (Rf 1.7billion) and89%ofGDP (Rf135billion)

(Emerton L., Baig S., and Saleem M., 2009), underlining the economic case for biodiversity

conservation. With marine biodiversity linked to the economic development of the country

managementofthebiologicaldiversityhasbecomeapriorityforthesustainabledevelopment

ofthecountry.

7.2 PressurestoBiodiversity

In terms of biodiversity over 1,100 species of demersal and epipelagic fish fauna including

sharkshavebeenrecordedinMaldivesandthenumberis likelytoexceed1500species(MRC

2003citedinMHE,2010).Additionally285speciesofmarinealgae(AhmedandSaleem,1999

citedinMHE2010),187speciesofcoralover400speciesofmollusks,over145speciesofcrabs,

48speciesofshrimpsand83speciesofechinodermsexists.(MHAHE,2002citedinMHE2010).

Intermsofterrestrialbiodiversity,TheGlobalForestResourcesAssessmentof2005estimated

the forest area of Maldives at 1000 ha, although the Agricultural Development Master Plan

(2006‐2020)oftheMaldivesestimatedtheforestareasbeing3716ha(P4SD,2011).Numberof

plants ranges from 583 vascular plant species out of which 323 are cultivated and 260 are

nativatedornaturalized.Theseplants include214 floweringplantsand5 fernsandover300

species may be used in traditional medicine (Adams 1984 cited in MHE, 2010).Terrestrial

mammalianfaunaoftheMaldivesis limitedandverylittleofthelocalterrestrial invertebrate

fauna are documented. Additionally 13 mangroves belonging to nine genera have been

identified(Appendix7.1).Associatedwithmangrovesare6speciesofplantsand37speciesof

fungi.(UtawaleandJagtap1991,citedinMHE,2010).

Thepressuresandthreatsonbiodiversityhavebeeninexistenceoverlongperiodsoftimeand

will continue fordecades to come.Thechallenge is thedifficult tradeoffs in findingabalance

between economic growth, social equity and conservation of environment. Maldives has

undergone unprecedented social and economic change over the years which have provided

impetus for environmental degradation. The socio‐economic forces and circumstances create


120 |P a g e

incentives for more activities that put pressure on the biodiversity. Today with increase in

population and increase in wealth from tourism and other economic activities the pace of

development is increasing at a significant rate in the country. The need for land led to

reclamationprograms,whileharborsaredredgedtofacilitateeconomicgrowthinislands.The

localized environmental impacts as a result of these developments have threatened the

biodiversity. Moreover awareness regarding the importance of biodiversity and the issues

associated with the loss of biodiversity is lacking (p 39, MEEW, 2007). Loss of biodiversity

coupledwithperilsfromtheadverseeffectsofclimatechangetoasmallnationdependenton

almost entirely on its coastalmarine resources is daunting. There are perhaps few countries

thatareatgreaterperilfromtheadverseeffectsofclimatechangeandlossofbiodiversitythan

theMaldives.

7.2.1 PressurestoMarineBiodiversity

Pressures to marine diversity include extraction of

branched coral and sand, over fishing of reef species

and reoccurring of coral bleaching events. The

negative effects of these pressures continue while

attempts to minimize the pressures and impacts

continue through laws, regulations and awareness

programs.

7.2.1.1Demandforcoral,sandandbranchedcoral

The demand for coral and sand mining became a major environmental concern in 1990.

HistoricallyMaldivianshaveminedcoralforpurposessuchasbuilding,makinglime,ormaking

religious structures. However, coral mining reached a critical status with a boom in the

constructionindustrysince1970s. Directgovernmentinterventioninregulatingcoralmining

commencedin1990,withabanonminingcoralfromanyhouse‐reef,followedbydesignating

particular areas for sand and coral mining by May 1992. With the regulation in place

government increased awareness and provided alternatives stipulating the use of hollow

cementblocksinsteadofcoralinallgovernmentbuildings.Small‐scaleoperationstobuildthese

blocks boomed to cater for increasing demand. Programs to increase the level of awareness

aboutthesignificanceofreefsforfisheriesandtourism,andtheirroleinthephysicalprotection

ofislands,helpedtoreducethedemandforcoralasabuildingmaterial.Positiveresultsinclude

coral blocks replacingmined coral for any building purposes inMale’, with declining trends

observedintheatolls.Atthesametime,sandminingfrominhabitedislandsalsodecreasedas


121 |P a g e

island communities became aware of the negative impacts of sand mining.MOFA which

processes the application for sand mining from uninhabited islands reported that data for

demandforsandminingexistsbuthasnotbeencompiledfortheperiod2004‐2009.

Althoughdecliningtrendsareobservedinbranchedcoralandsandmining,onmanyoccasions

illegalmining have been reported. Most of the outer islands in theMaldives having no easy

access to importedriversandandaggregatesand transporting thesecommodities fromMale’

region is expensive.Therefore, even though it is prohibited, islanders sometimes collect sand

fromtheirownbeaches.

7.2.1.2Demandforreeffish

With the introduction of tourism in the 70’s and the expansion and development of tourism

industry reef fishing became a commercial fishery in theMaldives. Reef fish varieties are in

demandforthetouristresortsandsomeofthereeffishvarietiesarealsoexported.Theexport

oriented species include giant clam, sea cucumber, groupers and aquarium fish. The

governmenthasbrought inrestrictionsonthefisheryasaresultofoverexploitation.Current

conservationandmanagementmeasuresinplaceinclude;

22marineproductsareprohibitedtoexport(Table7.1)

39areasaredeclaredasprotectedsites(Table7.2)

70birdsareprotectedbirdsofwhichsomeareimportanttothelocaltunafishery(Table

7.3)

12marinespecieshavebeendeclaredasprotectedspecies.(Table7.4)

SpecificdestructivefishingpracticesarealsobannedintheMaldivesandinclude:

Useofdynamiteorexplosives

Useofspeargunsandsuchdevisestocatchfish

Useofanychemicaltocollectorcatchfish

Useofscubageartocollectseacucumberandlobsters


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Baitfishes(usedforpole&linefishing)

Bouldercoral Dolphin MotherofpearlshellsRays

Bigeyescad(lessthan6inches)

Branchingcoral Eels Parrotfish Trochusshell

Blackcoral Conch(triton)shell Lobster Pufferfish Turtle

Blackcoralnecklaces Coral Lobstermeat Rayskin Turtleshellproducts

Turtleshells Whales

Angafaru EidhigaliKilhiandKoatteyArea

LankanThila MushimasmigiliThila

Hanifaru FusheeKandu KuredhuKanduolhi OrimasThila

SouthAriAtollMPA

FilitheyoKandu DhigaliHaa MayaaThila

Hithaadhoo Lhazikuraadi VilingiliThila GuraidhooKanduolhi

Olhugiri VattaruKandu FushivaruThila EmboodhooKanduolhi

Hurasdhoo Faruhuruvalhibeyru MiyaruKandu GulhifalhuMedhugaonnakohlavaanee

HuraaMangroveArea

KashibeyruThila KudarahThila DhekunuThilafalhugeMiyaruvan

KudaHaa Gaathugiri ThamburudhooThila MakunudhooKanduOlhi

Rasfariisland,lagoonandthesurroundingreef

B.Mendhoo B,Goidhoomarshyarea Maaharuvalhifaru

B,Bathala B.Mathifaruhuraa Corbinwreckarea

LocalName CommonName ScientificName

DhivehiKoveli AsianKoel Eudynamysscolopacea

DhivehiHoagulhaa Audubon'sShearwater Puffinusiherminieri

KalhuRaabondhi BlackBittern Dupetorflavicollis

NooMaakanaa BlackHeadedHeron Ardeamelanocephala

Table7.1:Listofmarineanimalsprohibitedforexport


Table7.2:ProtectedareasofMaldives



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Raabondhi Black‐crownedNightHeron

Nycticoraxnycticorax

BoakalhuGohorukey Black‐HeadedGull Larusridibundus

Kirudhooni Black‐NapedTern Sternasumatrana

EshungaIlolhi Black‐TailedGodwit Limosalimosa

TheyravaaIlolhi Black‐WingedStilt Himantopushimantopus

Vaali BridledTern Sternaanaethetus

KalhuMaadhooni BrownBooby Sulaleucogaster

Maaranga BrownNoddy Anousstolidus

MiyaremuDhooni CaspianTern Sternacaspia

Iruvaihudhu CatlleEgret Bubulcusibis

MedhuraajjethereRaabondhi CentralMaldivianHeron Butoridesstriatusdidiiphillipsi

SalvaaDhooni CommonCoot Fulicaatra

ChonChonIlolhi CommonGreenshank Tringanebularia

OlhuvaluKanbili/KulheeKanbili CommonMoorhen Gallinulachloropusindics

AngotiBondana CommonRingedPlover Charadriushiaticula

Valla CommonTern Sternahirundo

Theyravaa/MoalhaLunbo CrabPlover Dromasardeola

BondanaIlolhi CurlewSandpiper Calidrisferruginea

DheyfaiyDhooni EurasianSpoonbill Platalealeucorodia

MaaHoagulhaa Flesh‐footedShearwater Puffinuscarneipes

RathuReyru FerruginousPochard Anthuanyroca

BoduGaadhooni GreatCrestedTern Sternabergii

Lagnaa GreaterEgret Casmerodiusalbus

KunburuReyru Garganey Anasquerquedula

Alaka GrayPlover Pluvialissquatarola

ValuBondana GreatSandPlover Charadriushiaticula

GudugudaaDhooni GreaterFlamingo Phoenicopterusruber


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BoduGaadhooni GreatCrestedTern Sternabergii

Maahoara GreatFrigatebird Fregataariel

KalhuBulhithunbi GlossyIbis Plegadisfalcinellus

KanifulhuDhooni Gull‐billedTern Gelochelidonnilotica

KurullaDhooni Housesparrow Passerdomesticus

OnnaIlolhi JackSnipe LymnocryptesMinimus

KiruBondana KentishPlover Charadriusalexandrinus

Hoara LesserFrigatebird Frigataminor

FunamaaDhushin LesserGoldenPlover Pluvialisdominica

KudaBondana LesserSandPlover Charadriusmongolus

AinmatheeGaadhooni LesserCrestedTern Sternabengalensis

DhivehiRaabondhi MaldivianLittleHeron Butoridesstriatusalbidulusi

HuvadhooRaabondhi MaldivianPondHeron Ardeolagrayiiphillipsi

DhivehiKanbili MaldivianWaterTern AmaurornisPhoenicurusmaldivus

FuredhdheIlolhi MarshSandpiper Tringastagnatilis

HudhumaaDhooni MaskBooby Suladactylatra

Reyru NorthernShoveler Anasclypeata

Rahmatheeforike NorthernHouseMartin Delichonurbica

Gohorukey Pallas’sGull Larusridibundus

DhanbuMaakanaa PurpleHeron Ardeapurpurea

BileymaaDhushin PacificGoldenPlover Pluvialisfulva

Rathafai RudyTurnstone Arenariainterpres

MushiFenfoahDhooni RedThroatedPipit Anthuscervinus

MaaDhooni Red‐ footedBooby Sulasula

Valla RoseateTern Sternadougallii

Beyndu SootyTern Sternafuscata

BondhuDhooni Saunder’sTern Sterna saundersi


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GirubaaDhooni Spot‐billedPelican Pelecanusphillippensis

DhonFenfoahdhooni TreePipit Anthustrivialis

KulheeKukulhu Watercock Gallicrexcinerea

BoduRaabondhi WesternReefEgret Egrettagularis

BoduHoagulhaa Wedged‐tailedShearwater Puffinuspacificus

KanduKanbaa Wilson’sStorm‐petrel Oceanitesoceanicus

Dondheeni WhiteTern Gygisalbamonte

DhandifulhuDhooni White‐tailedTropicbird Phaethinlepturus

Bulhithunbi Whimbrel Numeniusphaeopus

ValhoaDhooni WhiskeredTern Chlidonias hybridus

DhonRaabondhi YellowBittern Ixabrychussinensissinensis

FenfoahDhooni YellowWagtail Motacillaflava

Oneofthemajorsetbacksinimplementingtimelyenforcementmeasuresisthelackofdataon

abundanceanddistributionofreeffishes.ResearchundertakenbytheMarineResearchCentre

(MRC)in2008highlights,thereeffishexportindustryiswidespreadwiththecommonpractice

amongyellowfintunaexporterstoturntowardsreeffishduringtimesoflowyellowfincatches.

In2009reeffishcatches,recordedasothermarinefishes,totaledto20.9thousandmetrictons

andaccountsfor17.9percentofthetotalcatchof2009(MOFA,2010).Thisisconsideredtobe

anunderestimatewithknowncasesofnon‐reportingwithlargegeographicdistributionofthe

fishing communities. The statistics from customs agencies are useful to estimate catch but

timelyenforcementmeasuresaredifficulttomakeusingdataonexports.Generallyreeffishing

can be undertaken throughout Maldives with only restriction around resorts and marine

protectedareas.

ScientificName CommonName

Chelonioidea MarineTurtles

Antipatharia BlackCorals

Charoniatritonis Conch(triton)Shells

Elasmobranchii Sharks

Table7.3:ProtectedBirdsofMaldives



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Cheilinusundulatus NapoleonWrasse

Delphinidae Dolphins

Tridacnidae GiantClams

Mysticeti,OdontocetiZiphiidae Whales

Whaleshark

Scleractinia StonyCoral

Pterioida PearlOysters

Nephropidae Lobsters(berriedfemalelobstersandthosesmallerthan25cmintotallength‐fromheadtotail)

a)SeaCucumber

Beche demer fishing started in 1986, at firstwith very low quantities. A huge increase has

brought exports to exceed 300 t/year since 1988. By government regulations SCUBA gear

cannotbeusedtocollectseacucumbers.Dataontheexportoftheseacucumbersfortheperiod

2004‐2009 reveal that over 470mt of sea cucumber in dried formwere exported. Live sea

cucumbers are also exported, which provides a considerable amount of income. (Table 7.5)

Maricultureof sea cucumber ison the increasewhichhas causeddamages to somereefsand

mangrove ecosystem. General environmental impacts associated with mariculture activities

includewastes from cage cultures, farm escapees and invasive, genetic pollution and disease

and parasite transfer and habitatmodification. According to the department of Planning, 10

maricultureprojectshavebeenapprovedbyNovember2011.

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Seacucumberdried(Qty)

182.06 116.53 87.87 84.01

Seacucumberdried(Rf)

31049.01 23,118.93 12,707.46 7891.33

SeacucumberliveQty(No’s)

50.00 10,000

SeacucumberliveValue(Rf)

0.32 7.3

Table7.4:MarinespeciesprotectedintheMaldives


Table7.5:ExportofSeaCucumbers2004‐2009

Source:StatisticalYearBook,DepartmentofPlanning,2010


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0.00

50.00

100.00

150.00

200.00

250.00

300.00

350.00

400.00

450.00

500.00

0.00

5,000.00

10,000.00

15,000.00

20,000.00

25,000.00

30,000.00

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Qty(mts)

ValueRf(000)

Years

Value

Qty

b)GrouperFishery

Groupersbecameaprime target for export to theFarEasterncountries,particularly toHong

Kong in 1990. During times of low tuna catches, fishermen sometimes switch fisheries from

targeting tuna to catching groupers with the latter fishery being an alternative livelihood to

manyfishermenintheouterislands.By2004assessmentsbyMRCshowedthatgrouperswere

heavily fished with catch rates declining dramatically and nearly half of the catch being

immature. The culture of groupers in the Maldives was initiated by the MRC in 2005 as it

became obvious that if the fishery continued without strong management intervention the

groupersmaybecome"extinct"fromtheMaldives.MRCdemonstratedthatyounggroupersor

fingerlings may be cultured in floating cage systems, similar to what is being practiced in

MalaysiaandIndonesia.

In the absence of catch statistics the export figures are reviewed to understand the current

trend in the grouper fishery. The export statistics from 2004‐2009 reveal that groupers are

exportedliveandfrozenform(Fig7.1,Fig7.2).Theannualquantityexportedinchilledorfresh

formbetween2004to2009is253metrictonswithanannualvalueofRf16982thousand.The

quantity of groupers exported alive, accounts for over 95000 in numbers per year with an

annualvalueofoverRf95000thousandfortheperiod2004‐2009.

Fig7.1:‐ExportofFreshorchilledgrouper2004‐2009



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0.00

2,000.00

4,000.00

6,000.00

8,000.00

10,000.00

12,000.00

0.00

20,000.00

40,000.00

60,000.00

80,000.00

100,000.00

120,000.00

140,000.00

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Value in

Rf 000

Numbers

Years

Qty

Value

c) Giant Clam

The giant clam fishery, which started in 1990, was short‐lived. Two species were exploited

(TridacnasquamosaandTridacnamaxima).Theexport‐orientedgiantclamfisherycametoa

stop a year later when the government banned the export of giant clam products. It was

believed that further fishing would lead to serious exhaustion of the stocks and localized

extinctionofclamsonsomereefs.(MRC,2008)

d)Sharkfishing

ConcernforthesurvivalofsharkspeciesintheMaldiveswasgrowingovertheyearswhichled

toatotalbanonallsharkfishingwithintheMaldivianwaterson15March.onJuly2011sharks

weredeclaredasprotectedspecies.

Sharkspecieshaveslowgrowth, latematurityand lowfecundityresulting inwidegeneration

gapsand lowregeneration rates in thepopulation.These factors render sharksvulnerable to

over‐exploitation.ThirtysevenspeciesofsharkshavebeenrecordedintheMaldives(Anderson

andAhmaed,1993,Adam,AndersonandMerret,1998).AndersonandAhmed(1993)estimated

directrevenueofUS$2.3millionfromdiversvisitingspecificsharkdivingsites in1992.They

furtherestimatedthattheaveragevalueofalivegreyreefsharkwasUS$3,300peryear,while

adeadgreyreefsharkwasestimated toprovideaone‐timevalueofUS$32 to the fishermen

Fig7.2:‐Exportoflivegrouper2004‐2009



129 |P a g e

(Anderson andAhmed, 1993). Revenue fromexport of sharkmeat and finswas estimated at

US$0.7millioninthesameyear.

Exportdata(table7.6)showsthatpriortotheban,sharkproductsincludingfreshandchilled

shark,frozenshark,andsalteddriedsharkfins,havebeenexported.

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Sharkfreshorchilled

Qty(mt)1.47 0.12 .0004

Value(Rf000

88.88 6,80 0.05

Sharkfrozen Qty(mt)86.17 76.41 3.17 1.32

Value(Rf000

289.8586 390.55 10.17 4.40

Sharksalteddried

Qty(mt)320.04 248.56 271.16 217.05 233.49 145.8

Value(Rf000

2,960.85 2,210.89 3,294.14 1,823.83 1893.65 1281.9

Sharkfins(frozen)

Qty(mt)37.42 29.90 4.20 3.51 0.17

Value(Rf000

1,224.05 712.43 57.12 15.80 21.50

Sharkfins(dried)

Qty(mt)19.86 13.26 11.98 11.03 8.87 8.6

Value(Rf000

7,055.76 6,931.87 2,412.03 1,358.79 871.23 734.2

Sharkfins(salteddried)

Qty(mt) 0.33 0.25 0.20

Value(Rf000

4.21 3.00 2.62

Sharkliveroil liters 5,780.50 469.00 900 6800

Rf(000) 311.97 62.68 138.78 908.8

Table.7.6:‐Quantityandvalueofsharkproductsexported2004‐2009–qtyandvalue

Source:‐StatisticalYearBook,DepartmentofPlanning,2010


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0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000

10,000

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

350,000

400,000

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

ValueinRf000

Numbers

Year

e)AquariumFishery

ThemarineaquariumtradeofMaldivesstartedaround1979,withSriLanka.Europebecame

the major destination of this trade over the years. In 2007, there were seven registered

companies, trading approximately 140 species of fish and 5 species of invertebrates (MRC,

2008).From2004 to2009,annually300,000 fisheswereexportedwithanannualearningof

over Rf 7 million (Fig7.3). As a management measure, species based quota system was

introduced,basedonexportdatafromtheMaldivesCustomServices(MCS),knowledgeofthe

abundanceofeachspeciesandknowledgeofitstolerancetocaptivity.

Maldivesisapopulardestinationforsnorkelersanddiversandthecollectionofaquariumfish

could impact dive tourism. Presently, random checks of the fish exports are scheduled for

implementation following the introduction of a fish guide software. There are no specifically

designatedareasforcollectionofaquariumfishandcollectionmovedfromoneareatoanother

asstocksdeclined.Thispatternofresourceusemayactasindirecttimeareaclosuresandaidin

thereplenishmentoffishstocks.(MRC2008)

Fig7.3:‐Exportofaquariumfish2004‐2009

Source:StatisticalYearbook,DepartmentofNationalPlanning2010


131 |P a g e

f)Baitfishery

Bait fishingis integralpartofpoleandlinefishing. Someofthedetrimentaleffectstomarine

environment are caused by the use of powerful lights to collect live baitfish.When powerful

lightsareused, it is reported toattracta largenumberoforganisms including tiny fishother

thantheintended,andthesedieorareweakenedbythetimesufficientbaitfishiscollectedfor

eachfishingeffort.

7.2.2 Otherpressuresonmarinebiodiversity

Coralbleachingeventshaveaffectedthemarinebiodiversity.Maldiveshaspreviouslysuffered

boutsof coralbleaching (amongstothernatural causes)which causeddevastatingdamage to

reefsandtheirinhabitants.Thecoralbleachingeventsof1999reducedcoralcovertoameanof

2.1percentcomparedtothepre‐bleachinglevelof30‐40percent.Coralbleachingeventswere

alsoreportedin2010.

Otherpressuretomarinebiodiversityincludesdisposalofnonbiodegradablewastegenerated

fromimportedproductsonto thereefs,pollutionand intensiveuseofreefs forSCUBAdiving

andsnorkeling.Lossof coastalhabitatparticularly seagrassbeds,mangrovesandcoral reefs

areassociatedwithdredgingofharborsandlandreclamation.

7.3 Pressuresontheterrestrialbiodiversity

Pressures to terrestrial biodiversity are causedmainly by removal of vegetation, diseases to

plants caused by pests, and use of fertilizers and chemicals. The negative effects of these

pressuresarecontinuouslymonitoredandminimizedthroughenforcementofregulationsand

awarenessprogramswhicharesetupunderthepoliciesandstrategiesofMHEandMOFA.

7.3.1 Removalofvegetation

Thevegetationinthelittoralzoneincludingthemangrovesandothervegetationhavebenefits

inactingasprotectionbeltsforcoastalprocesses. Thebenefitsashighlightedin theMaldives

NationalActionProgrammetoAddressLandDegradation, includespreventingsoilandbeach

erosion and reducing the implications of storms, mitigating the effects of salt spray, storm

surges,monsoonalwindsandtsunamidamage.(P4SD,2011).

