Post on 20-Jan-2016
From Scarcity to VisibilityGender Differences in the Careers of
Doctoral Scientists and Engineers
J. Scott LongDepartment of Sociology
Indiana University
April 27, 2002
Board on Physics and Astronomy
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 2
From Scarcity to VisibilityGender Differences in the Careers of
Doctoral Scientists and Engineers
Panel for the Study of Gender Differences in the Career Outcomes of Science and Engineering Ph.D.s. (PCOMs)
“...to gain a better understanding of the ways in which the careers of men and women in science and
engineering differ, the ways in which they are similar, and the changes that have occurred since 1973.”
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 3
Is 1973 the start of a new era?
... starting in 1968 and essentially complete by 1972, there was a legal revolution in women’s education and employment rights. It promised, even seemed to guarantee, broad ramifications for women’s careers in science and engineering, but its full implementation would require many battles in the years ahead. One era had ended and a new, more equitable one was beginning.
Margaret W. Rossiter Women Scientists in America, 1995
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 4
The data
• Sources: Survey of Doctorate Recipients; Survey of Earned Doctorates
• Years: 1973, 1979, 1989, and 1995; limited data from 1999
• Broad Fields: engineering, mathematical sciences, physical sciences, life sciences, and social/behavioral sciences
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 5
Percent of PhDs to women
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Engineering Mathematics PhysicalSciences
LifeSciences
Social/BehavioralSciences
% o
f P
hDs
to w
omen
1973 1979 1989 1995 1999
20 years
Figure 3.5, p.38Figure 3.5, p.38
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 6
% of PhDs to women: physical sciences
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Physical Sciences Physics Astronomy
% o
f PhD
s to
wom
en1973 1979 1989 1995 1999
jslong:
OK as per JV on 4/9/02; tab 3.5&4.2
jslong:
OK as per JV on 4/9/02; tab 3.5&4.2
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 7
# of PhDs to women
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Physics Astronomy
# of
PhD
s to
wom
en1973 1979 1989 1995 1999
jslong:
Tab 4.2%3.5; revised with new data from JV on 9ap02.
jslong:
Tab 4.2%3.5; revised with new data from JV on 9ap02.
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 8
Entry into the labor force
PhD Less than full employment
Full time S&E employment
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 9
From PhD to the labor force
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1973 1979 1989 1995
% f
emal
eNew PhDs Full Time in S&E
20
33
7
13
Figure 4.1, p. 64.Figure 4.1, p. 64.
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 10
PhDs and FT labor force
Number of women is listed at top of bars
0
5
10
15
20
25
PhD FT labor force PhD FT labor force
% fe
mal
e1973 1979 1989 1995 1999
Astronomy Physics
jslong:
4.2&3.6 from JV 4/9/02
jslong:
4.2&3.6 from JV 4/9/02
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 11
Less than full employment
0
5
10
15
20
25
1973 1979 1989 1995 1973 1979 1989 1995
Men Women
Per
cent
Part time Seeking work Not seeking work
4
1411
4
5
4
Figure 4.5, p.81Figure 4.5, p.81
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 12
Marital Status
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
% m
arrie
d
Men Women
Year of PhD
3-23 p583-23 p58
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 13
Young children in 1995
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Years since PhD
% o
f mar
ried
with
you
ng c
hild
ren
Men Women
3.24 p583.24 p58
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 14
Family as reason for PT work
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 5 10 15 20 25
Years since PhD
% c
iting
fam
ily a
s re
ason
for
part
tim
e
Men Women
4-12 p904-12 p90
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 15
Family & full time work for women
50
60
70
80
90
100
Single Married Olderchildren
Youngerchildren
% o
f wom
en w
ith F
T e
mpl
oym
ent
1979 1989 1995
Figure 3.5, p.38Figure 3.5, p.38
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 16
Family & full time work - 1995
50
60
70
80
90
100
Men Women
% w
ith fu
ll tim
e e
mpl
oym
ent
Single Married Older children Younger children
9488
80
71
94
Figure 4-13, p. 92Figure 4-13, p. 92
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 17
Family & LFP for women
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Full TimePart Time
Not SeekingWork
Seeking Work
% if
sin
gle
- %
if s
mal
l chi
ldre
n1979 1989 1995
Morelikely ifsingle
Lesslikely ifsingle
4-15 p934-15 p93
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 18
Family & work experience 1989
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
5 10 15 20
Years since PhD
Yea
rs le
ss w
ork
for
wom
enSingle Married Children
4-18 p984-18 p98
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 19
Steps in the academic career
PhD
Tenured
Full professor
On-track
Off-track
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 20
Academic LF: Physical Sciences
0
5
10
15
20
25
11+ years from PhD 1-10 years from PhD
% fe
mal
e
1973 1979 1989 1995
Figure 3.5, p.38Figure 3.5, p.38
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 21
The faculty and the unfaculty
Female research associates represented a good investment. They were skilled, low cost, and grateful for the work.