Howeverinmanyislandsphysicalorurbandevelopmentisimplementedwithoutproperland

use plans and removal of vegetation to undertake development activities is on an increasing

trend.Housing, infrastructuredevelopmentandagricultureareall encroachingon the limited

vegetation areas, includingmangroves andpondareas. Land reclamation is also affecting the


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natural vegetationon the inhabited islands.According to theDNP2011,only22 islandshave

approvedlanduseplansatpresent.Reclamationsofislandlagoonsareundertakentocaterfor

thedemandforextralandrequiredfornewhousingandinfrastructureactivities.Intheabsence

ofdataonareasclearedofvegetation,availableindicatorsarereviewedtounderstandseverity

of the situation. Table 7.7 outlines some selected indicators on planned and existing

infrastructuredevelopmentofthecountryexcludingMaleurbanarea.

Existing planned

Airports 5 10

Transitairporthotels 9

Cityhotels 9

Resorts 98 18

Yachtmarinas 2

Agriculturalactivityislands 76

Fishingactivityislands 56

Considerable amounts ofwoodmaterials are being loggedon the inhabited islands.With the

actualloggedtreesnotknownavailableindicatorsarereviewedtounderstandthestatusofthe

severityofthesituation.Coconuttreesandotherwoodytreescontinuestobeloggedforhouse

construction and boat building. Table 7.8 to 7.10 indicates demand for timber shown from

quantity of trees logged from uninhabited islands. Over the period 2004‐2009, government

administrationsin13atollsapprovedapplicationstologonaverage200coconuttreesperyear.

Coconuttimberismostlyusedforconstructingpartsoffishingvessels.

2004 2005 2006 2008

Ha 4

Sh 20

N 88 127 0 5

R 8 10 0

B 83 0 10

Lh 0 3 0

Table.7.7:‐Someexistingandplannedeconomicandinfrastructuredevelopment(excludingMaleurbanearea‐2011

Source:‐DepartmentofNationalPlanning2011


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K 12 0 12

Adh 0 2 0

Dh 46 32 1 30

Th 10 6 10 81

L 84 47 0 164

Ga 20 6 0 0

Gdh 35 115 0 133

388 368 11 435

Atolls 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Ha 34 20

HDh 49

Sh 171

N 25 10793 91

R 87 6318 108 22 54 88

B 296 110 65 161 367

Lh 22 0

K 153 49 8

Aa

M 98

Dh 1

Th 7

L 25

Ga 32

Gn 53

649 17221 545 144 353 455

Table.7.8:‐DemandforCoconutTimber(innumbers)‐2004‐2009

Source:‐MinistryofFisheriesandAgriculture,2011

Table.7.9:‐DemandforcoconuttimberinMt‐2004‐2009



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Othertypesofwoodytreesarealsologgedforbuildingpurposes(Table7.11).Almostallatolls

haverequestedtocutdowntreesfordifferentpurposes.

Atoll 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Ha 1076 270 1682 839 120

HDh 1596 0 2264 1931 300

Sh 3097 20 6433 2969 1701 1975

N 7196 312 2747 2218 3535 200

R 5954 423 5862 1803 2445 1730

B 8819 715 3221 4214 4861 4492

Lh 1109 160 790 880 40

K 10072 406 9457 11967 1806 2346

Aa 3060 0 1642 200 450 1262

ADh 5000 60 2769 1812 1000 300

V 792 0 447 0 0 0

M 1420 0 1843 830 741

F 250 0 2168 877 514 200

Dh 838 50 1655 563 300

Th 2706 10 1204 2177 1451

L 0 0 2571 1124 400

Ga 755 0 15 30 103

Gdh 3000 151 623 57 788

S 130 0 800 790 58 583

Table.7.10:‐Demandforothertypesoftimberinnumbers‐2004‐2009

Source:‐MinistryofAgricultureandMarineResources,2011


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Localname CommonName BotanicalName

Uni NitPitcha GuettardaspeciosaL.

Midhili CountryAlmond TerminaliacatappaL

Dhigga SeaHibiscus HibiscustiliaceusL

Hirudhu Tuliptree Hibiscuspopulnea

Funa AlexandraLaurelWood CalophylluminophyllumL

Kinbi Seapoisontree BarringtoniaasiaticaL(Kurz)

Kaani SeaTrumpet CordiasubcordataLam

Kuredhi Ironwood Pemphisacidula

Nika Banyan FicusbenghalensisL.

Kandoo Smallleaforangemangrove BruguieracylindricalBl.

Kandhu Hernandia Hernandianymphaeifolia

Inthepastwoodwasextensivelyusedforcookingandwhilefirewoodisslowlybeingreplaced

bykeroseneandgasindomesticcooking,inpoorerislandssomehouseholdsstillusefirewood

forcookingasrevealedinFig7.4.

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

40000

Firewood Oil Gas Others Not Stated

Number of households

Types of fuel used for cooking

Table.7.11:‐Commontypesofwoodytreesisusedfordifferentpurpose‐2011

Source:‐MinistryofAgricultureandMarineResources,2011

Fig7.4:‐Typesoffuelusedforcooking–Census2006

Source:‐DepartmentofPlanningandDevelopment,2011


136 |P a g e

7.3.2 Invasivepestanddiseases

Maldives is particularly vulnerable to invasive pests and diseases as the island economy is

heavilydependentonimports.Theseimportsareusedformeetinglocaldemandaswellasthat

oftourismindustry.Todateithasbeenrecordedthatover50diseasescausingmicroorganisms

and53insectspeciesexistinthecountry(MOFA2011).Mostofthemicroorganismandinsects

arealienspecies.Datacollectedfromasampleof60islandsrevealsthatthemostcommonalien

specieswith the potential to become invasive can be noted as papayamealy bug, rhinoceros

beetle,mealybugs,scaleinsectsandcoconuthispidbeetle.

Pests and diseases affect agricultural productivity, in addition to causing negative impacts to

biodiversityandenvironment.Somepest invasionshave thepotential tobecome irreversible.

Currently the endemic species are highly threatened with increased degradation and

fragmentationofnaturalhabitatsduetodevelopmentactivities.Recordedeventsofoutbreaks

reveal that huge economic losses do occur due to insect and disease invasive species (Table

7.12).Furthermore,biologicalresourcesandtreeproductivityofthecountrymaybethreatened

by several serious invasive plant species, including Lantana camara,Mikaniamicrantha and

Mimosa diplotrich. Urgent measures to prevent further spread and to manage current

incursionshavebeenidentifiedasnecessary.

Pests Detailsofdamage

GypsyMoth Causesalotofnuisanceeachyearthroughsocialdamage

CoconutHispidBeetle CausedextensivedamageandlossoverUSD259,350betweenJune2000‐2003

RhinocerosBeetle Causesdamagetothecoconuttreesreducingyield

StemBorder Mangoandbreadfruittreesareattackedonacountrywidescale

CitrusCanker Thelocallimevarietiesarealmostwipedout

BananaWeevilborer Bananatreeswereaffectedin1990

Physillidinsect Affectswaterandroseappletreesreducingyield

Spiralingwhiteflyandwhitefly Commonnuisancepestofmanycrops

Papayamealybug Spreadingfastinallpapayagrowingislands

SootyMoldComplex Attachseveralspeciesofplantsincludingmango,guava,bananaandcitrusvarieties

Anthracnose,fruitrotandvirusinfections Fungal,bacterialandviraldiseasesfrequentlycausehorticulturalcroploss

Table.7.12:‐Recordeddamagescausedbyalieninvasivepestsanddiseases‐2011



137 |P a g e

InadditionagrowingconcernaboutbiodiversityofMaldivesincludesimportofbirdsandother

animalsaspets.Nostudyhasbeenundertakentounderstandthestatusortheeffectsofthem

onbiodiversityinthecountry.Generallyreleasedorescapedpetsmaysurviveinthewildand

canbecomeinvasive.Invasivealienspeciesdisturbthefunctionofecosystemandistheleading

threattobiodiversity.Dataonanimalsimportedintothecountryrevealsthat39differenttypes

ofbirds,71fishspecieshavebeenimportedintothecountryin2011(Appendix7.2)

7.3.3 Invasiveplantspecies

Ornamentalplantsarebeingimportedintothecountryatanincreasingrate.Althoughnoneof

theimportedplantsnotedasinvasivethethreatexists.PlantandAnimalQuarantineUnitunder

theMOFA control the import of plant disease and pets into theMaldives by sea and air. All

invasivespeciesdeterminedbyFAOareprohibitedimports.FromJanuarytoNovember2011it

isrecordedthat105typesofplantshavebeenimportedintothecountry(Appendix7.3)

7.3.4 Useoffertilizers,herbicidesandpesticides

Generally farmers lack awareness about pests and diseases, and the role of herbicides and

pesticides.Inaddition,theydonothaveadequateknowledgeontheapplicationofherbicides

andpesticidesincludingdosesandfrequencyofuse.Otherthanpestsanddiseases,growthof

weedsposesadditionalproblemstothefarmers.Theincreaseinweedsdegradesfarmlandsand

replaces natural vegetation which in turn prevents natural regeneration. As a result, the

demandanduseofpesticidesandherbicidesareincreasing.AcommonspeciesistheLantana

camara and grass sp. The grass sp is a rapidly spreading noxious perennial weed among

agricultural andnaturalvegetation.Herbicidesare frequentlyapplied forweeding inorder to

prevent economic losses arising from competition between agricultural crops and weeds.

Pesticideresiduesaredetrimentaltohumanhealthinadditiontocausingnegativeimpactson

biodiversityandenvironment.

Table7.13illustratestheincreaseinimportofpesticidesandherbicides.Theannualquantityof

fungicide imported isover2500kgsbetween2004‐2009.Similar is the trend for insecticides

imported which has gone beyond 2300kgs 147000 liters and 838000 numbers taken into

considerationthedifferenttypes.


138 |P a g e

Typeofpesticide

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Fungicides Kgs 2146.5 1921.53 7221.08 1619.35 1478.6 2115.53

Ltr 202.13 385.2 308 343.6 512.2 662.15

HerbicidesandAlgaecides

Kgs 163.3 102 55.24 148 157.2 129.68

Lts 20.75 15.5 23.6 24

InsecticidesandPesticides

Kgs 37048.98 18738.25 48963.81 14870.48 18769.12

Ltr 82198.89 96584.82 283008 147491.5 109922.3 163713

Nos 795598 1611634 449425 1916474 140033 101877

Plantgrowthregulators

Kgs 500 380.6 30000 27.2 415.27

Ltr 4.8 12.45 40.6 248.6 19.6

Rodenticidesandsimilarproducts

Kgs 2132.1 5812.73 3346.57 4102.93 6953.06 3614.25

Nos 6056 1396 164 1002 1956 2516

Weedkiller Kgs 6.75 2

Increaseduseofpesticidesisassociatedwithincreaseintheriskofundesirablesideeffectson

humans, non target‐organisms and the physical environment. MOFA advises to follow the

guidelines written on the labels of pesticide containers. The use of inorganic fertilizers also

showsanincreasingtrendwith780mtoffertilizersbeingimportedintothecountry(Fig7.5).

Table.7.13:‐Importsofpesticides2004‐2010



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7.4 ConservationofBiologicalDiversity

A widespread recognition exists that conventional approaches have not been effective in

conserving thenaturalenvironmentandbiodiversity.Asa resultgovernmentofMaldiveshas

initiated declaring legally protected status to different areas and species in theMaldives. As

such, to date, Maldives has accorded protected status to 9 marine species, 39 sites and 70

species of birds. Giving status of legal protection to these areas and species requires

institutionalstrengthening,capacitybuilding,educationandawarenesstowardsenforcementof

guidelinesandmanagementofprotectedareas. Onemajorprogram,MaldivesProtectedArea

SystemProjectwasimplementedbetween2000‐2003,toaddresstherequirementsmentioned.

Ithasprovidedimportantlessonsdirectingthewayforward.

7.4.1 Protectedareamanagement

Recognizing the challenges in managing protected areas, the Government of Maldives, with

support fromGlobal Environmental Facility (GEF) andUnitedNationsDevelopment Program

(UNDP) is implementingBaaAtoll EcosystemConversation Project (AEC) project since 2003.

The aim is to design and demonstrate an effective management system for atoll ecosystem

conservationandsustainabledevelopmentonBaaAtoll.Theprojectwasformulatedtoprovide

the overall framework for sustainable development of the atoll and supports biodiversity

Fig.7.5:‐Importsoffertilizers2004‐2009

Source:‐StatisticalYearbook,DepartmentofNationalPlanning2010


140 |P a g e

conservation and livelihood. The Baa Atoll Conservation Project (BACP) is the implementing

strategy for achieving biodiversity conservation with the purpose to design, test and

demonstrate a management system that will secure and sustain the rich biodiversity and

ecologicalprocessesoftheAtoll forthebenefitofthefuturegeneration.Theprogramisbeing

implementedasamodelwhichcanbereplicatedinotherpartsofthecountry.Undertheproject

BaaAtollisdeclaredasaUNESCOBiosphereReservein29June2011.


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7.5 Policiesandstrategies

Astrongcommitmenttotheprotectionandconservationofthebiodiversityisenshrinedinthe

constitutionoftheMaldivesratifiedinAugust2008.Clause22oftheconstitutionandarticle67

of the constitution highlights that the state and its citizens and the visitors should respect,

protectandconservethebiodiversityofMaldives.

TheEnvironmentProtectionandPreservationAct1993providesthelegal justificationforthe

protectionofthebiodiversity.OneofthemainpoliciesofMHEisensuringBiologicaldiversityis

sustainedformaximizationofecosystembenefits.Underthispolicybiodiversityconservation

measures are required to be incorporated in all national and sector policies. Under the law

marineprotectedareashighlightedasmarineaquariumsandactivitiesthataredetrimentalto

marineprotectedareasandprotectedspeciesandtheirhabitats,areprohibited.Bylawcutting

BiosphereReserve–BaaAtoll

Baa Atoll is famed for its richbiodiversitythat includes large mangroves and a

unique diversity of fauna. The ring‐shaped reef formsare areefstructurewhich is

uniquetotheMaldives.HanifaruBayisconsideredonethefewplacesintheworld

wherewhale sharkscongregate in to mate. The bay is also home to some of the

largestgatheringsofMantaraysworldwide.Onehundred individualsgather in the

smallinletwhenthetidepushesplanktonintothebay.RecentlysixareasofBaaatoll

were declared protected under law, while the already protected two areas were

extended.Mendhu,oneoftheuninhabitedislandsoftheatollanditshousereefare

amongtheprotectedareas.Severalotheruninhabitedislandssurroundingthearea

were also declared as protected. The other protected areas include, the marshy

swampinGoidhoo,Dhorukandu,MaahuruvalhiFaru including itssurroundingarea,

MathifaruhuraIsandincludinghousereef,BathalaahuraIslandincludinghousereef,

GaaganduhuraIsand including house reef and Vinanehfaruhura Island including

house reef.The surrounding area of the shipwreck of “Kobin,” the ship that ran

aground on Fulhadhoo in 1602 is also included in the list of protected areas.The

extended areas are Dhigalihaa area, protected since 1998, and the area around

HanifaruIsland,protectedsince2009.DhigaligiriandHanifaruweretheextensions

totheprotectedareas.


142 |P a g e

downtrees,uprooting,diggingoutandexportoftreesandpalmsfromoneislandtoanotheris

prohibited.AlsoEnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)regulationwasformulatedin2007to

strengthen the EIA process and to ensure environmental and socio‐economic impacts

associatedwithnewdevelopmentsareaccountedforindecisionmaking.Moreover,biodiversity

consideration are incorporated in all the environmental plans documents including the

MaldivesNAPA2007,NEAP3,2009andtheForestryPolicies.TheMultilateralEnvironmental

TreatiesthatMaldiveshaveenteredinto,allcontributetowardsprotectionandpreservationof

theenvironment.

The MOFA is legally responsible for the management of all issues and activities relating to

marinelivingresourcesintheMaldives.TheFisheriesLawofMaldives(LawNo.5/87,24‐08‐

87) governs themanagement of all fisheries activities in theMaldives. Fisheries Regulations

(1997), notifications andwritten guidelines, drawn in conjunctionwith the Fisheries Law of

Maldives gives guiding principles for the management of fisheries and marine resources.

Specific destructive fishing practices are banned in theMaldives. Under the Fisheries Law of

Maldivesspecialareasorspeciescanbeprotectedfromexploitationorexportiftheneedarises.

The Fisheries Regulation gives details of protected marine species in the Maldives, from

exploitationand/orexport, Isalsopartof thestepstakenby thegovernmenttoconserveand

manage coral reefs and the marine environment in a sustainable manner. Biodiversity

considerations are incorporated in the regulation formulated for licensing of aquaculture as

well.

The agriculture sector's policies and programs and activities incorporates biodiversity

consideration. The Sanitary and Phytosanitary protocols that fall under the World Trade

Organisation Agreement stipulate that imports of agricultural products may be rejected if a

justifiable reason can be found. Under the regulation on import of live plants and plant

products importpermits andoriginal StatePhytosanitary certificate is required for importof

live plants. Any shipment without a valid original State Phytosanitary Certificate will be

detaineduntil furthernotice.Shipmentsmustnot includedriedparts inanyof the liveplants

and plant product or soil particles. The regulation requires notification 72 hrs prior to the

expected time of arrival of the consignment and the flight number to plant protection and

animal quarantine unit in Hulhule. Additionally, regulations for importation of live animals,

regulation onmining and utilization of coral sand and coral aggregates are important efforts

contributingtotheprotectionofbiodiversity.

GuidelinesonkeepingpetbirdsinMaldivesandpoultryquarantineinMaldivesalsoplaysarole

towards protection and preservation of the environment. To strengthen the legal framework


143 |P a g e

bills on plant protection and pesticides have been drafted and are currently open to public

consultation. Theministry is also formulating a bill on agricultural land in order to create a

conduciveenvironment forsustainableagricultureand forestrydevelopment.Conservationof

island ecosystems through monitoring, surveillance, training and awareness are part of

strategies.Theprogramspromotingbiologicalcontrolofplantdiseasesandpestsalsoplaysa

majorroletowardsprotectionandpreservationofenvironment.

The MTAC has their respective policies and strategies targeted to the protection and

preservation of the biodiversity. The Tourism Act of Maldives 1995 provides the legal

framework with provision for Regulations on Protection and Conservation of Environment.

Regulations on scuba diving also instructs divers to take reasonable care to protect living

organismsand theirhabitats, avoiddamage to corals and avoidphysical contactwithmarine

animalsProtectedareas,astheirnamesuggests,aredeclaredtoprotectareasofthecoralreef

system,anditsresidentfishandotheranimals,andtomaintainreefsinapristinecondition.

ScientificName CommonName LocalName

Avicenniamarina Greymangrove Baru

Bruguieracylindrica Small‐leafedorangemangrove Kan’doo

Bruguieragymnorrhiza Large‐leafed mangrove, oriental

mangrove

BoduKan’doo,BoduVaki

Bruguierasexangula BoduVaki

Ceriopstagal Yellowmangrove Karamana

Excoecariaagallocha Blindingtree,riverpoisontree Thela

Heritieralittoralis Lookingglassmangrove Kaharuvahgas

Lumnitzeraracemosa Blackmangrove Burevi

Pemphisacidula Ironwood Kuredhi

Rizophoraapiculata Thakafathi

Rhizophoramucronata Ran’doo

Sonneratiacaseolaris Crabapplemangroveapple Kulhavah

Xylocarpusrumphii Cedermangrove Marugas

Appendix7.1MangrovespeciesidentifiedintheMaldives

Source:‐MinistryofHousingandEnvironment,2010


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Birds Fish Fish Poultry

AgapornisPersonatus StagonopleuraOculata OsphronemusGoramy AnasPlatyrhyncos

AgapornisPullarius TaeniopygiaGuttata OsteoglossumBicirrhosum CoturnixJaponica

AgapornisRoseicollis ZenaidaMacroura PangioMyersi GallusDomesticusAncona

AidemosyneModesta AmphiprionOcellaris ParacheirodonInnesi GallusDomesticusAustralorp

Alexendriae AmphiprionPercula PelvicachromisPulcher GallusDomesticusLegghorn

AmazonaAestiva ApteronotusAlbifrons PhractocephalusHemioliopterus

GallusDomesticusMinorcas

ArdeolaSpeciosa AstronotusOcellatus PlotosusLimbatus GallusDomesticusSussex

BarnadiusZonarius BarbonymusSchwanenfeldii PoeciliaLatipinna GallusGallusDomesticus

CallipeplaCalifornica BotiaMacracantha PoeciliaReticulata MelegrisGallopavo

ChrysolophusAmherstiae

ButisButis PoeciliaSphenops NumidaMeleagris

ChrysolophusPictus CalicoGoldfish PoeciliaVelifera Goats

ColumbaLivia CarassiusAuratus PseudochromisPaccagnellae CrossbredMalabar

ColumbaLiviaDomestica

CarassiusAuratusAuratus PseudomystusSiamensis

CoturnixChinensis CichlasomaCitrinellum PseudotropheusTropheops Insects and micro

organism

CoturnixDelegorguei CichlasomaMeeki PseudotropheusZebra Apiscerana

ErythuraCyaneovirens ClariasBatrachus PterophyllumScalare Eiseniafoetida

Haematenotus ColisaLalia PuntiusConchonius

LonchuraDomestica ColossomaBrachypomum PuntiusTetrazona Cats

LonchuraStriata ColossomaMacropomum ScarusCoeruleus European

LophuraNycthemera CyprinusCarpio ScleropagesJardini EuropeanShortHair

LouchuraLeucogastroides

DanioRerio ScleropagesLegendrei Siberian

MelopsittacusUndulatus

DevarioAequipinnatus SymphysodonAequifasciatus/SymphysodonHeckeli

Siamese‐Persian

NeochmiaModesta DimidiochromisCompressiceps SynchiropusSplendidus MaineCoon

NeochmiaPhaeton GarraCeylonensis TetraodonCutcutia Persian


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NeophemaSplendid GymnocorymbusTernetzi TetraodonFluviatilis MixedBreed

NeopsephotusBourki GyrinocheilusAymonieri ThorichthysMeeki

NymphicusHollandicus

HelostomaTemminckii TrachemysScripta Rabbits

PavoCristatus HemichromisBimaculatus TrichogasterLeeri Leporidaecuniculas

PeophilaAcuticauda HemigrammusRhodostomus TrichogasterTrichopterus

PlatycercusElegans HypostomusPlecostomus XiphophorusHelleri

PlatycercusEximius KryptopterusCryptopterus XiphophorusMaculatus

PlatycercusIcterotis LabidochromisCaeruleus YasuhikotakiaModesta

PoephilaActicauda MacrobrachiumRosenbergii

PoephilaBichenovii MacrognathusSiamensis

PoephilaPersonata MelanochromisAuratus

PolytlisAlexandrae MetriaclimaCallainos

PsephtusHeamatonotus

MetriaclimaEstherae

PsittaculaKrameri MetriaclimaGreshakei

SerinusDomesticus MetynnisHypsauchen

ScientificName ScientificName

Aglaonema‘SilverQueen’ Echinodorusharbichspe.spotted

Aglaonemasimplex Echinodoruspar.’tropica’

Alternantherabettzickiana Echinodorussubalatus

Alternantheralilacina Echinodorusuruguayensis

Alternantherareineckii Egeriadensa

Alternantherasessilis Egerianajas

Alternantherasp.‘RedRound’ Eleocharisparvula

Amazonwithwood Eleocharisvivipara

Ammaniagracillis Eriocauloncinereum

AnubiasBarterivar.nana Hottoniainflata

Appendix7.2:BirdsandotheranimalsimportedJanuary–November2011



146 |P a g e

Anubiaswithwood HygrophilaAngustifolia

Aponogetoncrispus Hygrophilacorymbosa

Aponogetonelongates Hygrophiladifformis

Aponogetonrigidifolius Hygrophilapolisperma

Aponogetonulvaceus Hygrophilasalicifolia

Bacopacaroliniana Hygrophilastricta

Bacopamyriophylloides Lilaeopsisnovaezealandiae

BettzickianaAurea Lilaeopsisnovaezelandiae

BettzickianaGreen Limnophilaaromatic

Bettzickianared Limnophilahippuroides

Blyxaaubertii Limnophilasessiliflora

Bolbitisheteroclite Limnophiliaheterophylla

Bolbitisheudelotii Lobeliacardinalis‘smallform’

Cabombaaquatic Ludwigiainclinata

Cabombacaroliniana Ludwigiaindianta

CabombaFurcata Ludwigiarepens

Cabombapiauhyensis Ludwigiasp

Cardaminepalaeformis Ludwigiastricta

Ceratophyllumdemersum Lysimachianummularia

Chlorophytumbichetii Mayacasellowiana

Cryptocorynebalansae Micranthemumumbrosum

Cryptocorynebechetti Microsoriumpteropus

Cryptocorynecordatacar.Siamensis Myriophyllummatogrossense(red)

Cryptocorynelucens Myriophyllumtuberculatum

Cryptocorynepetchii Nesdeaspecious

Cryptocorynepontederiifolia Nomaphilasiamensis

Cryptocorynespiralis Nupharjaponica

Cryptocorynetropica Nymphaeaspc.

Cryptocorynewendtii“green” Nymphaeaspecies“red”

Cryptocorynewendtii“red” Ophiogopon“Kyoto”

Cryptocorynewendtiigreen Ophiopogonjaponicas

Didiplisdiandra RotalaIndica


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Dracaenaderemensisstriped Rotalarotundifolia

Cryptocorynewendtiigreen Rotalarotundifolia“Red”

Dracaenasanderiana Rotalawallichii

Dracaenasanderiana‘variegatus Toninafluitans

Drecanamargineta Trapanatans

Drecanamarginetaver. Trichomanesjavanicum

EchinodorusAmazonicus VallisneriaAmericana

Echinodorusargentinensis Vallisneriaasiatica

EchinodorusBleheri Vallisneriagigantean

Echinodoruscordifolius Vallisneriaspiralis

Echinodorusdekumbens Vallisneriatorta

Appendix7.3:PlantsimportedintothecountryJanuary–November2011

Source:‐MinistryofHousingandEnvironment,2010


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8. Chemicalandtoxicology

8.1 Introduction

In Maldives a trend of increase in imports of chemicals is noted by concerned authorities,

highlighting that the country is faced with wide ranging issues pertaining to chemical

management. The capacity to study and analyse the situation is limited with no baseline

information established, to determine whether chemical usage within the country is an

emerging health issue. Statistics pertaining to the chemicals imported into the country is

unavailable, although prior permission from the Ministry of Defense and National Security

(MODNS)isrequiredbeforeimportingchemicalsintothecountry.

Thegeneral scientific causeandeffectof chemicalsusageand toxicology states thatpotential

toxiceffectincreasesastheexposureincreasesandthatallchemicalswillexhibiteffectswhen

exposed to large doses. This aspect emphasizes that toxic potency of chemicals is ultimately

definedbytheamountofchemicalexposure.Generallytoxicityorharmfulactioninherentina

chemicalsubstanceoccurswhena livingbiologicalsystemcomesintocontactwithachemical

substance.Chemicalsenterthebodythroughfourmainrouteswhichisabsorptionthroughthe

respiratorysystem,skin,digestivetract,byeatingorsmoking,throughcontaminatedhandsor

contaminatedworkareasandabsorptionthroughsyringeneedleorbrokenglass.

Skin‐absorption may be a significant factor in the use of pesticides in Maldives. It is a well

known fact that in Maldives use of pesticides for agricultural purposes is common and

increasinginruralislandswhichisacauseforconcern.

Keyfindings

DevelopingahealthyandsafeenvironmentforthecitizensisapriorityundertheEnvironmentLaw,withprovisionsforenvironmentallysoundmanagementofhazardouswaste,chemicalsandoil.Existingconstraintspertainingtochemicalmanagementincludeslackofchemicaldatabase,trainedstaffandequipmentforchemicalmanagement.Theneedtostrengthenlawsandregulationspertainingtochemicalmanagementalsoexists.DraftPesticideActcurrentlyopenedupforpublicconsultationanddraftingofnewregulationundertheLawonImportationofProhibitedItemstotheMaldivesarenoteworthydevelopmentstowardschemicalmanagement.


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8.2 Chemicalusage

Chemicals, inanyform,arenotproducedinthecountry.However,recentrapiddevelopments

andurbanizationofthecountryhaveresultedinanincreaseintheimportanduseofchemicals

andrelatedcomponents.Intheabsenceofspecificdatabases,analysisofchemicalusageinthe

countryhastobebasedonlyinformationonimportsavailablefromMaldivesCustomsService

(MCS)whichshowsthatunderthebroadcategoryofChemicalsandRelatedIndustries,avariety

of chemicals are imported. The CIF value for these Chemicals and Related Industries are

published regularly in the Statistical Yearbook (Fig 8.1) which shows that the value has

increased over the years. This is a very crude indicator of imports of chemicals and a detail

studyofthequantitywithinthesecategoriesarerequiredtounderstandthestatusontrendsin

importsofspecificchemicals.

The broad category of imports of chemical and related industries are subdivided under the

harmonizedsystemintoanumberofgroupsasfollows:

Inorganicchemicals,organic/inorganiccompoundsofpreciousmetals,isotopes

Organicchemicals

Pharmaceuticalproducts

Fertilizers

Tanningordyingextracts,dyes,pigments,paintsandvarnishes,puttyandink

0

100000

200000

300000

400000

500000

600000

700000

800000

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Value in

Rf 000

Years

Fig8.1:‐CIFValueofChemicalsandrelatedindustriesimported2004‐2009



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Oilsandresinoids,andperfumery,cosmeticortoiletpreparations

Soaps,detergentsandcleaners,waxes,scouringproducts,candles,modelingpastesand

dentalwaxes

Albuminoidalsub,starches,gluesandenzymes

Explosivematchesandpyrotechnicproducts

Photographicorcinematographicgoods

Basedontheabovecategoriesthemainchemicalusagewithincountrycanbeclassifiedunder

thefollowingthreemaincategories

Chemicalsusedforagriculturalpurposes

Chemicalsusedforhealthpurposes

Chemicalsusedforhouseholdandindustrialpurposes.

8.2.1 Chemicalusedforagriculturalpurposes

Chemicals usage for agricultural purposes is largely based on the use of the pesticides for

controlofpestonagricultural crops,plantation treesandornamentals.Table8.1outlines the

pesticidesimportedforagriculturebypurposes,fortheperiod2004‐2009

(iirelevantphotograph)‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐

Typeofpesticide

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Fungicides Kgs 2146.5 1921.53 7221.08 1619.35 1478.6 2115.53

Ltr 202.13 385.2 308 343.6 512.2 662.15

HerbicidesandAlgaecides

Kgs 163.3 102 55.24 148 157.2 129.68

Lts 20.75 15.5 23.6 24

InsecticidesandPesticides

Kgs 37048.98 18738.25 48963.81 14870.48 18769.12

Ltr 82198.89 96584.82 283008 147491.5 109922.3 163713

Nos 795598 1611634 449425 1916474 140033 101877

Plantgrowthregulators

Kgs 500 380.6 30000 27.2 415.27

Ltr 4.8 12.45 40.6 248.6 19.6


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Rodenticidesandsimilarproducts

Kgs 2132.1 5812.73 3346.57 4102.93 6953.06 3614.25

Nos 6056 1396 164 1002 1956 2516

Weedkiller Kgs 6.75 2

Astable8.1shows,underthebroadcategoryofpesticides,5typesofpesticidesare imported

intothecountry.Theyincludefungicides,insecticides,plantgrowthregulators,rodenticidesand

weed killers. It is noted that import of 3 types of pesticides is on the rise,while for the rest

quantityimportedvariedwithoutanysignificantdecreasingtrends,duringtheperiodbetween

2004and2009.

Typeofpesticide 2004 2009 Increaseinpercentage

Fungicides(Ltrs) 202.13 662.15 228

Insecticides(ltrs) 82,198.89 163,713 99

Rodenticides(ltrs) 21,32.1 3614.25 70

Withanincreasingtrend,causeforconcernarisesduetotheinadequaciesontheinstructions

onuseof andprecautions tobe taken in theapplicationofpesticides leading to gross abuse.

Basedondifferent assessments andobservations,MOFAhave identified several inadequacies

with regard to the to theuseof pesticides for agricultural purposewhich are summarized in

table8.3

Table8.1outlinesthepesticideimportedforagriculturepurposesfortheperiod2004‐2009


Table8.2:Increaseinuseforpesticides



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Keyissues Details

Inadequacyinlabeling

Somelabelsinforeignlanguage

Someshopsevenrepackwiththeirownlabeling

Olderfarmersarenotabletoreadthelabels

Pesticideabuse RecommendedprotectivegearishardtofindandoftennotusedFarmersareunabletodistinguishplantdiseaseandplantpest

Frequentdosesareapplied

Preharvestintervalsnotknownandrespected

Sunkenwellusedforirrigationpurposesareusedtomixthepesticide

InadequacyinStoringanddisposal

Emptycontainersaresometimesburiedordisposedoffasgarbage

Inadequacyinregistrationprocess

Noregistrationprocess.

PermissiongrantedbyMoFAbasedonWHOofhazardousclass

Listnotupdatedinatimelymanner

Intheabsenceofthedatapertainingtouseofpesticidesinthecountry,informationfromMOFA

werereviewedtoanalysethesituationonuseofpesticideswithinthecountry.

Accordingto(Krantz,2007)areviewofthepesticidesthathadbeenapprovedbyMOFAduring

theperiodJanuary2006toMay2007revealedthat221differenttypesofpesticideshadbeen

imported, which included 19 types that falls into WHO Hazard Class I (extremely/highly

hazardous). The survey further showed that the list of imported products included many

products that arehighly toxic to fish and/or carryahigh riskof groundwater contamination.

Several of the imported products are known carcinogenics. Additionally according to Wulp,

Table8.3:Issuesrelatedtouseofpesticides



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(2009),briefsurveysconductedinshopsduringJuly2009foundtwoproductsthatfallinWHO

Hazard Class I: Methomyl and Monocrotophos. Both are now prohibited in Maldives. Large

proportionsof theproductson sale are “oldgeneration” generics that are relatively cheap to

buy, but tend to have higher social costs to health and environment. Many of the products

currentlyusedarenolongerpermittedintheEUandinprinciplecouldbesubstitutedbynewer

alternatives that are more selective and have lower human toxicity. Increasing overuse of

pesticidesanddisregardofpre‐harvestintervalsareobservedindicatingahighriskofpesticide

residues.

Todatenosignificantresidue testinghasbeenconductedand thedegreeofcontaminationof

fruit andvegetables remainsunknown.TheMaldivesFoodandDrugAuthority (MFDA)has a

laboratorythatisusedforconductingarangeoftestsincludingwaterquality,histamineinfish,

alcohol traces inbeverages, etc. Atpresent, routine tests forpesticide residueson fruits and

vegetables,arenotundertaken.

SupportisbeingreceivedfromUNDPandUNEPforactivitiestoraiseawarenessonthehazards

causedfromthemisuseandabuseofpesticides.InadditiontothetrainingprovidedbyMOFA

pesticidesellingoutletand6shopswhichsellagriculturalpesticidesprovidesomeinformation

on the safe useof pesticides. MOFAoutlet provides adviceon incidence of pests andproper

treatment,tothepeoplewhocometobuypesticides.Theoutletalsodisplaydifferenttypesof

pesticides,andprovideinformationonmosteffectiveorrelevantpesticidethatisrecommended

for farmer use. The collection included Actellic, Carbendazim, Carbofuran, Carbusulfan,

Chlorpyrifos,Cypermethrin,Deltamethrin+triazophos,Endosulfan,Fenthion,Fenvalverate,Fipronil

and Imidacloprid. Information sheetswritten in national languagehave beenprepared for all

pesticides on sale, emphasizing precautions to be taken in the handling and application of

pesticides, especially in the protection of eyes and skin. Shopswhich sell pesticides are also

requiredtoprovideinformationontheproperhandlinganduseofpesticides.

Themaindistributorofpesticidesinthecountryprovidescolorleafletswithtranslatedproduct

information,whichincludespicturesofthepestsforwhichtheproductisintended,dosagerates

fordifferentpest‐cropcombinations,andpre‐harvestintervals.Thecompanyprovidestraining

tofarmersontheagriculturalislands.Theirmainpesticideproductdistributedbythecompany

is Carbofuran (3% GR), which in the first half of 2009 accounted formore than 50% of the

volumeimported.OtherimportsareSulfur,Avermectin,Dimethoate,ProfenofosandMancozeb.

Thecompanyalsoimportssofterproductsandistryingtodeveloptheirmarket,butchangein

demandisslowasfarmersareaccustomedtotheolderproductlistedabove.


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8.2.2 Chemicalusedforhealthpurposes

TheCentre forCommunityHealthandDiseaseControl(CCHDC)functioningunderMinistryof

Health and Family (MOHAF).is responsible for public health vector control. Its policy is to

minimizetheuseofchemicalsanduseenvironmentalcontroloptionswherepossible.Themain

vectors that do require chemical control are mosquitoes transferring dengue fever and

Chikungunya virus. Chemical control of mosquito is applied when dengue cases increase,

typicallytwiceperyear.ControlinvolvesfogginginareasofMale’andVillingilliwithUltraLow

Volume (ULV) application in specific areas with high concentration of mosquito presence.

Overall, volumes used are modest. In the past, pesticides weresupplied fromWorld Health

Organisation(WHO),butatpresenttheCentreobtainsthemfromimportersinMale’.Pesticides

areappliedbystaffoftheMOHAFwhoreceivedbasictrainingandhaveaccesstothenecessary

protectivegear.Vectorcontrolat theresorts ismainlycarriedoutbyspecializedpest control

operatorswhobuy theirownpesticides. InMale’ thereareat least three companiesoffering

suchservices. Someoftheresortscontrolpestsontheirown.TheCCHDCusesMalathionand

Deltamethrinforitspublichealthrelatedactivities.

8.2.3 Chemicalsforhouseholduse

Householdpesticidesareusedforpestsanitationintouristresorts(mainlymosquito’s,rodents

and cockroaches). Otherpest control operations include activitiesundertakenby specialized

pestcontrolcompaniesandincludesprotectionofornamentalsfrompests.

Table8.4providesthesomeofthepesticidesimportedforhouseholdusefortheperiod2004‐

2009,ofwhichmanyoftheproductsshowsincreasingtrends.

Typeofpesticide 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Antiseptic,DisinfectingOrSterilizingSolution

Ltr 7350.8 7537.18 8879.99 18722.45 9404.62 25275.85

AntisepticCream Kgs 919.53 346.68

AntisepticCream,DettolCreamandGlovepower

Kgs 5195.44

MosquitoCoil No 878164 2020651 1046315 1764839 2277603 2649870

Mosquitocoilandmosquitorepellent

Kgs 38789.29 28898.9 473822.2 42295.31 19595.26 10922.71

Mosquitomat Nos


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Naphthalenemothballs

Kgs 28639.47

Detol Lts 35753.85 19957.11 35957.6 41487.95 46619.05 33239.32

DetolCreamandglovepowder

Kgs 133.26 444.86 1372.08

Disinfectant Kgs 5016.5 6763.28 5468.25 5960.19 3002.26 4145.37

Flytrapandcockroachtrap

No 8822 3500 13812 12834 12174 7099

Pesticides are used to control mosquitoes, rats, cockroaches, termites and ants. Pest control

servicesprovidersofferregularpestcontrolservicestotheresorts.Onecompanyprovidepest

control services for about 70 resorts and provides training and supplies to other resorts. In

some islands they have a permanently stationed staff. All pesticides for use on resorts are

suppliedthroughMale’andallimportsfollowtheestablishedapprovalprocedure.Accordingto

MFDA they receive about 12 requests per month, mainly from pest control companies and

resorts. InformationprovidedbyMFDAindicatedthatthetotalquantityapprovedduringthe

first half of 2009 was only 0.7mt. According to MFDA there are about 6 companies in the

Maldivesthatprovidepestcontrolservices.

8.2.4 Chemicalsforconstructionpurposes

Inadditiontothehouseholduse,chemicalsareanintegralpartofconstructionactivities.Data

onchemicalusedforconstructionpurposeisnotavailable.Generallyanumberofchemicalsare

usedintheconstructionprocess,inordertoprovidegreaterstability,durability,strength,and

luster to the structure. Several chemicals suchas adhesives, epoxyproducts, sealants, joinery

products, are commonly used for the purpose of construction. Construction workers handle

toxicsubstancesonadailybasis,usuallywithoutapparentimpactorinjury.

8.3 Disposalofchemicals

Chemical should not be disposed of by common means like other by‐products used in our

lives,and as such, a formal procedure is in place. The MDANS is formally responsible for

disposalofhazardouschemicals.ThisisdoneattheislandofTamburudhoo,whichisusedfor

militarytraining.

Table8.4:Someofthepesticidesimportedforhouseholduse2004‐2009

Source:MinistryFisheries,AgricultureandMarineResources,2011


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Household pesticides containers are often disposed of with the every‐day garbage. Empty

containers are buried or burned at the edge of the fields, or disposed of with the garbage.

Importing companies maintain small stocks that are turned‐over relatively fast and then

replenishedbynewimports. Newstockstypicallyareorderedevery1‐3months.TheCCHDC

stores its pesticideson thenearby islandof Thilafushi, the “industrial” islandwherewaste is

disposed


TheGovernmentofMaldivesgiveshighprioritytodevelopahealthyandsafeenvironmentfor

the citizens. According to the SAP 2009‐2013 the government aims to ‘Ensure protection of

peopleandtheenvironmentfromhazardouswasteandchemicals.’Underthispolicytwomain

strategiesareoutlined.

Theyare:

Establish a National Chemical Information System and develop regulations and

guidelinesforsaferuse,handlinganddisposalofallchemicals.

InitiateaHazardousWasteCommunication(notificationandmovementsystem)tomeet

internationalsystems

Differentorganisationsworktowardstheprotectionofpeoplefromtheeffectshazardouswaste

andchemicals.TheEnvironmentandProtectionandPreservationofAct(Lawno4/93)ofMHE

has itsprovisionsonenvironmentally soundmanagementof hazardouswaste, chemicals and

oil. The MDNS is mandated by Law 4/75, Law on Importation of Prohibited Items to the

Maldives”toregulate,amongothers,theimportofdangerouschemicalsintothecountry.Article

5 of the Act states that all dangerous chemicals (except for fireworks) and acids and other

poisonous itemsproducedusing these chemicals can only be imported into the countrywith

writtenpermissionfromtheMDNSandinaccordancewithsuchrulesandregulationssetout

bytheMinistry.TheMinistryhasformulatedtherelevantRegulationstatedinArticle5,butitis

yet tobe implemented. Implementationhasbeendelayeddue to theunavailabilityof trained

staffandthenecessaryequipmentneededtocarryoutspecifictasksstatedintheregulation.

Control and Regulation of chemicals is split between different organizations. Pesticides are

regulated through the MOFA which process the request of imports of chemicals. Requests

typically contain the trade name, unit size and number of units. In several cases the active

ingredient and formulation are also provided. MOFA looks up the category of the product

(fertilizer, insecticide, fungicide,herbicide,etc)andattemptstofindtheactiveingredient if it


157 |P a g e

hasnotbeenprovidedandarethencheckedagainstthelistofprohibitedpesticides.Products

thatarenotonlistgetapprovedandsendtotheMDNSforthefinalapproval.

TheAgriculturalMaster Plan 2006‐2012 also emphasizes on the regulation of pesticides and

statesthattheten‐pointactionplansuggestedfortheagriculturesectorintheNBSAPneedsto

be internalized and integrated in all agricultural development programmes andprojects. The

NBSAP action plan for agriculture encompasses a comprehensive array of actions including

minimal use of chemicals harmful to soil and soil organisms, adoption of Integrated Pest

Managementpractices,controllingthehandlinganduseofpesticides,andprovisionofadequate

institutionalandlegalframework.

MFDAalsoplayan important role inapprovalofpublichealthpesticides.The sameprinciple

appliedbytheMOFAisusedforpublichealthissues/medicalsector.MFDAusesapositivelist

forapprovalofpublichealthpesticides.Onlypesticidesonthepositivelistgetapproved.Ithas

aformatforrequestingapproval,whichcontainstheBrandname,Chemicalname,Quantityand

Intended Use. Information about the formulation and concentration is not requested. The

schemehasbeeninexistencesince2006.

Pharmaceuticals are under themandate of theMOHAF. ForODS, prior approval is necessary

fromMHE.TheMDNSapproves importationofpesticidesthathavebeengivenano‐objection

byMoFAorMFDA.

MaldivesisaPartytomanychemicalrelatedconventionsandagreementssuchastheMontreal

Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Basel Convention on the Control of

TransboundaryMovementsofHazardousWastesandtheirDisposal,StockholmConventionon

PersistentOrganicPollutants,RotterdamConventiononthePriorInformedConsentProcedure

for certain hazardous chemicals and pesticidies in interntaional trade. The country is also a

member of the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety, Strategic Approach to

International Chemicals Management. The Maldives is also Party to the Convention on the

Prohibitionof theDevelopment,Production,StockpilinganduseofChemicalWeaponsandon

theirDestruction(CWC),withtheMDNSbeingtheNationalAuthority.TheMinistryiscurrently

workingondraftingabillonChemicalWeaponswithassistancefromOPCW.

Implementationandmonitoringofenvironmentallysoundmanagementofhazardouswasteand

chemicals has been a challenge toMaldives due to the lack of a chemical database or even a

baselineindicatingtheusageanddisposalofthesechemicals.Thelegalframeworkandtherules


158 |P a g e

and regulation developed reveal the concept of precaution is recognized. Planned efforts

towardsstrengtheningthefoundationsofchemicalmanagementincludedraftbillonpesticides

which is currently for public consultation. ThisNational PesticideActwill be themajor legal

instrumenttoregulateimport,useanddisposealltypesofpesticideinthecountry.TheMDNS

also has formulated the relevant Regulation stated in Article 5, of the Law 4/75 “Law on

ImportationofProhibitedItemstotheMaldives”

The project formulated for the Strengthening Capacities for National Strategic Approach to

International Chemicals Management in Maldives also includes important components that

wouldstrengthenthechemicalmanagementwithinthecountry.Theproject includesplansto

assesslegal,institutional,administrativeandtechnicalaspectsofchemicalmanagementandthe

extentofchemicalavailabilityanduseinthecountrywithexistingcapacitiesandinadequacies.

Formulationofthenationalchemicalsmanagementdatabaseisalsoanimportantcomponentof

the project. These effortswhen implementedwill greatly improve the chemicalmanagement

withinthecountryprovidingamuchneededbaselineassistingadherencetothenationalaswell

internationalobligationstowardchemicalmanagement.


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9. Energy

9.1 Introduction

TheMaldiveshasannouncedplanstogreenitsenergysectoraspledgedundertheCopenhagen

Accordtobecomecarbonneutralby2020.Thegovernmentappointedataskforcetodeliberate

onthevariouspre‐requisitesandrequirementsforreducingenergysectorcarbonemissionsin

line with overall objective of carbon neutrality. A roadmap in the energy sector to reduce

dependenceonfossilfuelswasdevelopedwhichwasbuildon5keyareas.(Fig9.1)

Keyfindings:

Governmentisfocusedonmakingthecountrycarbonneutralby2020.Policymechanismdesignedtoaccelerateinvestmentinrenewableenergyincludeswaivingimportdutiesonsolarpanels,solarpanelbatteriesusedinmarinevessels,andonrenewableenergypoweredvehicles.

PowerPurchasingAgreementwithSTELCOandChinesecompanyhasbeensignedunderwhichawindfarmof20MWistobeestablishedtopowergreaterMaleregion.TheplanalsoincludesconnectingthegreaterMale’regionthroughsubmarinecabletoestablisharegionalpowergrid.

Otherimportantpolicymechanismsdesignedtoaccelerateinvestmentinrenewableenergyincludesopeningthesectortoforprivateinvestorsandintroducingfeed‐intariffmakingitmandatoryforutilitiescompaniestopurchasepowerfromindependentrenewableenergypowerproducers.

Fig9.1:‐Keyareasofinterventionforachievingcarbonneutralitybyyear2020


Interventions

Renewable energy

Solar, wind and Biomass

Energy efficiencyCleaner

transportation

Waste

Management

Carbon

Sequestration

and Offsetting


160 |P a g e

Thesemeasureswere announced in the faceof starkwarnings from scientists that rising sea

levelsevenbyonemetercouldengulf theMaldivesandother lowlyingnationsrenderingthe

islandsalmostentirelyuninhabitable.ForMaldivestobecomecarbonneutralbytheyear2020

the increasing demand for energy need to be reduced. Prerequisites and requirements for

reducingenergysectorcarbonemissioninlinewiththeoverallobjectiveofcarbonneutrality,is

to be determined with the formulation of the Carbon Neutral Master plan by 2012. The

Framework for Energy Investment in theMaldives was developed as a preparatory exercise

prior to start of the renewable energy investment plans. The Maldives 2009 Carbon Audit

Report(2010)estimatedincreaseinenergydemandat85%fortheMale’regionand77%for

theprovincesunderliningtheneedinvestinginrenewableenergy.

9.2 EnergySector

Theenergysectorofthecountryreliesonimportedfuelwhichconsistsofdieselfueloilusedfor

electricityproductionfollowedbypetrol,LPG,aviationfuelandkeroseneoil.Maldivesimports

allitsfuelsinrefinedformandinverysmallquantities,whichmakesfuelevenmoreexpensive.

The geography of the countrywith island scattered over vast distancemakes it difficult and

costlytotransportfueltothecommunities.Asfigure9.2illustratesyearlyconsumptionoffuelis

growingrapidly,resultinginincreaseintheproportionofforeignexchangespentonfossilfuels.

0

50000

100000

150000

200000

250000

300000

350000

1990

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

000 Kwh

Years

Note:Datafromtheprovincialutilitycompaniesnotincludedintheyear2009

Fig9.2:Electricityproduction1990‐2009



161 |P a g e

Maldives is a small nation consisting of 1192 islands out ofwhich inhabited remains at 194,

while another 97 islands are developed as tourist resorts, each of them having independent

electricpowergenerationsystemsandotherutilityinfrastructure.Theelectricityproductionis

decentralized and based on production units of various sizes. The State Electric Limited

Company(STELCO)provideselectricityto7islands,whileUtilityCompaniesprovideelectricity

totheotherislands.TheenergyusageofthecountrybyserviceprovidersisoutlinedinTable

9.1

UtilityCompanies Generationofelectricity

GWh %

STELCO 237 71

UpperNorthUtilitiesLtd 22.3 7

NorthUtilitiesLtd 19.4 6

CentralUtilitiesLtd 6.7 2

SouthCentralUtilitiesLtd 8 2

SouthUtilitiesLtd 29.8 9

UpperSouthUtilitiesLtd 10.6 3

Resortsindustries NA NA

Total 333.8 100

The total installedpower capacityof the7utility companies is equal to106.2MW.Themain

electricityproviderSTELCOhasan installedcapacityof61.98MWwith49.6MWinstalled in

the capital Male’. The power plants of STELCO are diesel operated. Without a complete

connectionbyagridsystemprivatelyowneddieselgeneratorsareoperatedintheresortsand

otherindustries.Thegenerationofelectricitybyprovincerevealsthat71percentofthepower

isgeneratedforthegreaterMale’area.MaldivesEnergyAuthorityestimatesthattheresortwith

theirdieselgeneratorswillbegenerating120GWh.

Table9.1:Theenergyusageofthecountrybyserviceproviders‐2009



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Thepowergenerationanddistributionsystemssetupintheislandsarecurrentlyintheprocess

of being integrated into the government utility companies. These utilities were previously

operated by Island Development Committees with the financial assistance from the

Government. Under the Asian Development Bank, Outer Islands Electrification Project

implementedfrom2005‐2010underwhichcommunitygeneratorswereinstalledinanumber

of islands. In term of electricity utilization it is estimated 47% is utilized for residential

purposes,35%formanufacturingandcommercialpurposesand16%forgovernmentbuildings

while2%accountspublicplacesandschools(Fig9.3)

9.3 RenewableEnergy

The threepotential renewableenergyresources in theMaldivesaresolar,windandbiomass.

Potential formarineenergy isbeing studiedand isyet tobedetermined. Initially renewable

energy technology applications in Maldives were limited to some applications of solar

photovoltaic cells in navigation lights and in outer island telecommunication systems.

Renewableenergywasused topowernavigational lights (marking thereefs), communication

transceivers on fishing boats and supply power for remote installations on the national

telecommunicationnetwork.Solarenergyisalsousedonasmallscaleforproducinghotwater

forhomesandinthetourismindustry.

47%

35%

16%

2%

Residential

Manufacturing and commercial

Government buildings

Public places and schools

Fig9.3:ElectricityUtilizationinMale2006‐2009



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Afterunveilingtheplanofbecomingcarbonneutralbytheyear2020governmenthasfocused

onpolicymechanismdesignedtoaccelerateinvestmentinrenewableenergy.Importdutieson

solarpanels, solarpanel batteriesused inmarinevessels, andon renewable energypowered

vehicleswerewaived.Alsotheregionalutilitiescompaniesaretopurchaseelectricityproduced

by renewable energy companies to the STELCO’s grid. Due to the need for a specialist

governmentagencytodirecttheMaldivestowardsitsgoaltobecomecarbonneutralby2020

thegovernmentcreatedaRenewableEnergyInvestmentOffice(REIO)underMEA.Thepurpose

ofcreatingREIO is tocomeupwitheconomicsolutions to thecountry’senergyconcernsand

expedite implementation of these solutions. REIOwill assist government to draw investment

plans andproposals for foreignaid to facilitate investment and support in alternative energy

projects in Maldives. Other functions mandated include finding and applying appropriate

alternative energy solutions and assisting regional utilities companies in seeking investments

andcapacitybuildingintheareaofrenewableenergytechnologies.

Todayuse of renewable energy is encouraged andpromotedwith a number initiatives being

implemented.Theproject “Male’CleanEnergyPromotion” fundedunder thegrant aid from

JapaneseGovernmenthasinstalledsolarPVin5sitesinMale’withthetotalinstalledcapacity

being estimated at around 395 kW. This is the largest commercial scale renewable energy

investment program in the Maldives at present. Renewable energy is also used by the

telecommunication company of Maldives in 174 sites based on power generated from solar

panelsorsolar‐dieselhybridsystems.Thesitewhichhasthehighestgenerationofsolarpower

hasacapacityof3.5kWwhilethetotalcapacityapproximatesat130kW


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a)Solarenergy

Solardataforresourceassessmentsarelimited.MMScollectsthenumberofhoursofsunshine

andthetemperatureperdaybutnosolarenergyradiationdataiscollected.Powergeneration

potentialthroughphotovoltaicandsmallsolarthermalissignificant.Afeasibilityofusingsolar

energyproductionwasdeterminedusing satellitedata for three locations in southnorthand

centre of the country. The study revealed that solar radiation and daylight hours across the

countryarereasonablygoodwithlotsofsolarheatingandsolarpotential.Itwasfoundthatthe

potential is high as every squaremeter of available land area canprovide about 5 kWh/day.

Detailstudies forall inhabited islandsandresortsarebeingundertakentoestimate theexact

system configuration and investment options for each island. Work is ongoing with islands

being classified according to population size, demand and load pattern with sample islands

beingselectedforimplementationofpilotprojectsafterwhichitcouldbereplicatedintherest

ofislands.ThinadhoointheSouthandKDhifushiinthecentralregionareatpresentselectedas

sampleislandswithworkongoingatpresent.

b)WindEnergy

Available wind data is limited to records of wind speeds at various airports in the country.

Thesewindmeasurementsareat10metersabovetheground,andbecauseofthelowaltitude,

thesearenotrepresentativeofwindspeedsat thehigher levelsatwhichturbinesareusually

positioned. Measurements made by the US based National Renewable Energy Laboratories

have indicatedthatthe largestwindpotential inthecountry is inthe islands locatedbetween

4.5oand6oNlatitudes.Afeasibilitystudywasundertakentoassesspotentialnortherninhabited

islandsites,basedontheconsumptionanddemand. It is inferredthatwindcanbeutilized in

smallersizebecauseoftheirlowercutoffspeedandsmalldemandinislands.Alsoitisinferred

thatwindisslightlybetterattheNorthernRegionsthanincentralandsouthernregions.Work

onmeasuringthewindatvariousheightsisongoingatpresent

New developments towards harnessing wind energy includes signing an agreement with

STELCOwithXMECNewEnergyofChinatoproviderenewableenergyfor25yearsintheMale’

areawhich constitutesMale’, Hulhumale’, Villimale’ and industrial Thilafushi.The projectwill

provideupto20megawattsofelectricitytoSTELCO’sgrid.Undertheagreementthecompany

willgenerate50megawattsofwindenergyfortheMale’areaandaLiquefiedNaturalGas(LNG)

plant is to be built to provide 30megawatts of energy on windless days to prevent service

disruption.“TheenergyharnessedfromthewindturbinesandbackupLNGplantistobefedto

theSTELCOgridvia submarinecables connected toMale’ andHulhumale’,”XMEC is scouring

areasinMale’atolltolocatethewindturbinesandLNGplant.(www.haveeru.com)


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c)BiomassEnergy

In2003‐04abiomassstudywasundertakenwhichreportedthat the totalaccessiblebiomass

potentialresourceis20000toe.Forinvestmentdecisionatpresenttherecommendationisto

undertakeadetailstudytounderstandthedifferenttypesofbiomass.

It is importanttohighlightthatinthepast,biomassisthemainsourceofenergyfordomestic

purposes in most of the outer islands. Fuel wood is used for cooking and smoking of fish.

Biomass includesdrybranchesfromtreesandshrubs,coconuthusks,drycoconut leaves,and

coconutshells.However,withthedepletionofwoodresourcesandsubsequentrestrictionson

tree cutting, households have switched to kerosene and LPG for cooking instead of biomass

materials.

A source of biomass material is municipal solid waste. According to Municipality Waste

Management Section inMale’, the typical composition ofmunicipal solidwaste is paper and

cardboard (33%); kitchen waste (15%), and construction waste (industrial/scraps) (52%).

About15%oftheconstructionwasteiswood.DailysolidwastegenerationinMale’sisonthe

average 140 tons. Biodegradable waste (mainly foodwaste) is about 25 tons/day. The solid

waste is sorted prior to transporting to the island of Thilafushi. Only the biodegradable and

combustible materials (i.e., organic) are dumped in the pits. The combustible materials are

burned and the residue ashes (plus unburned matter) are dumped into the pit. Previously

Thilafushi was just a reef and now it has a reclaimed area of 100,000 square meters. Some

industriesnowexistintheareasuchasacementpackingplantandaLPGrefillingplant.South

AsianRegionalInitiativeforEnergyreportsthatLandfillgasfromtheareacanberecoveredand

utilizedforpowerandheatgenerationforusebytheindustrieslocatedinthearea.

The presently planned The Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Management Project at Thilafushi

IslandinMaldivestobeimplementedfrom2013‐2020hastheobjectiveofestablishingafacility

ofcapacity200TPDtotreatmunicipalsolidwasteatThilafushi islandinMaldives.Thewaste

processing&powergenerationfacilitieshavebeenidentifiedforavailingcarbonbenefitsunder

CleanDevelopmentMechanism(CDM).Thewasteshallbeprocessedusinginvesselcomposting

andgasification technologies. TheCDM is an arrangementunder theKyotoProtocol allowing

industrializedcountrieswithagreenhousegasreductioncommitmenttoinvestinprojectsthat

reduce emission in developing countries as an alternative to more expensive emission

reductionintheirowncountries.CDMallowsacountrywithanemission‐reductionoremission‐

limitation(GreenHousereduction)commitmenttoimplementanemission‐reductionprojectin

developingcountries.


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9.3.1 Barriersforrenewableenergydevelopment

Developmentofrenewableenergytechnologyrequiresidentifyingandaddressingtheexisting

barriers confronted by the energy sector. At the initial stage limited information on the

renewable resourcespotential in the country, isoneof themainconstraints.Presently,detail

information onpotentials of renewable energy technology is required to design, develop and

utilize clean energy. Lack of policies on the utilization of renewable energy, and inadequate

regulations and procedures to support development of renewable energy based projects, are

limitations. Such policies, regulations and procedures need to be developed confirming to

internationallyacceptedbestpracticesinordertoattractinvestorsandfinanciersforrenewable

energy technology projects. Limited capacity in the government to design, develop and

implement renewable energy programs is also identified as a major limitation. Limited

institutional mechanism to support widespread dissemination of renewable technologies, as

well as in the dissemination of knowledge and skills in the operation and maintenance of

renewablesystemsaresomeofthebarriersthathavebeenidentifiedinvariousstudies.

9.3.2 Effortstoencouragerenewableenergy

In 1999, The Renewable Energy TechnologyDevelopment and Application Project (RETDAP)

wasimplementedwhichestablishedsomebasisnecessaryforrenewableenergydevelopment.

Advocacyandawarenessraisingactivities,on‐the‐jobtraining,seminarsandstudytourswere

undertaken under the project. In addition, a detailed assessment ofwind, solar and biomass

resourceswascarriedout,followedbyin‐housetrainingofrelevantgovernmentofficialsanda

assessmentofleast‐costrenewableenergytechnologies.

The country's first energy supply and demand balance and Wind Energy Resource were

developedin2003.Thiswasfollowedbyanassessmentofthepotentialforutilizationofsolar

energyand landfillgas in2004anddevelopmentofEnergyBalancesand Indicators.Fund for

Renewable Energy System Applications (FRESA), a revolving fund, has been designed and

established and loans are being disbursed. At present four loans have been disbursed

amountingtoatotalofRf3.176.580.Theeffortstodevelopanalternativeenergycapabilityled

to the establishment on pilot basis, of solar‐diesel, solar‐wind‐diesel hybrid systems. These

wererelativelysmallsystemswhichintheirinitialstagefunctionedwell,buthighmaintenance

costandlackoflocaltechnicalcapacitycreatedmanychallenges.


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A feasibility study forapplicationofgridconnectedPhotovoltaicpowersystems inMale’ (the

capital)andHulhumale’(asatelliteisland)wascarriedoutin2009.Thestudyproposestoplace

PVpanelsonlargebuildingsinMale’andHulhumale’includingthePresident’sOffice.Thestudy

foundPVsystemstobeafeasibleoptionbuttheinitial investmentcostcouldbeprohibitively

highfortheindividuals(FeasibilitystudyforApplicationofgridconnectedPhotovoltaicpower

systemsinMale’andHulhumale’,2009).

In February 2010, preparatory work on introducing grid connected PV

systems was carried out. The work included study of technical

requirements for the grid connection and developing a Manual for

PhotovoltaicGridConnection(Grid‐connectedPVsystem in theMaldives,

March2010)

AsolarpowersystemwasinstalledinPresidentialResidence, Muleeaage

on7thOctober 2010.which is capable of generating11.5 kWof installed

peakoutput.This isexpectedtosavemorethan$300,000overthelifeof

thesystem.Sungevitydesignedthesystemremotelyfromitsheadquarters

in Oakland, California and trained local staff at Presidential Palace to

install,manage andmaintain the system. Sungevity is also conductingan

energy audit of thePresidential residence to identifyways to cut energy

wastage. Renewable energy installation best practice always includes an

energy audit, to identify immediate savings and cost‐effective energy

conservation

measures.

Source:http://www.presidencymaldives.gov.mv/


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Inaddition,governmentisalsopromotingPublic–Private‐Partnershipstodevelopandscaleup

renewable energy usage in Maldives. The formations of Utility Companies have facilitated

Public Private Partnership as national and international companies couldpartnerwith utility

companiestodevelopandimplementrenewableenergyprojectsinMaldives.(Table9.3)

Island Renewableenergysource Capacity

Adh.Mandhoo SolarDieselhybridsystem 12.8kWp PVpanels+108kWhbatterybank

R.Faninu Wind‐Solar‐dieselhybrid 5kWpsolar– 3.5kWwind

B.Goidhoo Wind‐Solar‐dieselhybrid 5kWpsolar– 3.5kWwind

L.Fonadhoo Solar‐dieselhybrid 5kWpSolar

L.Gan Solar‐dieselhybrid 10kWpSolar

HA.Uligamu Solar‐Wind‐diesel/LPGhybridsystem 45kWhybridmini‐gridsystemconsistsof:2.64kWpPV43.2kWWindTurbines

M.Raimandhoo Solar‐Wind‐Dieselhybrid 45kWhybridmini‐gridsystemconsistsof:2.64kWpPVArray+32.4kWwindturbines+Battery

GA.Kondey Solar‐Wind‐DieselHybrid 25kWhybridmini‐gridsystemconsistsof:5.28kWpPVArray+10.8kWwindturbines+BatteryBackup

SonevafushiResort SolarSystem 70Kwpsolararray

K.Girifushi WindSystem 2kWwindturbine

Muliaage SolarSystem 11.1kWpSolarPVGridConnectedSystem

TelecomApplication Solarhybrid Total258kWin174islands

Totalinstalledcapacity Solar:47.8kWpWind:93.4kW

Table9.2:ExistingRenewableenergyprojects

Source:MinistryHousingandEnvironment,2010


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Project Renewableenergysource Capacity

ProjectforCleanEnergyPromotioninMale

SolarPVgridsystem Totalof675kWtobeinstalled395kWofrooftopsolarPVgridconnectedsystembeinginstalledin5publicbuildingsandisexpectedtobecommissionedbyFebruary2011280kWinanother5publicbuildingsisplannedtobeinstalledbyendof2012

GridConnectedPVsystemsin6islands

SolarPVgridsystem Total448kWin6islands

SupplyofelectricityusingREforGreaterMaleRegion

SolarWindHybridsystem 20MWwind+15MWLNGhybridsystemthatwillsupplyenergytoMaleRegion

DhiffushiIsland SolarPVgridsystem 40kWgridconnectedsolarPVsystem

Additionally, Research and Development of Carbon Capture and Sequestration projects

targetingreductioninGHGemission,isatpresentatthedesignstage,withdatacollectionand

preparation of project documents. Corresponding efforts are made towards improving the

standards for energy conservation. Standards for power plants and vehicles have been

established in2009and in2010respectively. Inaddition, a studywascompiledonachieving

fuel conservation and efficiency in different modes of transportation. Incentive schemes are

plannedforestablishingchargingcenterstosupportincreaseuseofelectricvehiclesanduseof

alternative cleaner fuels on existing vehicles.Work is also planned to reduce the supply side

energy losses. Standards are to be prepared to reduce emissions from appliances, and

encouragevesselstousecleanfuels.EnergyusagewithGHGemissions,bydifferentsectorsand

statusofcarbonneutralityistobeestablished

In2011aframeworkforenergyefficiencywasformulatedwhichoutlinesrecommendationsfor

energyefficiency.Foursectorswerestudiedandrecommendationswereoutlinedforachieving

energy efficiency including a framework to regulate and monitor energy usage to promote

protection of the environment and human health. Planned actions include developing,

Table9.3:Ongoingrenewableenergyprojectsbeingimplementedinthecountry



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regulations to facilitatemarketdriven tariffsandcompetitionsencouraging formationof joint

venturestoproduceenergyfromrenewablesourcesandestablishregionalandinterconnected

submarines gridsGuidelines anddesign requirementshavebeendeveloped to ensure energy

efficiency in buildings. In future, buildings will be qualified and certified as energy efficient

building.

Astudyon4resortsoutlinedmeasuresthatcancutdowntheirgreenhousegasemissionby25

percent, and identified the need for detail assessments prior to making general

recommendationsapplicablefortourismsector.Useofdesalinationtechnologybasedonwaste

heatisalsoestimatedtosavearound850tonsofdieseloilperannuminMale',Hulhumale’and

Vilingili. Use of energy efficient equipments and appliances are recommended for the

households and public buildings. In addition, exhaust gases from electric generator sets are

knowntoproducelargeamountofheat(about700degreesCelsiusatfullload),whichisbeing

wastedpresently.Itisrecommendedthatthiswasteheattobeutilizedfordifferentpurposes.

9.3.3 PoliciesandStrategies

The SAP 2009‐2013, theNational Energy Policy 2009‐2013 andNational Energy Action Plan

2009‐2013 of the government provides the contextual background for energy policy of the

country.Electricity is abasic servicewhich thegovernmentplans toprovideat anaffordable

rate.Theproductionanddistributionofelectricityshouldnotcompromisehealthofpeopleand

theenvironment.

With climate change and its associated impacts looming, government targets to make the

countrycarbonneutralby2020andassuchpromotingrenewableenergytechnologyisamajor

intervention. Several activities initiated falls under programs planned for the period 2009‐

2013,andtable9.4showsprogressachieved.


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Strategy/Objective Actions/Program/Activities CurrentStatus

1.Accesstoaffordableandreliableelectricitysuppliesforall

1.Developandincreaseincentivesinformofgrantsandfinancingforpowersectordevelopment,2.Increaseprivatesectorparticipationindevelopingandmanagingsustainableelectricitysupplies3IncreasemorereliableandsafeREbasedelectricity4MaintainElectricityunitpricesinislands5.IncreasesubscriberstoRE‐basedelectricity

1.26loansdisbursedunderrevolvingfundestablishedatMOFT2.SixutilitycompaniesestablishedInitiateandfacilitateprivatesectorpartnershipwithutilitycompanies3.0.20%achievedby2009andcurrentstatustobemeasuredMaintainingaverageUnitpriceconstant(Tariff+surcharge).Currentlypossibilitiesforadoptingfeed‐intariffisbeingexplored0.2%~1%

2.Carbonneutralityachievedby2020

1Standardsestablishedforexhaustemissions,EEappliances,vehiclesandvesselsthatusecleanfuels2.Forecastsofenergyusagebydifferentsectors,GHGemissionsandstatusofcarbonneutralitydeveloped3ResearchandDevelopmentofCarbonCaptureandSequestrationprojectstargetingreductioninGHGemissionincreased4.Demandfordieselfueldecreased

1.Exhaustemissionstandardestablishedforpowerplantsandvehiclesin2009and2010respectively.Amonitoringmechanismwasalsoestablished.2.Energydemandandsupplystudycompletedfor2009,andenergyauditcompleted.Workingontheenergydemandandsupplystudyfor20103.ThedevelopmentofCCStechnology,DatacollectionProjectDocumentpreparationongoing4.‐3%

3.Costreductionthroughenergyefficiencyandenergyconservation

1.Studycompiledonallareasofimprovementstoachievefuelconservationandefficiencyindifferentmodesoftransportation2.Incentiveschemesdevelopedforestablishingchargingcenterstosupportincreaseduseofelectricvehicleanduseofalternatecleanerfuelsonexistingvehicles3.Supplysideenergylossesreduced4.Fuelimportcostreduced

1.Seatransportnetworkcompleted3.reducedtosomeextent4.8percent


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4.Nationalenergysecurityincreasedviadiversifiedenergysource

1.Indigenouslyavailablerenewablesourcesofenergydevelopedforuse,increased2.Studyconductedonenergydemandandsupplyatregional/provinciallevels3.RenewableEnergyCentreestablishedandcoursesonrenewableenergyintroducedinschoolandnationalcollegecurriculum4.Suppliersmandatedtoparticipateasstrategicpartnersinensuringtimely,qualityandquantityavailabilityofrequiredpetroleumproductsatselectedsupplycenters,increased5.Feasibleregionsopenedforfuelmarketforinvestors,increased6.CommunitiesgeneratingtheirownPowersuppliesfromhouseholdwasteandbiofuel,increased7.NonConventionalrenewableEnergy(biogas)installedcapacity,8.Electricityprovisionstohouseholdsthroughconventional/nonconventionalrenewableenergysuppliescreased

2.LocalEnergydemandandsupply20093.REcourseatFETandREkioskestablished4.Proposalstodevelopfuelstorage5.Proposaldeveloped8.Contractsigned,fundsapprovedInstall700kWSolarPV;REprojectatThinadhoo

5.InstitutionalandLegalframeworkoftheenergysector,strengthened

1.Frameworkstoregulateandmonitorenergyusagefocusedonprotectingtheenvironmentandhumanhealthestablished2.Regulationsdevelopedforfacilitatingmarketdriventariffs,competition,encouragingformationofJV,energyproductionfromrenewablesourcesandforestablishingregionalandinterconnectedsubmarinegrids3.Guidelinesanddesignrequirementsforensuringenergyefficiencyinbuildingdeveloped4.Buildingsqualifiedforcertificationasenergyefficient,increased

3.Energyauditsforbuildingscompleted

Table9.4:Policies,programsandstatus–energysector2011



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On May 24 2011 cabinet decided to establish specialist government agency, REIO identify

economic solutions to the country’s energy concerns and expedite implementation of these

solutions. REIO will assist the government to draw up investment plans and proposals for

foreignaidtofacilitateinvestmentsandsupportinalternativeenergyprojectsintheMaldives.

Other functions mandated to the REIO include finding and applying appropriate alternative

energysolutionsandassistingregionalutilitiescompaniesinseekinginvestmentsandcapacity

buildingintheareaofrenewableenergytechnologies.Theotherleadagencyresponsibleforthe

developmentoftheenergysectoristheClimateChangeandEnergyDepartment(CCED)ofthe

MHE.

Energybill isbeingdrafted forsubmission in theparliament.Theauthority is responsible for

approvingtariffproposedbyutilitycompanies. Italsoissues licensestopowerproducersand

regulatestheelectricitysectorandisalsoresponsibleforpreparingengineeringandregulatory

codesandorders.SomeofthesalientfunctionsperformedbyMEAare:

• Determine standards and operating the regulations for the administration and

monitoringofthepowersectorinaccordancewithgovernmentpolicyonenergy

• Develop the regulatory code and standards on the production and use of energy in

Maldiviancontext..

• Issue permits to the parties thatwish to provide electricity services and determine

guidelinesfortariffstructure.

TheAuthoritywas formed inApril2006replacing theMaldivesElectricityBoard.Shortageof

skilledpersonnel is hindering thedevelopment of energy sector.With technical and financial

capacity constraints confronting the sector, the government is relying on the support of the

internationalcommunity.MEAhasreceivedfundingfromWorldBankandAsianDevelopment

Banktostrengthenregulationsandtodevelopstandards.WorkisinitiatedtostartonJanuary

2010.


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10. PostTsunamiStatusofEnvironment

10.1 Introduction

Maldivesishighlyvulnerabletoclimatechangeanditsconsequences,whichwasprovenbythe

Asian Tsunami of 26 December 2004 in which 35% of the 198 inhabited islands were

categorized as high or very high impacted

islands. These islands experienced major

physical damage to infrastructure, crops and

natural vegetation. The damage to natural

vegetationandtotherestoftheenvironment

highlightedexistingthreats.

Thepre‐tsunamisituationoftheenvironment

oftheMaldivescanbeassessed,indetail,from

the State of the Environment Report 2004

(SOE2004),publishedjustaftertheTsunami.Thefollowingchapterwill,highlightsomeofthe

importantimpactsandrecovery.

10.2 Background

ThetsunamicauseddamageanddestructiononanationwidescaleintheMaldives.Eightytwo

peoplediedand26are stillmissingorpresumeddead.Overone‐thirdof thepopulationwas

directlyaffectedbythetsunami,andsome29,000peoplehadtoleavetheirhomes.Allbutnine

Keyfindings

Maldiveshascomealongwayinthetsunamirecoveryefforts

Allislandsareprovidedrainwatertanksafterthetsunamiand52islandshave

desalinationplantsthatcanbeusedinemergencies

Approximately66%oftheislandshaveIWMCsatvariousstagesofoperation

Effortsareunderwaytoinstallhealthysanitationsystems

Lackofcomparativedatamakeitdifficulttogaugerecoveryofcoastalareas

thatwereimpactedbytsunami


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inhabited islandswere either partially orwholly flooded. Seawallswere breached onmost

islands,causingsevereflooding,andinsomecasesislandsweresubmergedandremainedsofor

fewdays.Theeconomicdamageandlossesweretheequivalentof62percentofthecountry’s

GDP. Fifty three islands experienced severe damage to infrastructure and environment.

Floodingwiped out power plants, communication equipments, contaminatedwater supplies,

irrevocablydamagedjetties,harbors,causeways,agriculturallandandequipments,andfishing

vessels and equipment. The tsunami, thus, represented the worst natural disaster in the

country’shistory.

10.3 Pre‐TsunamiStatus

Lack of data compromises the information available for an accurate assessment of the

environment before the tsunami. However, from published reports, before and after, the

tsunamithefollowingcanbehighlighted.

10.3.1 Freshwatersupply

Male’ area (including Vilingili and Hulhumale’) water supply comprises of piped desalinated

water.Intheislands,watersupplycomprisesofcommunalandhouseholdrainwatertanksand

groundwater.SOE(2004)reportedthatpopulationanddevelopmentpressureshaveleadtoan

increasinggroundwaterextraction,resultinginthedepletionofthefreshwaterlens,whichin

turn, has led to salt water intrusion. Further, ground water is at risk from bacterial

contaminationcausedbyaffluentleakagefromsolidwasteandsewagefrompoorlyconstructed

andmaintainedseptictanks.

10.3.2 Sanitation

Sanitationinmostislandsconsistedofpour–flushlatrinesconnectedtoasewagesystemandto

alesserextentdefecatingtoholesmadewithinthehouseholdcompound.Indenselypopulated

islands, themaintenanceofseptictanks iscomplexwithabsenceor limiteddesludging.When

desludged,thematerialisdumpedintothebeachordirectlytosea.Inotherislands,smallbore

systemsusuallyconveyrawsewageintothelagoon.Inmanyislandsseptictanksareconnected

to a soak pit from which sewage migrate to the soil contaminating ground water. Sewage

treatmentinMaldiveswasnon‐existentexceptforresorts.


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10.3.3 Solidwaste

FormalsolidwastedisposalsystemsthatexistedbeforetheTsunamiwerelimitedtoThilafushi,

resortsandindustrialislands,KulhudhufushiandHithadoolandfillsites.Inotherislands,waste

was dumped to a designated area in the island or to the beach; some islands also practiced

regularburningofsolidwaste.

10.4 ImpactsofTsunami

The tsunami was perhaps the worst natural disaster in the known history of the country,

affecting the entire population. The worst impact was loss of family members, resulting in

psychological stress.Almost all facedhealth issues fromdamaged towater systems including

freshwaterwells,anddamagedtorainwaterharvestingequipments,compoundedbythespread

of the solidwaste throughout the islandswashedover and inundated.Other impacts, include

losses (both short and long term) to livelihoods, land and infrastructure. Damage to the

environment could not be easily addressed. Following the Tsunami, UNEP conducted an

environmentalassessmentinFebruary2005.Thisreporthighlightedthefollowing:

10.4.1 Freshwatersupplies

Groundwater lensweresignificantlyaffectedbysaltwater intrusiondirectly into theground

andthroughraisedsealevels.Insomecasesgroundwaterwasforcedupinthewellsandothers

were filledwith saltwater from flooding. In addition, as sewage systems (septic tanks)were

located close to wells, wells were contaminated. Post‐tsunami studies by the government,

reported that freshwater lenswas affected severely through pollutantmigration and sewage

contaminationofgroundwatersources(NRRP,2005).FurtherNRRP(2005)reportedthat the

duration for rehabilitation of the groundwater sourceswas uncertain. Rainwater harvesting

equipmentswerealsodamagedintheworstaffectedislands.

10.4.2 Solidwaste

Tsunami waste was categorized as hazardous waste,

vegetation,soil,sediment;municipalwastefromdump

sites,healthcarewaste,demolitionwaste,oil,leakage

from septic tanks and waste generated by relieve

operations. UNEP (2005) reported that tsunami

created approximately 290,000 cubic meters of

demolitionwasteandestimatedpre‐existingwasteto


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be about 50,000 cubic meters. Much of the waste was dispersed over the affected islands.

Dumpsiteswerecompletelywashedoverinsomeislands.

10.4.3 Sanitation

Extentofdamagetothesanitationsystemsaredirectlylinkedwithnumberofhouseholdsthat

needed repair and/ or reconstruction, which were estimated at approximately 50,000. The

number of septic tanks and associated connections lost to the Tsunamiwas estimated to be

1,500units,whilesmallboresewerandoutfalllossinhighlyaffectedareasneededreplacement

of126kmto2.4kmofoutfall.

Inadditiontotheabove,UNEP(2005)alsohighlightedthefollowing:

10.4.4 Islandvegetation

ADB‐UNJointAssessmentReportstated that thedamage to landandgroundwaterresources

resulted in severe negative impacts on vegetation of 35 agricultural islands and salt water

intrusionintothewaterlensresultedinbrowningofvegetationin112inhabitedislands.MOFA

estimatedthattsunamidamagedfieldcropsin2,103farms;destroyedbackyardcropsin11,678

homesteads and damagedmore than 700,000 fruit trees and 840,000 timber trees (ADB‐UN

2005).

10.4.5 CoastalLandForms

Very little baseline data existed in the Maldives before the Tsunami on coastal land forms.

Therefore,itwasdifficulttodeterminetheimpactoftheTsunamionthecoast.However,known

tsunamiimpactsincludedcompleteislandoverwashtoinundationofislands.Beacherosionof

theislandslocatedclosetotheeasternreefrimwerefoundbesignificantwhetherinhabitedor

otherwise. The tsunami appeared to have worsened chronic shoreline erosion problems in

many islands. In cases where islands were over washed, prominent scarps developed along

western sandy shorelines resulting in deposition of sediment westward into adjacent reef

flat/lagoon areas. Inside the islands, local scour around obstacles such as buildings, and

developmentofthin,patchysedimentdepositswerefound.


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10.4.6 CoastalVegetation

Ironically tsunami related impact on coastal

forest was due to clean‐up operations, which

causedsignificantdamagetocoastal forestona

number of inhabited islands by bulldozing

demolition debris and garbage into and over

thickets of vegetation along the coast. In

addition,becausenativespeciesaresalttolerant,

coastal forests were not affected much except

individual trees without much vegetation

around. In these cases, the treeswere found to

bepushedoveroruprooted.

10.5 Post‐TsunamiRecovery

Almost 7 years after the tsunami, recovery work has been almost finished for some of the

sectors. Communities impacted have revived their livelihoods. Reconstruction of houses and

settlements including redevelopment of public infrastructure are nearly completed. Both

educationandhealthsectorhaverecoveredfromtheimpacts.Informationonalltheseaspects

ofthetsunamirecoveryisavailable.However,informationontherecoveryoftheenvironment

islimited,intermsoftheircomparability.TherehavebeenreportspreparedincludingNAPAof

Action2007,NEAP2009,NSDS2008andvariousDisasterRiskAssessmentsformanyislands.

For a pre‐ and post tsunami status comparison are made with regard to the available

information.


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10.5.1 Freshwater

AftertheTsunami,governmentwithInternationalassistanceprovidedrainwaterstoragetanks

for all islands and desalination plants for some islands. The tables below show the potential

freshwateravailabilityintheatolls.

Atoll Totalstorage/Ltr) TotalRoofArea/m2

HaaAlif 9,600,264 155,671

HaaDhaalu 9,451,685 91,823

Shaviyani 4,339,900 93,944

Noonu 7,713,900 114,181

Raa 7,075,200 132,389

Baa 7,654,000 124,560

Lhaviyani 5,853,460 90,163

Kaafu 4,748,250 128,936

AlifAlif 1,658,800 35,673

AlifDhaalu 4,784,000 66,400

Vaavu 1,490,500 20,740

Meemu 3,673,200 50,031

Faafu 1,930,500 23,919

Dhaalu 2,917,500 40,778

Thaa 7,430,650 155,768

Laamu 6,251,000 174,871

GaafuAlif 6,339,500 359,352

GaafuDhaalu 2,712,800 30,544

Gnaviyani 8,271,000 224,226

Seenu 10,146,500 93,903

Table10.1:Statusofrainwaterharvestingcapability,2011

Source:AnAssessmentofRainwaterCatchmentandStorageCapacityintheMaldives,MHE2011


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Atoll Island PlantCapacity Status

HA Filladhoo 3Ton Notoperational

HA Dhidhdhoo 10Ton Notoperations

Hdh Kulhudhuhfushi NA Operational

Sh Komandoo 50/10Ton Operational

Sh Maroshi 10Ton Operational

Sh Funadhoo 20Ton Operational

N Holhudhoo 10Ton Operational

N Maafaru 10Ton NotOperational

N Velidhoo 10Ton Operational

N Manadhoo 10Ton Operational

R Meedhoo 10Ton NotOperational

R Maduvvari 10Ton NotOperational

R Alifushi 10Ton Operational

R Hulhudhuffaaru 10Ton Operational

R Ungoofaaru 10Ton NotOperational

B Goidhoo 10Ton NotOperational

B Thulhaadhoo 10Ton NotOperational

B Dharavandhoo 10Ton NotOperational

B Hithaadhoo 10Ton Operational

B Kendhoo 10Ton NotOperational

B Eydhafushi 10Ton Operational

Lh Naifaru 30Ton Operational

Lh Hinnavaru 30Ton Operational

K Maafushi 500Ton Operational

K Dhiffushi 10Ton NotOperational

K Guraidhoo 10Ton NotOperational

K Gaafaru 10Ton NotOperational


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K Thulusdhoo 10Ton NotOperational

Atoll Island PlantCapacity Operational

Adh Mahibadhoo 10Ton Operational

Adh Maamingili 30Ton NotOperational

V Keyodhoo 10Ton NotOperational

M Dhiggaru 10Ton NotOperational

M Muli 10Ton Operational

M Kolhufushi 10Ton NotOperational

F Nilandhoo 10Ton NotOperational

Dh Meedhoo 10Ton Operational

Dh Kudahuvadhoo 10Ton NotOperational

TH Buruni 10Ton Operational

TH Dhiyamigili 10Ton Operational

TH Guraidhoo 10Ton NotOperational

TH Madifushi 10Ton Operational

TH Veymandoo 10Ton NA

L Gan 240Ton Operational

L Isdhoo‐Kalaidhoo 10Ton Operational

L Maavah 10Ton NotOperational

GA Villingili 30Ton Operational

GA Dhaandhoo 10Ton Operational

GA Maamendhoo 10Ton NotOperational

GA Kolamaafushi 10Ton Operational

GDh Thinadhoo 160Ton Operational

GDh Gadhdhoo 10Ton Operational

Table10.2:Desalinationcapacityintheislands,2011

Source:MinistryofHousingandEnvironmentnt,2011


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Foramoredetailedassessmentoffreshwatersituation,refertochapter4.

10.5.2 Solidwaste

Ingeneral,thereappeartobeaweaksysteminplaceforwastemanagement.Wastevolumehas

been increasingwith increasing population and development activities. There is however, a

lackofcorrespondingresponsesforeffectiveandadequatesolidwastemanagement.Thilafushi,

themainwastelandfillisawastedisposalfacility.

Thereissomerecyclingdoneatwastecollectionfacilities inMale’andThilafushi.Someofthe

recycled waste, mostly iron, are exported by private exporters. There are 134 IslandWaste

ManagementCentres(IWMCs)intheMaldives,coveringapproximately66%ofislandsbutmost

wereeitherneveroperationalornotoperationalanymore.Islandscontinuetodisposeoftheir

wasteinenvironmentallyunfriendlyandunhealthyways.

There isno formal system for collecting, treatinganddisposingofhazardouswaste,which is

currentlynotconsistentwithenvironmentalandpublichealthrequirements.Atpresent,efforts

to handle and dispose of hazardous waste are minimal, and the country lacks a secure

hazardouswastestorage,treatmentordisposalfacility.

Foramoredetailedassessmentofsolidwastesituation,pleaserefertochapter5.

10.5.3 Sanitation

Sewerage systems have been installed in 27 islands from2005 ‐2011 and during the period,

2009–2011(May2011)13seweragesystemshavebeencompleted indifferent islands.The

new systems consist of sewerage network for the whole island, with pump stations, sewage

treatment facilities and sea outfalls (MHE, 2011). Installation of proper sanitation systems

acrossthecountryisunderway.


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11. Environmentalgovernance

11.1 Introduction

Development in theMaldiveshas alwaysbeena challengedue to thedispersednatureof the

population.Smallislandswithpopulationdispersaltranslatedirectlyintoseverediseconomies

ofscaleinproduction,transportandprovisionofessentialinfrastructureandserviceswiththe

unit cost of schools, hospitals and other social infrastructure typically 4‐5 times higher than

those in continental developing countries. The country’s geography is unique even by the

exceptional standardsof small archipelagoes anddevelopment efforts are constraineddue to

this.

Atpresentthecountryisgoingthroughapoliticaltransitionwiththefirstdemocraticelections

held in November 2008. State level policies are being changed to adhere to a system of

democracy and better governance through decentralization. The country’s political transition

after30years ishavingaprofoundeffectonallsectorsand it isamajorchallengetoprovide

effectiveservices.WiththeDecentralizationActpassed,islandcouncilsandatollscouncilshave

been electedpavingway for decentralization. The political and institutional change, coupled

withvolatileexternaleconomicshocksandwiththedauntingenvironmentalproblemshave

resulted in new and challenging issues magnifying the existing internal socio‐economic

pressures. The ecologically fragile coral atolls with a population of over 300,000 people

Keyfindings

Environmentalgovernanceremainshighonthenationalagendaasthe

countryishighlysusceptibletotheeffectsofclimatechangewithrisingsea

levelsandcoastalerosion.

Bylawstateandthecivilsocietyhasanobligationtoprotectandpreservethe

environment.

Underenvironmentalgovernancetheroleandfunctionsofinternational

organizations,stateandcivilsocietyhavebecomeevermoreimportant

Fundingneedsforclimatechangeandadaptation,wasestimatedatUS$

175,890,345millionandwashighlightedintheMaldivesDonorConferenceof

2010


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scattered over 194 islands is economically dependent on fishing and tourism. Both of these

economicsectorsarefragileandvulnerabletoexternalfactorsandnaturaldisasters.

Maldives is recognizedasoneof themostvulnerablecountries in theworld in thecontextof

climatechangeandsealevelrise.Environmentalgovernanceremainsapriorityontheagenda

as thecountry ishighly susceptible to theeffectsof climatechangewith risingsea levelsand

coastalerosion.Theroleandfunctionsofinternationalorganizations,stateandcivilsocietyhas

become ever more important today. Conservation and protection of the environment is

essentialforsurvivalfortheMaldivesasthechallengesfacingthecountrydirectlyimpactsthe

people,economyandthesociety.


TheStateandthecivilsocietyhaveanobligationtowardsprotectingtheenvironment.Article

22 of the Constitution of the Maldives states that it is a fundamental duty to protect and

preserve the natural environment of the country for the benefit of present and future

generations.TheStateistoundertakeandpromotedesirableeconomicandsocialgoalsthrough

ecologically balanced sustainable development. Article 67 of the constitution states that the

exerciseandenjoymentoffundamentalrightsandfreedomisinseparablefromtheperformance

of responsibilities andduties and that it is the responsibilityof every citizen topreserveand

protect the natural environment, biodiversity resources and beauty of the country and to

abstain from all forms of pollution and ecological degradation. Environment related issues

featurehighontheSAP2009‐2013andsectorpolicydocumentssuchastheNEAP3andNSDS

2009‐2013.

11.2.1StrategicActionPlan2009‐2014

AtthenationalleveldirectionstosustainabledevelopmentareoutlinedintheSAP2009‐2013.

Itcontainskeypoliciesandstrategiesrelatedtothedevelopmentofthecountryincludingthose

addressing environmental issues. The SAP 2009‐2013 recognizes the extraordinary

environmental challenges that Maldives is facing, especially climate change and SLR and its

associatedimpacts.AccordingtoSAP2009‐2013adaptationtoclimatechangeanddisasterrisk

mitigationandmanagementisapriorityofthegovernmentandit isbeingmainstreamedinto

policy making and programming in all sectors of development. The guiding principle of the

environmentpolicyoftheGovernmentistoviewthenaturalenvironmentasthekeytosocio‐

economicdevelopment.Itistoensureprovisionofthefundamentalservicessuchastherightto


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accesstosafedrinkingwaterandsanitationandsafedisposalofsolidwaste.(StrategicAction

Plan,2009,p390)

EnvironmentisaddressedinSAP2009‐2013underthethemeofEconomicDevelopmentwith

cross cutting sectors identified and addressed. Cross cutting sectors are Tourism, Fisheries,

Agriculture, Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs), Employment and human Resource

Development, Environment, Water and Sewerage Services, Energy, Land Reform,

Communication, Science and Technology Gender, Trade and Investment, Disaster Risk

Management, and National Security. Thus mainstreaming environmental protection into all

areasisrecognizedaskeyfocusinthecurrentplannedperiod.

Thegoalsoftheenvironmentalsectorincludesthefollowing

1.ManeuverMaldivesasacentralplayeronclimatechangeglobally.

2.Promotetherightsofallcitizensfromtheimpactsofclimatechange.

3.Protectandpreservethenaturalenvironmenttoensureprosperouseconomicdevelopment.

4.ReduceGHGemissionsandachievecarbonneutrality.

5. Minimize pollution for the development of healthy communities through proper waste

management.

6.Createpublicawarenessonenvironmentalvalues

The main challenges and constraints on ensuring environmental sustainability are also

identifiedasoneoftheweaknesswithinthelegislativeframeworkwithlackofamechanismto

assess and evaluate implementation of the environmental laws and regulations. Inefficient

utilizationof theexistingresourcesanddisparitiesbetweendonor fundsanddonee’ssectoral

needs isalsorecognizedasoneof theweaknesswithin thesectorwithpooraidcoordination

furtheraggravatingtheproblem.Poorinter/intrasectoralcommitmentandcoordinationwith

lackofacommonplatformfordatasharingorinformationdisseminationaremajorconstraints

limitingpropermanagementofthesector.Inaddition,lackofpublicawarenessonenvironment

friendlypracticesandinadequatefinancialresourceshindersthespeedyimplementationofthe

programsandstrategies.

11.2.2NationalEnvironmentActionPlan3

The environmental sector's actionplan is articulated in theNEAP and the sector is currently

guided by third action plan. The inception of the NEAP was in 1989 and it addressed

environmental planning andmanagement needs of the country and represented a combined


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approach to managing and solving the problems pertaining to the environment and

subsequentlyfindingwaysofovercomingtheseproblems.

TheaimoftheNEAPistoprotectandpreservetheenvironmentoftheMaldivesandsustainable

managementoftheresourcesforthecollectivebenefitandenjoymentofthepresentandfuture

generations.Theonusofaiding thegovernment tomaintainand improve theenvironmentof

the country falls within the ambit of the NEAP objectives. It is an expedient to make legal

provisioninordertomaintaincleanandhealthyenvironmentbyminimizingasfaraspossible,

adverseimpactslikelytobecausedfromenvironmentdegradation.

11.2.3NationalStrategyforSustainableDevelopment2009‐2013

In April 2009, environment sector formulated the Maldives NSDS 2009 as the national

document forsustainabledevelopmentwhich includes thegoalofachievingcarbonneutrality

by 2020. It outlines the approach to address climate change, environmental degradation and

resource constraints. The NSDS identifies specific goals, objectives and targets that the

stakeholdershavetoachieveanditincludesindicatorstoassessprogress.Sevenkeygoalsare:

Goal1:Adapttoclimatechange

Goal2:Protectcoralreefs

Goal3:Achievecarbonneutralityinenergy

Goal4:Ensurefoodsecurity

Goal5:Establishacarbonneutraltransportsystem

Goal6:Protectpublichealth

Goal7:Achievefullemploymentandensuresocialsecurity

Other sectoralpolicydocuments formulatedunder specific goals and the themeofprotection

andpreservationofenvironmentalareoutlinedintable11.1

Goal Policydocuments

AdapttoClimatechange

NAPA2007 FirstNationalCommunicationofMaldivestoUNFCCC

ProtectingBiodiversity

NAPA2007 NBSAP‐2010

AchievecarbonneutralityinEnergy

NationalEnergyPolicy ScienceandTechnologyMasterPlan

TechnologyNeedsAssessment


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Ensurefoodsecurity NAPA2007 AgricultureMasterPlan

CarbonNeutraltransportsystem

TransportMasterPlan MaleInternationalAirportMasterplan

AchievePublicHealthNAPA2007 HealthMasterPlan

Sustainabletourism TourismMasterPlan

DisasterManagementMaldivesStrategicNationalActionPlan(SNAP)forDisasterRiskReductionandClimateChangeAdaptation

11.3 Lawsandregulations

The Environment Protection and Preservation Act was passed in 1993 to protect the

environment. The Act provided the framework upon which regulations and policies can be

developedtoprotectandpreservethenaturalenvironmentandresourcesforthebenefitofthe

present and future generations. The Actwas passed to support and promote the protection,

enhancementandprudentuseoftheenvironmentwhilerecognizingthefollowinggoals

Maintainingenvironmentalprotectionisessentialtotheintegrityofecosystems,human

healthandsocio‐economicwellbeingofthesociety

Maintaintheprincipleofsustainabledevelopment,including

Theprincipleofecologicalvalue,ensuringthemaintenanceandrestorationofessential

ecologicalprocessesandpreservationandpreventionoflossofbiologicaldiversity

The precautionary principlewill be used in decisionmaking so thatwhere there are

several threats of serious irreversible damage the lack of full scientific evidence

certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent

environmentaldegradation

The principle of pollution prevention andwaste reduction as the foundation for long

termenvironmentalprotectionincluding,

theconservationandefficientuseofresources

The promotion, development and use of sustainable scientific and technological

innovationsandmanagementsystems

Table11.1:Goalsidentifiedtoprotectandpreservetheenvironmentwithcorrespondingsectoralpolicydocuments



188 |P a g e

Theimportanceofreducing,reusingrecycling

TheprincipleofsharedresponsibilityofallMaldivianstosustaintheenvironmentand

theeconomybothlocallyandgloballythroughindividualandgovernmentactions

The linkage between economic and environmental issues recognizing that long term

economicprosperitydependsuponsoundenvironmentalmanagementandrecognition

thateffectiveenvironmentalprotectiondependsonastrongeconomy

The comprehensive integrationof sustainabledevelopment principles inpublic policy

makinginthecountry

The polluter pay principle confirming the responsibility of anyone who creates an

adverseeffectontheenvironment to takeremedialactionandpay for thecostof that

action

Takingremedialactionandprovidingforrehabilitationtorestoreanadverselyaffected

areaforbeneficialuse

Governmentplayscatalystroleintheareaofenvironmentaleducation,environmental

emergencies, environmental research and the development of policies, standards,

objectivesandguidelinesandothermeasurestoprotecttheenvironment

Encourage the development and use of environmental technologies, innovations and

industries

Provide a responsive, effective, fair and timely and efficient administrative and regulatory

system,recognizingthatwhereverpractical, it isessential topromote, thepurposeof thisAct

primarily through non‐regulatory means such as cooperation, communication, education,

incentivesandpartnerships.

11.4 DisasterManagement

Akeydevelopmentwithin this periodhas been thedrafting of a bill addressingdisaster risk

reductionanddisastermanagement.Thebillwhenpassedintolawwillgrantlegalauthorityto

theactivitiesofNationalDisasterManagementCentre(NDMC)andsupporttheimplementation

of various policies and action plans developed to mitigate and address natural and

environmentaldisasters.

On8June2011,TheGovernmentendorsedthefirstStrategicNationalActionPlan(SNAP)that

integratesDisasterRiskReduction(DRR)andClimateChangeAdaptation(CCA).SNAPconcept

ispreparedinaccordancewiththenecessarystrategicplansandManifestoofthegovernment.

ThenewactionplanwhichplacesDRRandCCAinthedevelopmentplanningoftheMaldivesis


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a collaboration led by of the Government of Maldiveswith support from the United Nations

system in theMaldives and the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction

(UNISDR). SNAP is guided by both the Hyogo Framework of Action, a global blueprint for

reducing disaster risks which was adopted in Kobe Japan in January 2005, as well as the

objectivesoftheUNFCCC.

With consultations with key sectors including housing, construction, environment, health,

education,media,developmentplanningandtourism,SNAPbuildsupon lessons learned from

past disasters. It promotes good governance, empowers local communities, builds resilience,

and promotes risk sensitive regional and local development. SNAP focus on aspects of

governance, and decentralization, as key for successful DRR and CCA.Maldives is one of the

SmallIslandsStatesthreatenedbysealevelriseandstormsurgeswithmorethan1,192coral

isletsthatlieonaveragejust1.5meters(4.8feet)abovesealevel.Awarmerseawilltranslate

intohigherwaterlevelsandwillconsiderablydamagecoral,onwhichtheislandsdependonfor

fishingandtourism.Disasterreductionactioncannowdelaythisinevitableeventbydecades.It

ishopedthatSNAPwillprovideshortandlong‐termstrategicdirectionandactiontoreducethe

risk of disasters and enhance climate change adaptation in the country. It will identify and

present priority programs and projects which the Government, together with partners, may

undertaketoattainthecountry'sDRRandCCAgoals.

NDMC and related government and international agencies have beenworking on addressing

disastermanagementissues.Someoftheprojectsbeingundertakeninclude:

DevelopingaDisasterRiskProfilefortheMaldives

StrengtheningtheInstitutionalandLegalSystemsforDisasterRiskManagement

ReviewofinstitutionalandlegalframeworkforDisasterRiskReductioninMaldives

DisasterManagementandEnvironmentforSustainableDevelopment

CapacityBuildingforCrisisPrevention&RecoveryinMaldives

Strengthening National and Communities’ Capacities for Effective Early Warning

DisseminationandResponses

DisasterRiskReduction(DRR)MainstreamingandDisasterManagementinSchools

DetailedIslandRiskAssessmentinMaldives

DesignSafeSheltersintheMaldives

DetailedCostBenefitAnalysisforRiskMitigationMeasuresinthreeSelected3islands

Procurement and Installation of Early Warning Systems (Automatic Weather

Observation, DopplerWeather Radar, Seismometer,Weather Data Integration System

etc).


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11.5 Roleofthemainstakeholders

Environmental governance requires all stakeholders including international organizations,

governmentinstitution,andcivilsocietytoplayanactiveroleinimplementingthepoliciesand

strategiesformulatedfortheprotectionandpreservationoftheenvironment.Thechallengefor

thegovernmentandthecivilsocietyisfindingabalancebetweeneconomicgrowthandsocial

equity and the conservation and protection of the environment. The Non Governmental

Organizations (NGO) have also progressed,with 700NGOs registered in the country, though

comparativelyfewareregularlyactive.LiveandLearnCountryOfficeintheMaldives,EcoCare

and Blue Peace are notable active NGO’s working towards promotion of greater awareness,

understandingandactiontowardhumanandenvironmentalsustainability.

Foracountrywhichhasembarkedondemocratic reformas recentas2008 thedemandsare

overwhelmingandcritical.Structuraladjustmentprogramhavebeeninitiatedwithatargetto

balance the budget by end of 2010. Key priorities such as social protection and human

development, strengthened infrastructure, efficient and effective delivery of decentralized

services,anddecentemploymentforallarehighontheagenda.

The present government's key pledges for the period 2009 ‐20012 are based on providing

nationwide transport system, affordable living costs, affordable housing, affordable quality

health care and prevention of narcotics abuse and trafficking. The priorities are targeted on

addressing,newand longstandingsocial issuesandnarrowingdown thedisparitiesbetween

the capital Male’ and the outer atolls, and as well as within the atolls themselves. Human

resource capacity constraint in delivering basic services has always been challenge.Maldives

graduated from Least Developed Country to middle‐income status in January 2011, which

entailsarangeofnewchallengesrelatedtoremovalofdevelopmentandtradepreferences.

Withsuchanambitiousdemocraticagendaattheforefront,majorcomponentsofenvironment

protection continue to rely on the international support. Table 11.3 and Fig 11.1, outlines,

national government’s allocated expenditure, for the environment sector. Lack of financial

resourceshindersproperimplementationoftheprogramsandstrategies.


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Particulars 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Totalexpenditure

TotalPublicservices 36.6 35.9 37.8 40.5 38.4 41.4

Publicservice–environmentalprotection

1.7 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2

Socialservices 53.4 49.5 44.4 45.4 50.2 49.5

Acriticalopportunityforsupportwasthedonorconferenceheldin2010.Theforumwasoneof

themostopportunemomentsforinternationaldonorstoassistthecountryinunderscoringits

commitments. Of the five priorities climate change and adaptation was a key area. Climate

change poses an existential threat to the Maldives. Funding for these major environmental

programmes is essential. The following table shows amount of financing sought by the

government, forpriority areas, for thenext threeyearswhich thegovernmenthopes to raise

fromtheinternationalcommunity.

Table11.2:Percentageshareofgovernment’senvironmentalprotectionexpenditurefrombudgets2007‐2011

Source:DepartmentNationalPlanning,2010


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Areas AmountinUS$

TotalAssistancerequested 447,463,904

Budgetsupport 45,000,000

Macroeconomicreform 38,352,877

Publicsectorreform 3.304.752

Socialdevelopment 168,742,702

Governance 14,706,797

Climatechangeandadaptation 175,890,345

‐Waterandsewerage ‐ 43,700,000

‐CoastalProtection ‐ 15,095,500

‐Alternativeenergyprotection ‐ 4,905,820

‐Integrationofcommunities ‐ 112,190,025

11.6 MaldivesintheInternationalArena

Maldivesgiveshighimportancetotakingpartintheinternationalagendaonenvironmentand

assuchMaldivesisamemberofmanyinternationalorganizations,internationalagreementand

treaties. Table 11.4 gives a list of environment related conventions, treaties and agreements

signedandratifiedbytheMaldives

DESCRIPTION

InternationalOrganization/Convention

DATE

Signed,Ratified,Acceded

ENVIRONMENTALGOVERNANCE

1.UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme 15.12.1972

2.SouthAsianCooperationonEnvironmentProgram 10/22/2006

3.SouthAsianAssociationforRegionalCooperation 08/5/1985

4.GlobalEnvironmentalFacility NA

Table11.3:FinancingGaps2010‐2013identifiedfortheMaldivesDonorConference2010

Source:MinistryFinanceandTreasury2010


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5.SouthAsianSeasProgramme NA

POLLUTIONANDCHEMICALS

6.BasalConventionontheControlofTransboundaryMovementofHazardousWasteandtheirDisposal‐22Mar1989,Basel

28.4.1992

7.RotterdamConventiononthePriorInformedConsentProcedureforCertainHazardousChemicalsandPesticidesinInternationalTrade‐10Sept1998,Rotterdam

17.10.2006

8.StockholmConventiononPersistentOrganicPollutants‐ 22May2001Stockhom 17.10.2006

9.Male’Declaration NA

10.IntergovernmentalForumonChemicalSafety NA

StrategicApproachtoInternationalChemicalsManagement SAICAM NA

BIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION

11.ConventiononBiologicalDiversity–5June1992,RiodeJaneiro 9.11.1992

AccessandBenefitSharing NA

SubsidiaryBodyonScientificTechnicalandTechnologicaladvice NA

12.CartagenaProtocolonBiosafetytotheConventiononBiologicalDiversity‐29Jan2000,Montreal

3.9.2002

BiosafetyClearingHouse NA

13.UnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertification,14Oct1994,Paris 3.9.2002

14.Mangroveforthefuture(MFF) NA

OZONELAYERPROTECTION

15.ViennaConventionoftheProtectionoftheOzoneLayer‐22March1985,Vienna 26.041988

MontrealProtocolonSubstancethatDepletestheOzoneLayer‐16September1987,Monteal

16.51986

AmendmenttotheMontrealProtocolonSubstancethatDepletestheOzoneLayer‐29June1990,London

AmendmenttotheMontrealProtocolonSubstancethatDepletestheOzoneLayer‐25November1992,Copenhagen

27.9.2001

AmendmenttotheMontrealProtocolonSubstancethatDepletestheOzoneLayer‐3December1999,Beijing

3.9.2000

CLIMATECHANGEANDENERGY

16.UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)–9May1992,NewYork

9.11.1992

KyotoProtocoltotheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange‐11Dec1997Kyoto

30.12.1998


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17.IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange NA

RELEVANTTOOTHERMINISTRIES

19.WorldHealthOrganization–22July1946NewYork 05.11.1965

20.FoodandAgricultureOrganization 8.11.71

21.UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea‐10Dec1982MontegoBay 7.9.2006

22.InternationalConventiononCivilLiabilityforOilPollutionDamage1969 12.9.1981

Protocol(of1976)totheInternationalConventiononCivilLiabilityforOilPollutionDamage1969

12.9.1981

Protocolof1992toamendInternationalConventiononCivilLiabilityforOilPollutionDamage1969

20.5.2005

23.InternationalConventionontheEstablishmentofanInternationalFundforCompensationforOilPollutionDamage

14.6.81

Protocolof1992toamendInternationalConventionontheEstablishmentofanInternationalFundforCompensationforOilPollutionDamage

20.5.2005

24.InternationalConventionfortheControlandManagementofShipsBallastwaterandSediments

22.6.2005

25.InternationalTreatyonPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture 2.3.2006

26.WMO/ESCAPPanelonTropicalCyclones 21.6.1982

27.UN/Ad‐HocCommitteeontheIndianOcean 8.1980

28.UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganisation(UNESCO) 18.7.1980

29.UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram(UNDP) 21.9.1965

30.UnitedNationsChildrensFund(UNICEF) 6.4.1971

Following is a brief description of the some of the treaties, conventions and agreement for

whichMaldivesisapartyto.

Table11.4:MaldivesInternationalOrganization Participation



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11.6.1BiodiversityandConservation

a.ConventiononBiologicalDiversity

TheConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD)focusesonthefollowingobjectives.

Theconservationofbiologicaldiversity

Thesustainableuseofthecomponentsofbiologicaldiversity

The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic

resources

Under the convention the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) has been

formulatedoutliningthreegoals.Thegoalsareconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversity;

capacity building for biodiversity conservation through a strong governance framework and

improvedknowledgeandunderstanding;andcommunityparticipation,ownershipandsupport

for biodiversity conservation. On November 2010 Maldives released the Fourth National

BiodiversityReportonthestatus,trends,andthreatstobiodiversity.Inadditiontothestatus,

trendsandthreatstobiodiversity,thereportalsohighlightsthestatusofimplementationofthe

NBSAPintheMaldivesandthepresenteffortstomainstreambiodiversityinnational,sectoral

andcross‐sectoralplansofthecountry.

b.TheCartagenaProtocolonBiosafety

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the CBD is an international treaty governing the

movements of living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology from one

country toanother. Itwasadoptedon29 January2000asasupplementaryagreement to the

CBDandenteredintoforceon11September2003.

The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living

modifiedorganismthroughmodernbiotechnology.ThefirmcommitmentoftheMaldivestothe

developmentandsupportof thebiodiversitypolicyhaspavedway for the formulationof the

NationalBiosafetyFramework(NBF)forthecountryin2006.TheNBF,developedwithfinancial

assistance from theGEF, is the result of collaborative efforts undertakenby the ERC and the

UNEP.TheNBFwillenableMaldivestofulfillitsobligationsasaPartytotheCartagenaProtocol

onBiosafety,towhichtheMaldivesjoinedon2September2002.

c.MangrovesFortheFuture

Mangroves For the Future (MFF) is amulti‐agency,multi‐country initiative for the long‐term

conservation and sustainable management of coastal ecosystems such as mangroves, coral

reefs, wetlands, forests, lagoons, estuaries, beaches and sandy shores. MFF focuses on the

countries' worst‐affected by the Tsunami of 29 December 2004, namely, India, Indonesia,


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Maldives, Seychelles, Srilanka and Thailand. The initiative also covers other countries in the

regionthatfacesimilarissues.MFFusesmangrovesasaflagshipforecosystembutisinclusive

ofallcoastalecosystems.

MFF provides a collaborative platform among the many different agencies, sectors, and

countries who are working towards common goal of addressing challenges to coastal

ecosystemsandlivelihoodissues.ThecostsharingagreementbetweentheInternationalUnion

for Conservation of Nature and UNDP Maldives took place in 02 April 2009 for the

implementationofMFFactivitiesinMaldives.SincethentheMFFNationalStrategyandAction

Planhasbeenformulated.

d.UnitedNationConventiontoCombatDesertification

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is formed to

combatdesertificationandtomitigatetheeffectsofdroughtthroughnationalactionprograms

that incorporate long‐termstrategiessupportedby internationalcooperationandpartnership

arrangements.MaldivesaccededtotheUNCCDinSeptember2002.Majorprogramsorprojects

thatcontributetowardsUNCCDincludebuildingcapacityforSLMandmainstreamingSLMinto

thenationaldevelopmentframework.Inaddition,ministriesanddepartmentshaveundertaken

steps forSLMincludingdevelopmentof landpolicyandhave initiatedactivities toestablisha

LandInformationSystem.

11.6.2ClimateChange

a.UnitedNationsFrameworkonClimatechange

MaldivesbecamepartytotheUNFCCCon12thJune1992.Maldivescomesundernon‐Annex1

parties. The National Communication (NC) to UNFCCC is an important strategic tool to help

countriesaligntheirinterestsandprioritiestotheoverallgoalsoftheConvention.Thisisalso

theprincipalinstrumentforhighlightinganddisseminatingclimatechangeconcernstoawider

nationalaudience.ThemainelementsoftheNCareinformationregardingemissionsincluding

reductiononemissions,anddetailsoftheactivitiesthePartyhasundertakentoimplementthe

UNFCCC.ThefirstNCwassubmittedbytheMaldivesinNovember2001.Plansareunderwayto

formulate the project document required to finance the second NC to be submitted to the

UNFCCC.

Maldivesparticipatedinthe16thCOPmeetingheldinCancun,MexicoinDecember2010.This

two‐weekmeetingisthesixteenthConferenceofthe194PartiestotheUNFCCCandthesixth


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meeting of the 192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. By June 2011 Maldives formulated SNAP

guidedbyboththeHyogoFrameworkofAction,aswellastheobjectivesoftheUNFCCC.

b.KyotoProtocol

TheKyotoProtocol(KP)isaninternationalagreementlinkedtotheUNFCCandthemajorgoal

ofKyotoProtocol is tosetbindingtargetsto industrializedcountries forreducinggreenhouse

gas emissions. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto Japan on 11 December 1997 and

enteredintoforceon16thFebruary2005.UndertheKyotoProtocolcountriesmustmeettheir

targets primarily through national measures but offers additional means of meeting their

targets by of way of three market based mechanism including Trading Emissions, Clean

DevelopmentMechanismsandJointImplementation.

In recognition of the possible negative impacts of climate change, sea level rise and

environmental degradation, Maldives played a key role along with Alliance of Small Island

StatesinthenegotiationsleadingtotheKyotoProtocolandbecamethefirstcountrytosignthe

KyotoProtocolon16March1998

11.6.3OzoneLayerProtection

a.ViennaConventionandMontrealProtocol

TheMontrealProtocolonSubstancesThatDeplete theOzoneLayerisdesigned toprotect the

ozonelayerbyphasingouttheproductionofnumeroussubstancesbelievedtoberesponsible

forozonedepletion.Dueto itswidespreadadoptionandimplementation ithasbeenhailedas

anexampleofexceptionalinternationalco‐operation.

MaldiveshastakenvariousstepstoregulateODStocomplywithobligationsundertheMontreal

Protocol. Maldives was able to meet phase‐out targets in advance to schedule applicable to

MaldivesthroughtheRefrigerantManagementPlanandTerminalPhase‐outPlan.InApril2010

HCFC Phase‐out Management Plan was prepared to phase out the HCFC in line with the

commitments.Theplanistophase‐outalluseofHCFCsby2020.

UndertheMontrealProtocolonSubstancethatDepletetheOzoneLayerMaldiveshasprepared

the Country Program in 1993 which was approved by the 10th Meeting of the Executive

Committee. From March 1994 onwards Maldives has implemented six phases of the

Institutional Strengthening program. To phase outODS, primarily CFC’s training program for

refrigeration and air conditioning firms, technicians, customs and enforcement officers,were


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conductedinthelasttenyears.Inaddition,awarenessandinformationoutreachandtechnical

assistanceprojectsforphasing–outODSwithenduserswerecarriedout.

11.6.4PollutionandChemicalrelated

a.BasalConvention

A central goal of the Basel Convention is to protect human health and the environment by

minimizing hazardous waste production through an “integrated life‐cycle approach”, which

involves strong controls from the generation of a hazardous waste to its storage, transport,

treatment,reuse,recycling,recoveryandfinaldisposal.InMaldiveshazardouswasteisdefined

asanywaste that isharmful tohumanhealthandenvironment.By lawdisposalofhazardous

wastewithin the territory ofMaldives is prohibitedwhile no restriction have beenmade on

exportofhazardouswastes.Maldivesrestrictstheimportofhazardouswasteandotherwastes

through Lawno4.93. Strengthening the reduction and elimination ofwaste through national

policiesandstrategiesisacontinuousprocess.BylawEIAaremandatoryfornewdevelopment

projects including those related to industries. Establishment of Basel Convention Regional

CentreforSouthAsiaisbeingplannedunderSACEPactivities.

b Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous

ChemicalsandPesticidesinInternationalTrade

The Rotterdam Convention, is a multilateraltreatyto promote shared responsibilities in

relation to importation of hazardous chemicals. The convention promotes open exchange of

information and calls on exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labeling, include

directionsonsafehandling,andinformpurchasersofanyknownrestrictionsorbans.Signatory

nationscandecidewhethertoalloworbantheimportationofchemicalslistedinthetreaty,and

exportingcountriesareobligedmakesurethatproducerswithintheirjurisdictioncomplywith

thetermsoftheconvention.

In October 2006, Maldives acceded to both the Rotterdam Convention and the Stockholm

Convention. The Prior Informed Consent procedure empowers countries tomake their own

informed decisions on the use and import of pesticides and prevents export of unwanted

pesticides.

c.StockholmConventiononpersistentorganicpollutant

TheStockholmConventiononPersistentOrganicPollutantsisaglobaltreatytoprotecthuman

health and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long

periods, and become widely distributed geographically, accumulating in the fatty tissue of


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humans and wildlife, resulting in adverse effects to human health or to the environment.

Exposure to persistent organic pollutants can lead to serious health effects including certain

cancers,birthdefects,dysfunctionalimmuneandreproductivesystems,greatersusceptibilityto

diseasesandevendiminishedintelligence.MaldivesAccededtotheConventionin2006

d.IntergovernmentalForumonChemicalSafety

Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) provides an open, transparent and

inclusiveforumfordiscussingissuesofcommoninterestandalsonewandemergingissuesin

theareaofsoundmanagementofchemicals.IFCSplaysauniquemulti‐facetedroleasaflexible,

open and transparent brainstorming and bridge‐building forum for Governments,

intergovernmentalorganizationsandnon‐governmentalorganizationsfromtheprivatesector.

This role has facilitated consensus building on issues and actions addressing the sound

management of chemicals. By its efforts it contributes to the implementation of the Strategic

Approach to International ChemicalsManagement (SAICM) and thework of other chemicals‐

relatedinternationalorganizationsandinstitutions.Thepurposeistoprovidepolicyguidance,

developstrategiesinacoordinatedandintegratedmanner,fosterunderstandingofissuesand

promote the required policy. Chemical safety is the prevention of the adverse effects, both

short‐ and long‐term, to humans and the environment from the production, storage,

transportation,useanddisposalofchemicals.

11.6.5EnvironmentalGovernance

a.SouthAsianCooperativeforEnvironmentProgram

SouthAsiaCo‐operativeEnvironmentProgram(SACEP)isaninter‐governmentalorganization,

established in 1982 by the governments of South Asia to promote and support protection,

managementandenhancementoftheenvironmentintheregion.SACEPmembercountriesare

Afghanistan,Bangladesh,Bhutan,India,Maldives,Nepal,PakistanandSriLanka.TheGoverning

Council is responsible for determining policy and programs of SACEP and it oversees these

activities by meeting regularly to review the ongoing programs and to endorse new

recommendations put forward by Secretariat. It consists of one representative from each

memberstateswhowillbeofministerial rank.SACEPsupportsnationalgovernment'sefforts

forenvironmentalprotectionandsustainabledevelopment.

Since itscreation,SACEPhas implementedanumberofprojectsandprogramsintheareasof

environmenteducation,environment legislation,biodiversity,airpollution,andtheprotection

andmanagementofthecoastalenvironment.SACEPisalsosecretariatfortheSouthAsianSeas

Program(SASP).TheMale’Declarationoncontrolandpreventionofairpollutionanditslikely


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trans‐boundaryeffectsforSouthAsiaisasignificanteffortwhichencouragesintergovernmental

cooperation to combat the trans‐boundary air pollution problem. In November 2010, 12th

Governing Council Meeting of the SACEP was undertaken in Colombo, Sri Lanka. Ongoing

programslistedincludepartnershipforcleanerfuelsandvehicles,environmentallysustainable

transport, environmental data, information and management and project on environmental

management.

b.SouthAsianSeasProgram

SASP is a co‐operative partnership, formally adopted in 1995 for the protection and

managementof thesharedmarinewatersandassociatedcoastalecosystemsof fivemaritime

SACEPcountries‐Bangladesh,India,Maldives,PakistanandSriLanka.SACEPSecretariatbased

inColombo,SriLankaisalsoSecretariattotheSASP.

South Asian Seas Program priorities changed significantlywith the December 2004 Tsunami

andpresently,thedevelopmentofstrategiestocopewithnaturaldisastersisthemajorareaof

focus. The Action Plan mandates SASP to focus specifically on Integrated Coastal Zone

Management (ICZM), development and implementation of national and regional oil and

chemical spill contingency planning, human resources development through strengthening

regional centers of excellence and protection of the marine environment from land‐based

activities.However,thisdoesnotprecludeSASPtoventureintootherareasofimportancesuch

as revising the South Asian Seas Action Plan based on current global and regional trends

Additionally,SASPencouragesandassistscountriestoimplementtheirresponsibilitiestowards

differentglobalandregionalconventionsandrelatedprogramsinacoherentandco‐ordinate

manner.


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12.Recommendations

1. StrengthentheEIAprocesswithanemphasisonEIAmonitoring

Developandintroducedatacollectionprotocols

Developandenvironmentaldatabase(GIS)usinginformationfromEIA’s

Developmethodologyforsystematicmonitoringandphaseinthemonitoringframe

work

Establishanenvironmentalinformationdatabasetotrackreportingandother

performancebenchmarks

Completeareviewofexistingpoliciesandlegislationrelevanttoenvironmental

management,includingareviewofexistingEIAregulationandEIAprocess

StrengthenevaluationprocessofEIA’s

Undertakearesourceassessmenttodeterminethelevelofstaffing,trainingandother

supportrequiredtoimplementanefficientandeffectiveEIAmonitoringand

surveillanceprogram

IncreaseEIAawarenessandcapacitybuilding

Publishandannualnationalreportthatprovidesbothquantitativeinsightsintothe

outcomesoftheEIAprocess

StrengthenEIAmonitoringandimplementation

Developenvironmentalguidelinesforselectionofsitesfordevelopmentpurposes

IncreaseskillsofEPA/EIAunitstaffformonitoring

StrengthenpublicparticipationinEIAevaluationandmonitoring

DecentralizeEIAmonitoringandcompliancetoatollcouncils

2. Conserveandsustainabilityusebiologicaldiversityandensuremaximum

ecosystembenefits

Mainstreambiodiversityconservationintoallnationaldevelopmentandsectoral

policies

Definenationalgovernment,provincialandAtollCouncilOfficesandcommunity

responsibilitiesforbiodiversityconservation

Ensurebiodiversityconservationascorecomponentinallprovincialdevelopment

strategies,atolldevelopmentplansandislandlanduseplans

Introduceinformalagreementsandmarketbasedinstrumentsforbiodiversity

conservation

EstablishafullyfunctionalProtectedAreassystemintheMaldivesthatprovides

adequateprotectiontoterrestrialmarine,andmangroveecosystemsthreatenedspecies


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3. Developresilientcommunitiesaddressingimpactsofclimatechange

disastermanagementandcoastalprotection

Developlocallyappropriatecoastalprotectionandfloodcontrolmeasuresininhabited

islands

ProtectINIAandregionalairportsfrompredicatedsealevelriseandwaveinduced

flooding

ReviewnationaladaptationstrategyandprogramsandimplementNAPA

Improvebuildingdesignstoincreaseresilienceandstrengthenenforcementofbuilding

code

Integrateclimatechangerisksintoresilientislandplanning

DeveloptheconceptualandoperationalframeworkfortheResilientIslandProgram

(RIP)throughhareviewofRIPconceptanditscontributiontoDRR

Enhanceadaptivecapacitytomanageclimatechangerelatedriskstofreshwater

availabilitybyappropriatewastewatertreatmenttechnologies

Developclimatechangeadaptationimplementationstrategyformajordevelopment

relatedsectors

Protectionofhumansettlementbycoastalprotectionmeasuresonselectedislands

Increaseengagementofcivilsocietytocombatclimaterisks

ImplementnationalobligationsundertheUNCCC

Reinforceclimatenegotiations

Assesssocio‐economicimpactsofclimatechangeonfisheriesandagriculture

4. Strengthenadaptationandmitigationresponsesforbeacherosionand

developasystemtoassistcommunitieswherelivelihoodandpropertyare

affectedbybeacherosion

Developandintroduceguidelinesforcoastalmodificationtopreventerosion

Implementmeasuresforerosioncontrolinseverelyaffectedislands

Establishafinancingmechanismforbeacherosionandcoastalprotection

Protectionofsettlementsbycoastalprotectionmeasuresonselectedislands

Conductfurtherresearchintoviablealternativeprotectionmeasureswithagreater

appreciationofmorecosteffectivesoftermeasures

EstablishaclimateresearchbodyonintensifyMaldivesMeteorologicalServiceswitha

specificmandatetogatherweatherdataandmodelclimateimpactsfortheMaldives

Ensureaneffectiveearlywarningisimplementedinfullwithadequatecapacityfor

implementationatalllevels


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Developguidelinesforsettlementplanningfor,interalia,buildingcodes,land

reclamation,harbordevelopmentandlanduse,toensurethatanydevelopmentis

sustainableandresilienttoclimatechange

5. Ensuremanagementofsolidwastetopreventimpactonhumanhealthand

environmentthroughapproachesthatareeconomicallyviableandlocally

appropriate

Submittoparliamentabillonwastemanagementthatwouldclearlydelineaterolesand

responsibilitiesatindividuallevel,islandlevel,andatoll,provincialandnationallevel

Developthepolicyandregulatoryframeworkforpublicprivatepartnershipinwaste

managementservices

DevelopIWMConallinhabitedislandsandensurethatthecentersareequippedto

enabletheislandcommunitiestomanagethewaste

DevelopandconstructProvincialSolidWasteManagementFacilitieswithparticular

emphasisonrecoveryandrecycling

EnableestablishmentofwastecollectionandtransferservicesintheProvincesto

removehazardous,residualandrecyclablewastefrominhabitedislandsforsafe

disposal,storageorproceeding

6. Ensureprotectionofpeopleandenvironmentfromhazardouswasteand

chemicals

EstablishaNationalChemicalInformationSystemanddevelopregulationand

guidelinesforsafeuse,handlinganddisposalofalltypesofchemicals

InitiateaHazardousWasteCommunicationinoculationandmovementsystemtomeet

internationalstandards

7. Improveairqualitytosafeguardhumanhealth

EstablishafullyequippedAmbientAirQualityMonitoringStationsindenselypopulated

islands

Undertakemonitoringofemissionsfrompointandmobilesourcesandestablish

standardsforsuchsourcesofpollution

8. Ensureafullyfunctionaldecentralizedenvironmentalgovernancesystem

Definemandateofnational,provincialatollandislandforenvironmentaladministration

Strengthencapacitytoimplementthedecentralizedenvironmentalmandate


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Identifytheappropriateoptionsforfundraisingtoimplementthedecentralized

environmentalsectorresponsibilities

CreatepostofProvincialandAtollEnvironmentOfficers

9. DevelopalowcarboneconomytoachieveCarbonNeutralityby2019

FormulateandestablishandactionplanandlegalframeworktobecomeCarbonNeutral

by2020

Introducerenewablealternativetechnologies

Submittoparliamentabillonreachingcarbonneutralityby2020

Introduceincentivestoprivatesectortoengageinlowcarbonmeasures

Establishapolicytoprovideincentivesforbusinessesinvolvedinprovidingrenewable

sourcesofenergy

Undertakemonitoringofemissionsfrompointofmobilesourcesandestablish

standardsforsuchsourcesofpollution

10. Inculcateenvironmentalvaluesinthesocietyandenableand

environmentallyfriendlylifestyle

Developanddeliverwasteawarenessandtrainingcampaignsthatengageandinform

thecommunity,formalandinformaleducationsectors,themedia,commercialand

industrialenterprisesandgovernmentagenciesaboutthewastemanagementsystem

andpractices

Raiseawarenessaboutimpactsofglobalwarmingclimatechangeandtheimportance

andadvantageofbecomingcarbonneutral.

Source:StrategicActionPlan2009‐2013,DepartmentofNationalPlanning,2009


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13Projects

PROJECTNAME:COASTALPROTECTIONWORKS

SECTORS:Environment

STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:

TheprojectfocusistoprotecttheislandsofMaldivesfromerosion.Thefollowingtableoutlinestheislandsidentifiedfortheprojectandthestatusoftheprojects.

Island/Infrastructure Status

HaDhidhoo initiated

RAlifushi initiated

MDhiggaru initiated

S.HulhudhooMeedhoo initiated

M.Naalaafushi completed

M.Maduvaree completed

M.Dhiggaru ongoing

N.Holhudhoo planned

Ha.Hoarafushi planned

Gn.Foamulaku planned

MaleInternationalAirport planned

PROJECTNAME:DREDGING,RECLAMATIONANDSHOREPROTECTIONWORKSFORTHAATHIMARAFUSHIAIRPORTDEVELOPMENTANDLANDRECLAMATIONPROJECT

SECTOR:Airport,Construction,EnvironmentandLand

STATUS:Planned

SUMMARY:

Anareaof31hectaresisproposedtobereclaimedfortheairportrunwayandotherservices.Another 10 hectares is proposed to be reclaimed as part of an expansion of the existingThimarafush island.A totalof 732mofshoreprotection isproposedtobeconstructedundertheproject.


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PROJECTNAME:MALDIVESPUBLICSECTORINFRASTRUCTUREPROJECT(SHOREPROTECTIONCOMPONENT)

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Planned

PROJECT NAME: RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT ASSISTPROGRAM(REDTAP)

SECTORS:RenewableEnergy

STATUS:Ongoing–Base activities completed, final evaluation pending

SUMMARY:

The RETDAPwill facilitate the promotion of the widespread implementation and ultimately,commercialization of RE technologies (RETs). The project seeks to establish an environmentconducivetotheadoptionandcommercializationofRETsinthecountry.Itinvolvesthedesign,development and implementation of appropriate policies, strategies and interventionsaddressing the fiscal, financial, regulatory, market, technical and information barriers torenewableenergydevelopmentandutilization.

StartDate:March2004

EndDate:November2011

FundingType:Grant

FundingSource:GEF,UNDP

PROJECTNAME:SOLARPOWERSYSTEMFORASMALLISLAND

SECTOR:Electricity,Environment

STATUS:Planned

SUMMARY:SolarHybridandMini‐griddevelopmentforsmallislands.ThisprojectdealswithinstallationandcommissioningofahybridsolarPVsystemintheIslandofK.Dhiffushiwhichwillserveaspilotproject.Theexperiencegainedfromthisexercisewillbeusedtoreplicatesimilarprojectsinothersmallislandsbyencouragingprivatesectorinvestments.Themainobjectivesofthisprojectincludethereductiononthedependencyonfossilfuelsandtomovetowardsthecarbonneutraltarget,producetechnicalcapacityatislandandutilitylevelsininstallationandoperating/maintenance,andcreatingawarenessatnationalandinternational


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levelsregardingglobalwarming,TheprojectisfundedbyADBandGlobalSustainableElectricityPartnership.

PROJECTNAME:HARBOURPROJECTS

SECTOR:Environment–Harbour

STATUS:Ongoing/Completed

SUMMARY:

Island/Infrastructure Status Scope

HaThakandhoo Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline

HaUligamu Ongoing Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline

HaMaarandhoo Completed NA

HdhKuribi Ongoing NA

HdhKumundhoo Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline

HdhNelaidhoo Ongoing NA

HdhFiney Completed NA

HdhKulhudufushi Completed NA

ShFoakaidhoo Planned NA

ShBilehfahi Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline

ShGoidhoo Completed NA

ShNarudhoo Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline

ShMilandhoo Ongoing Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline

NHolhudhoo Planned NA


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NLandhoo Completed NA

NVelidhoo Planned NA

NKudafari Ongoing NA

NKedhikolhudhoo Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline

RRasmaadhoo Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline

RFainu Ongoing NA

RAngolhitheemu Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline

RKinolhos Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline

RMaakurathu Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline

RMeedhoo Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline

RAlifushi Completed NA

RMaduvaree Completed NA

RVaadhoo Completed NA

BHithaadhoo Completed NA

LhKurendhoo Ongoing NA

LhNaifaru Planned NA

LhOlhuvelifushi Completed NA

KMaafushi Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline

KVilingili Completed NA

AARasdhoo Ongoing Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline

AAUkulhas Ongoing NA

AAThoddoo Completed NA


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AdhMaandhoo Planned NA

AdhMahibadhoo Completed NA

MMulah

Delayed

Harbourreconstruction

MMaduwaree Completed NA

MNaalaafushi Completed NA

FBilehdhoo Ongoing NA

FFeeali Planned NA

FMagoodhoo Planned NA

DhBandidhoo Completed NA

DhKudahuvadhoo Planned NA

ThKibidhoo Planned NA

ThVeymandhoo Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline

LMundoo Completed NA

LGan Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline

LMaamendhoo Completed Dredging,constructionofrockboulderbreakwater,constructionofconcretequaywallandfillingofsandbetweenquaywallandoriginalshoreline

GaGemanafushi Planned NA

GaNilandhoo Completed NA

GaKolamaafushi Planned NA

GaMaamendhoo Planned NA

GdhFaresMaathoda Planned NA

GdhHoadhedhoo Planned NA

GdhMadaveli Planned NA

GdhNadalla Completed Dredgingharborchannel

GdhFiyori Completed Dredgingharborbasinandconstructingquaywall

Gn.Fuahmulah Planned Harbourbreakwaterheadrepairproject

SFeydhoo Ongoing NA


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SHithadhoo Ongoing NA

SHulhudhoomeedhoo Ongoing NA

SMaradhooFeydhoo Ongoing NA

PROJECT NAME: PROVIDE 2500 LTR WATER TANKS FOR ALL HOUSES IN 45ISLANDS‐PHASE2

SECTORS:Environment–Utilities/water

STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:

Atoll Island Donor Status

Gdh Thinadhoo MWSC April‐11Completed

Hdh Kulhudhufushi MWSC March‐1Completed

K Maafushi MWSC March‐1Completed

Sh Komandoo Community Completed

Atoll Island Donor

Lh Hinnavaru USAID Ongoing

Ha Dhihdhoo USAID Ongoing

Gdh Gahdhoo AdaptationFund Ongoing

Adh Mahibadhoo AdaptationFund Ongoing

R Dhuvaafaru MWSC ongoing

Ha Ihavandhoo AdaptationFund Ongoing

S Feydhoo SouthernUtilitiesLimited/BiwaterInternational Ongoing

S Hithadhoo Ongoing

S Hulhudhoo Ongoing

S Hulhudhoo‐meedhoo

Ongoing

S Maradhoo Ongoing

S Maradhoo‐feydhoo Ongoing

Gn Fuvahmulah Ongoing


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Aa UkulhasClimatechangetrustfund

Agreementtobesignedshortly

PROJECTNAME: ASSISTANCE FROM GIZ (PROJECT TO BE DESIGNED)

STATUS:PreparatoryWork

SUMMARY

Attempt to develop zero carbon strategy (This project is on hold at present)

StartDate:TBD

EndDate:

FundingType:Grant

FundingSource:GIZ

PROJECTNAME: STRENGTHENING LOW‐CARBON ENERGY ISLAND STRATEGIES

SECTORS:ClimateChange

STATUS:PIFSubmitted

SUMMARY

Strengthennationalcapacitiestoformulateandmanageimplementationofpoliciesandstrategiesforanacceleratedpublic‐privatesectorpartnershipsforthemedium‐andlong‐termdeploymentoflowcarbonenergystrategiesandprograms.Alsoundertheprojectinvestmentswouldbemadeonenergyefficientinvestments

StartDate:2012

EndDate:

FundingType:Grant

FundingSource:GEF

PROJECT NAME: INCREASING CLIMATE RESILIENCE THROUGH AN INTEGRATED WATERRESOURCEMANAGEMENT PROGRAMME ( INHA. IHAVANDHOO,ADH.MAHIBADHOOANDGDH.GADHDHOOISLAND

SECTORS:ClimateChange



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SUMMARY:

The objective of this project is to ensure reliable and safe freshwater supply for MaldiviancommunitiesthroughtherolloutofanintegratedwaterresourcemanagementprograminHA.Ihavandhoo,ADh.MahibadhooandGDh.Gadhdhoo.Theprojectwillensureconsistent,safeandequitableaccessofall islandcommunitiestosafefreshwater inachangingclimate.Throughatargeted mix of the following investments, the project will address the effects of variablerainfall, extreme weather events, salinization and pollution of aquifers:Establishment of a sustainable freshwater supply system that incorporates and integratesrainwaterharvestinganddesalinationtechnology

Improvement of groundwater quality through artificial groundwater recharge andbetterintegrationbetweenfreshwaterandwastewatermanagement

Increasing community participation in the development, allocation andmonitoring offreshwateruseinachangingclimate

Replicationandupscalingofclimate‐resilientfreshwatermanagementStartDate:Quarter4of2011

EndDate:NA

FundingType:Grant

FundingSource:AdaptationFundBoard

PROJECT NAME: MALDIVES PUBLIC SERVICES INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECT‐SEWERAGESYSTEM

SECTORS:Environment–Utilities

STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:

Atoll Island Donor Typeofsystem Status

L Isdhoo/Isdhoo‐Kalaidhoo

JICA SmallBoreSewer

Completed‐September‐07

K HuraPrivate

ConventionalGravitySystem

Completed‐2008

HDH Kulhudhuffishi GOM ConventionalGravitySystem

Completed‐Mar‐10

TH Guraidhoo ADBgrant SmallBoreSewer

Completed‐May‐08

L Dhanbidhoo UNDP SmallBoreSewer

Completed‐Jul‐08

R Dhuvaafaru IFRC SmallBoreSewer

Completed‐July‐08

K Maafushi IFRC/ARC SmallBoreSewer



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K Guraidhoo IFRC/ARC SmallBoreSewer


DH Kudahuvadhoo IFRC/ARC SmallBoreSewer

‐Completed‐Jul‐08

TH Vilufushi BritishRedCross ConventionalGravitySystem


R Ungoofaaru UNICEF Completed‐Feb‐09

N Manadhoo UNICEF VacuumSystem Completed‐Feb‐09

F Nilandhoo UNICEF VacuumSystem Completed‐Feb‐09

DH Meedhoo UNICEF VacuumSystem Completed‐Mar‐09

AA Rasdhoo USStateDept ConventionalGravitySystem

Completed‐April‐10

HA Dhihdhoo USStateDept ConventionalGravitySystem

Completed‐July‐10

GA VillingiliAmericanRedCross

SmallBoreSewer

Completed‐May‐10

GA DhaandhooAmericanRedCross

SmallBoreSewer

Completed‐June‐10

M MuliJBICLoan


Completed‐September‐10

SH FunadhooJBICLoan


Completed‐October‐10

B EydhafushiJBICLoan


Completed‐October‐10

TH Thimarafushi KuwaitFundloan ConventionalGravitySystem

Completed‐January‐11

LH Hinnavaru KuwaitFundloan ConventionalGravitySystem

Completed‐January‐11

V Felidhoo USStateDept ConventionalGravitySystem

Completed‐May10

B Kudarikilu Community Completed—2008

K Gulhi

Completed

Aa Thoddoo SEK/MNDF/GOVT.

Ongoing


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L Gan AFDLoan

Ongoing

Gdh Thinadhoo AFDLoan

Ongoing

Adh Mahibadhoo ADBLoan

Ongoing

L Fonadhoo ADBLoan

Ongoing

S Feydhoo SouthernUtilitiesLimited/BiwaterInternational Ongoing

S Hithadhoo

Ongoing

S Hulhudhoo

Ongoing

S Hulhudhoo‐meedhoo

Ongoing

S Maradhoo

Ongoing

S Maradhoo‐feydhoo

Ongoing

Gn Fuvahmulah

Ongoing

N Miladhoo

WorkscorporationLtd

Ongoing

M Kolhufushi AbuDhabiFund Ongoing


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PROJECTNAME:SUPPORTTOREHABILITATETHETAROFEILDONGDH.FIYOARI

SECTORS:AgricultureandEnvironment

STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:

Todeviceandimplementanappropriatesystem/mechanismforthedrainageofsaltwaterfromtheaffectedareasoastoprovidebetterprotectionandsecurityforthecommunityfromisland‐wideflooding,andtherebyminimizeeconomiclossesbyminimizingdamagetotheTarofieldsandothervegetation,propertyandinfrastructureintheislands.

Theobjectivesare; RestorethelivelihoodsoftheFiyoarifarmingcommunity. Protect the islands’ indigenous vegetation, private and public property and

infrastructurefromthefuturefloodsrelatedtostormsurges. Managefloodsintheaftermathofstormsurgesthroughaproperdrainagesystem. Increaseproductionofsedge(hau)inGdh.Fiyoari.

PROJECTNAME:LEASEOFUNINHABITEDISLANDSFORENVIRONMENTPURPOSES

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Ongoing

PROJECTNAME:HUVANICONTROLPROGRAM

SECTOR:Agriculture,Environment

STATUS:Ongoing

PROJECTNAME:EMERGENCYPESTCONTROL

SECTOR:Agriculture,Environment

STATUS:Ongoing


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PROJECTNAME:MALDIVESCLIMATECHANGEMAPPINGPROJECT

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:

The general aim of the program is acquisition of environmental data, setting up tools anddevelopingindicatorstofacilitateevaluationandmonitoringoftheeffectsofclimatechangeintheMaldivesarchipelago.

Thespecificobjectivesareasfollows:

Nationalcapacity‐buildingintermsofinformationmanagementandthemonitoringofclimatechangeissues

Acquiringandprocessingenvironmentaldata Research&Development:_Monitoringmethodsandactionstoadjusttoclimatechange CreationoftheMaldivesEnvironmentandClimateChangeGeoportal

StartDate:Jan‐10

EndDate:Jun‐11

FundingType:Grant

FundingSource:AgentFranchicedeDevelopment(A.F.D)

PROJECT NAME: SECOND NATIONAL COMMUNICATION UNDER NATIONALOBLIGATIONTOUNFCCC

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:ProjectDocumentFormulationComplete

SUMMARY:

FulfillingtheobligationtoUNFCCCbyreportingnationalcircumstancesonaperiodbasisUnderthisGHGinventoryandCCvulnerabilityassessmentwouldbecarriedout

StartDate:January2011

EndDate:NA

FundingType:Grant

FundingSource:GEF


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PROJECT NAME: IMPACT2C ‐ QUANTIFYING THE IMAPCTS OF 2 DEGREE CELIUSTEMPERATURERISE

SECTOR:Environment


SUMMARY:

Thisprojectfocusesonclimatechangeimpact,vulnerabilityandadaptationduetoaglobalaveragedsurfacetemperaturechangeof2°C(andifappropriateof1.5°C)frompre‐industriallevelforthecoastalregionsofsmallislands.Thisisachievedby; Analyzingsea‐levelimpactsusingaclimateimpactsmodel(DIVA),withafocusonsmall

islands Understandingtoday’sproblemsandengineeringsolutionstoprotectsmallislandssuchas

theMaldives,usingacasestudyofselectislands. Usingcasestudyislands,analysisfloodingandsubmergencethroughGISandpossible

adaptationoptions Investigatingotherclimateaspectsofcoastalchange.

StartDate:October‐11

EndDate:October‐14

FundingType:Grant

FundingSource:European Union

PROJECTNAME:ADBENERGYREGULATORYTECHNICALASSISTANCE

SECTOR:Environment


SUMMARY:

StartDate:November‐11

EndDate:

FundingType:Grant

FundingSource:ADB


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PROJECTNAME:INTEGRATINGCLIMATECHANGERISKINTOISLANDPLANNINGINTHEMALDIVES

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:

Themainobjectiveoftheprojectistoanalyzerisksofclimatechangeandexistingmeasurestocounter impacts of climate change in the islands. The project involves assessment of climaterisks and existing adaptation options and its effectiveness in Maldives, capacity building ofisland administrators, development of guidelines on coastal protection activities anddemonstration of soft and hard adaptationmeasures. Project also focuses of on streamlininginformationdisseminationofclimatechangeinformationtothepublicStartDate:Feb‐10

EndDate:Mar‐14

FundingType:Grant

FundingSource:GEF‐LDCF

PROJECTNAME:WETLANDCONSERVATIONANDCORALREEFMONITORINGFORADAPTATONTOCLIMATECHANGE(WCCM)

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Planned

SUMMARYThemainaimoftheWCCMprojectistocontributetotheclimatechangeadaptationcapacityoftheRepublicofMaldivesinthecontextofwetlandandcoralreefmanagement.Accordingly,thisprojecthastwodevelopmentobjectives.

Twocommunity‐basedwetlandmanagementplans(CBWMP)areapprovedandunderimplementation.Atleastfivetouristresortsproducedata(baselineandonemonitoring)oncoralreefhealth.

Theimplementationperiodofthisprojectis18months.Duetotheshortduration,andpilotnatureoftheWCCMproject,theindicatorscaptureintermediateoutcomes.


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PROJECTNAME:GEOMAGNETICPROJECT

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Planned

SUMMARY:

Thescopeoftheprojectistostudyionosphericcurrentsystems(spaceweathereffects)andtostudycrustleanduppermantleelectricalconductivityintheregion.Theprojectalsofocusestoprovidedataforinternationalgeomagneticcommunity

Objectives:

ToinstallandmaintenanceofageomagneticobservatoryinS.GanandalsotrainingandeducationofyoungMaldivianscientiststomeasureprocessandanalyzegeomagneticdata

PROJECTNAME:REDUCEIMPACTSOFCLIMATECHANGEDRIVENDEGRADATIONTHROUGHPROTECTIONANDCONSERVATIONOFMANGROVEANDWETLANDECOSYSTEM

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Planned

SUMMARY:

ThetwowetlandswillbeidentifiedfromthefollowinginconsultationwiththeLocalCouncils:Hithadhoo’sEidhigaliKilhi(updatingofCBWMP);Hithadhoo’sSouthernWetlandArea[MaamendhooKulhiandFeheleKulhi],Fuvahmulah’sFuvahmulakuBandaraKulhiandDhandiMaguKulhi)developmentofCBWMP

PROJECTNAME:HCFCPHASEOUTMANAGEMENTPHASEOUTPLAN

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:

Theactivitiesoftheprojectinclude

HCFCphaseoutpolicies&enforcement(HPP) Promotionofozoneclimateco‐benefits. Enhancedawarenessandoutreach PlanforgradualreductionofHCFCs


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PROJECTNAME:MALDIVESENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENTPROJECT(MEMP)

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:

ThegeneralaimofMEMPistoupgradesolidwastemanagementintheNorthandNorthCentralProvince.TheMEMPmainobjectivesare

ToconstructaRegionalWasteManagementFacility(RWMF)andtheassociatedwastemanagementandcollectioninfrastructureinthevariousislandsandatoll.

TostrengthenthecapacityforenvironmentalmanagementintheMaldivesattheislandlevel

TheProjecthasfour(4)componentswhichinclude:

RegionalSolidWasteManagementProgram RegionalEnvironmentAssessment; EnvironmentalcapacityandHumanResourceInitiative;and ProjectManagementandprojectCommunications

PROJECTNAME:NATIONALCAPACITYSELFASSESSMENTFORGLOBALENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENT

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Ongoing

PROJECTNAME:NATIONALECONOMICENVIRONMENTDEVELOPMENTSTUDIES

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Completed

SUMMARY

Theproposedstudyintendstobridgethegapbetweeninitiativesintheclimatedomainandthenationaldevelopmentplan.Thisstudywillenablethegovernmenttoidentifyfinancingneedstoimplementmitigationandadaptationmeasuresinkeyeconomicsectorsandtoidentifyfinancialinstrumentsandpoliciesthatwillsupporttheimplementationofthesemeasures.ThemainobjectivesoftheproposedworkaretosupporttheGovernmentofMaldivesinthefollowingareas;

Toselectkeysectorsforclimatechangemitigationandadaptationmeasuresbasedonprioritiesidentifiedinthesecondnationalcommunications,NAPAandthecountry’s


221 |P a g e

nationaldevelopmentplan(s)toserveasbasisforthefinancialneedsassessments.

Toassessfinancingneedsrequiredtoaddressmitigationandadaptationmeasuresinselectedkeysectorsandtoidentifyappropriatefinancialandregulatoryinstrumentstosupportthem

Toraiseawarenessandfacilitateinformedconsensusamonggovernmentagenciesonpolicy

actionsrequiredtomobilizefinanceandinvestmentStartDate:Mar‐10

EndDate:May‐10

FundingType:Grant

FundingSource:UNFCCC

PROJECTNAME:SMALLSCALEFUNDINGAGREEMENT

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:NA

PROJECTNAME:PREPARATIONOFNATIONALADAPTATIONPLANOFACTION

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Completed

SUMMARY:NA

PROJECTNAME:ETHICSANDINTEGRITY

SECTOR:Environment,HumanResourceDevelopment

STATUS:Completed

SUMMARY:NA


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PROJECTNAME:STRATEGICSUSTAINABILITYMASTERPLAN

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Planned

SUMMARY:NA

PROJECTNAME:NATIONALASSESSMENTREPORT

SECTOR:Environment,

STATUS:Completed

SUMMARY

National Assessment Report is the reporting mechanism under the Mauritaus StrategyImplementation(MSI)+5.ItoutlinestheachievementoftheMDGwithrespecttoMSIStartDate:April 2010

EndDate:September‐2010

FundingType:Grant

FundingSource:UNDP

PROJECTNAME:OUTERISLANDELETRIFICATIONPROJECT(OIEP)

SECTOR:Energy

STATUS:Completed

SUMMARY

UpgradeornewlyinstallElectrificationsystemsfor20+islandsStartDate:April2010

EndDate:December2010

FundingType:Loan

FundingSource:ADBandGovernmentofMaldives


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PROJECTNAME:CLEANENERGYMALDIVESSECTOR:Energy

STATUS:InProgress

SUMMARY:NA

StartDate:January2011

EndDate:

FundingType:Grant

FundingSource:JapaneseGovernment

PROJECTNAME:SCALING UP OF RENEWABLE ENERGY PROGRAM

SECTOR:Energy

STATUS:InProgress

SUMMARY

TheGovernmentofMaldivesisdevelopinganationalcleanenergyinvestmentplanforachievingthecarbonneutralitygoalandincreasingthepenetrationofrenewableenergyforpowergeneration.TheSREPIPwillbeamajorcontributortothenationalplanandwillidentifySREPinterventionsforachievingtheMaldivescleanenergygoals.StartDate:May2011

EndDate:May2016

FundingType:Grant

FundingSource:CIF

PROJECTNAME:SOLARGRIDCONNECTEDSYSTEMFORSMALLISLAND(DHIFFUSHI40KWPROJECT

SECTOR:Energy

STATUS:InProgress

SUMMARY

Kansaiasaleaderofe8projectinstallthePVsysteminMaldiveswhichwillbethepilotprojectfollowedbytheexpandinginstallationofPVsystemsallovertheMaldives,byutilizingADBfund.Moreconcretelyaboutthepilotproject,PVsystemuptomaxabout40kW(samelevelasTuvalu


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Projecttousethelessonlearnedthen)willbeinstalledtothelocalisland(Dhiffushi)whosemax

demandisabout100kW～300kW,andoperatedcooperativelywiththeexistingdieselgenerators.ThatwillcontributetothereductionofCO2emissionandthecurtailmentfordieselfuelexpense.StartDate:September2011

EndDate:Marc2013

FundingType:

FundingSource:ADBincollaborationwithGlobalSustainableElectricityPartnership(GSEP)

PROJECTNAME:DANIDAGREENFACILITY

SECTOR:ClimateChange

STATUS:InProgress

SUMMARY

TheDANIDAGreenFacilityPhaseIIaimsatcreatinganumberofCDMprojectsintheMaldivesand enabling The Maldives to fully participate in the global carbon marketObjectives and expected results of the project includes:TheMaldiveswill be able to identify, design, approve, financewhere appropriate, implementandmonitorCDMprojectsthatbothaddresstheircountry’ssustainabledevelopmentprioritiesandofferacost‐effectiveoptionforcarboncreditbuyerstocomplywiththeirobligationsundertheKyotoProtocol.

StartDate:September2011EndDate:Dec2013

FundingType:Grant

FundingSource:DANIDA

StartDate:September2011EndDate:Dec2013

FundingType:Grant

FundingSource:DANIDA


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PROJECTNAME:PREPERATIONOFFOURTHNATIONALNATIONALREPORTTOCBD

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Completed

SUMMARY

The project was funded by GEF ,the report is based on the status of Biodiversity ,threats toBiodiversity,trendsinbiodiversityandtheeffortsinconservationofbiodiversity.

PROJECTNAME:ATOLLECOSYSTEM‐BASEDCONSERVATIONOFGLOBALLYSIGNIFICANTBIOLOGICALDIVERSITYINTHEMALDIVES‐BAAATOLL

SECTOR:EnvironmentandAgriculture

STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:

Theprojectobjectives:TomainstreambiodiversityintomajorinstitutionsandpoliciesToestablishmodelsustainablebiodiversityconservationpracticesinBaaAtollthroughstakeholderinvolvementTopilotsustainablenaturalresourcemanagementandlivelihooddevelopmentpracticesinBaaAtollthroughstakeholderinvolvement.

PROJECTNAME:SUPPORTINGCOUNTRYACTIONONTHECBOPROGRAMONTHEWORKONPROTECTEDAREAS

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:

Scopingtherequirementsandestablishingthemechanismsfordevelopingaprotectedareassystemplananddevelopingcapacitytomanageexistingprotectedareasbasedonappropriateformsofgovernancethatgeneratepositiveincentivestosupporttheirlongtermintegrityandmaintenance


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PROJECTNAME:SUPPORTINGCOUNTRYACTIONONTHECBDPROGRAMOFWORKONPROTECTEDAREAS

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:

TheprotectedareasofofB.Hithaadhoo,AA.HurasdhooandMayathilaisthefocusoftheproject.

Theprojectobjectives:

Toscopingtherequirementstoestablishthemechanismfordevelopingprotectedareas

Toplananddevelopcapacitytomanageexistingprotectedareasbasedonappropriateformofgovernancethatgeneratepositiveincentivestosupporttheirlong‐termintegrityandmaintenance

PROJECTNAME:MONITORINGCORALREEFECOSYSTEMHEALTH

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Planned

SUMMARY:NA

PROJECTNAME:STRENGTHENINGNATIONALANDCOMMUNITIESCAPACITIESFOREFFECTIVEEARLYWARNINGDISSEMINATIONANDRESPONSE

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:NA


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PROJECTNAME:ESTABLISHMENTOFREGIONALINTERGRATEDMULTIHAZARDEARLYWARNINGSYSTEM

SECTOR:Environment,InformationCommunicationTechnology

STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:

Developingandsustainingregionalearlywarningarrangementsamong26countriesinAfricaand Asia against tsunami and hydro meteorological hazards. The collaborating countries tocontributeresourcestowardssustainingtheregionalarrangementsformultihazardwarnings

Theprojectobjectivesare

To facilitate establishment andmaintenance of core regional observation andmonitoringnetworksandensuredataavailabilityforearlywarningpurposes.

To provide research and development support to national meteorological hydrologicalservicesforprovidinglocalizedhydro‐meteorologicalriskinformation

Toenhance thecapacitiesofnational systems to respond toearlywarning informationofvariousleadtimesatnational,subnational,localandatriskcommunitylevelswithineachnationalearlywarningframework

PROJECTNAME:ESTABLISHMENTOFNATIONALEARLYWARNINGSYSTEM(Phase2)


STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY

Toestablishandmaintainareliablemeteorological,seismologicalnetworktoprovideaccurateweather,earthquakeandtsunamirelatedinformation/warningtothecountry.

Theprojectobjectives:

Toinstallmeteorological,seismologicalequipmenttomonitor,analyzeandforecastweatherrelatedphenomenonandtomonitorandanalyzeoceanographiceventsinthecountry.


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PROJECTNAME:ESTABLISHMENTOFNATIONALEARLYWARNINGSYSTEMPHASE1


STATUS:Completed

SUMMARY:

Undertheprojectthefollowinginstallationswereundertaken weatherradarsystemswereinstalledinnMaldivesMeteorologicalservices, ashortperiodseismometer2automaticweatherstationsinBDharavandhooandF

Nilandhoo GlobalTelecommunicationSystemwasupgradedandaMeteosatReceivingSystemwas

installed

PROJECTNAME:SOUTHARIATOLLWASTEMANAGEMENTPROJECT

SECTOR:Environment–wastemanagement

STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:NA

PROJECTNAME:HULHUMALEWASTEYARDDEVELOPMENTPROJECT2010

SECTOR:WasteManagement

STATUS:Completed

SUMMARY:NA

PROJECTNAME:TOURISMSECURITYPROJECT

Sectors:Tourism,Environment,JudicialServices

STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:

Thefocusisto developandenhanceTourismPoliceUnit whichwasestablishedin29March2009withdraftingupregulationtoenhancetourismsecurity.


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PROJECTNAME:CAPACITYBUILDINGANDMAINSTREAMINGSUSTAINABLELANDMANAGEMENTINTHEMALDIVES

SECTOR:Environment

STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:

Projectobjectivesare

Institutionalcapacitybuilding Policiesandreputationalframework National/Sectoralpoliciesandregionalplanning FormulationofNAP

PROJECTNAME:RECLAMATIONGADHAANDHOO

SECTOR:Environment–Land

STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:NA

PROJECTNAME:CONSULTANCYWORKFORS.GANLANDUSEPREPERATION


STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:NA

PROJECTNAME:LANDMANAGEMENTDATABASEPROJECT


STATUS:Ongoing

SUMMARY:NA

Source:http://isles.egov.mv/

MinistryofHousingandEnvironment


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