Mary Frank Fox
The Outer Circle, 1991
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 22
On the tenure track
Figure 6.13, p.146 – revised 3/28/02
Figure 6.13, p.146 – revised 3/28/02
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Men Women
% o
n T
enur
e T
rack
1979 1989 1995 1999
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 23
Gender comparisons of outcomes
% of men with outcome = 35%
- % of women with outcome = 25%Percentage point difference = 10%
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 24
On the tenure track (if in FTLF)
0
3
6
9
12
15
1979 1989 1995
% o
f men
- %
of w
omen
Observed
Figure 6.18, p.151Figure 6.18, p.151Figure 6.8, p.131Figure 6.8, p.131Figure 6.18, p.151Figure 6.18, p.151
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 25
0 5 10 15 20
05101520
1-3
7-9
13-15
19-21
25-27
31-33
37-39
43+
Age structure in 1973
Percent Percent
WomenMen
18% 3%
Figure 6.8, p.131Figure 6.8, p.131
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 26
0 5 10 15 20
05101520
1-3
7-9
13-15
19-21
25-27
31-33
37-39
43+
Age structure in 1995
Percent Percent
WomenMen
4%8%
Figure 6.8, p.131Figure 6.8, p.131
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 27
Age and outcomes
0 5 10 15 20
05101520
1-3
7-9
13-15
19-21
25-27
31-33
37-39
43+
Percent Percent
WomenMen
On-track
Tenure
Promotion
17%9%
26%
24%
32%
21%
50%
20%
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 28
On the tenure track (if in FTLF)
0
3
6
9
12
15
1979 1989 1995
% o
f men
- %
of w
omen
Observed Adjusted for age
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 29
Young children vs being single
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
Women
Men
Cha
nge
in %
on
-tra
ck1979 1989 1995
Holding other variables constant...
Morelikelyon-track
Lesslikelyon-track
Figure 6.21, p. 154Figure 6.21, p. 154
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 30
Tenure and antinepotism
Rossiter (1995) reports the case of a tenured female mathematician who was terminated after she married an untenured male member of the department; his contract was renewed.
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 31
Receipt of tenure (if on-track)
0
5
10
15
20
25
1979 1989 1995
% o
f men
- %
of w
omen
Observed Adjusted
Adjusted rates control for field, age, & Carnegie type
Figure 6.29, p. 165Figure 6.29, p. 165
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 32
Promotion to full professor
Gerty Cori was not promoted to a full professorship until the year she received the Nobel prize.
Harriet Zuckerman & Jonathan R. ColeMinerva, 1975
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 33
To full professor (if tenured)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1979 1989 1995
% o
f men
- %
of w
omen
Observed Adjusted
Adjusted rates control for field, age, & Carnegie type
Figure 6.35, p. 176Figure 6.35, p. 176
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 34
Children and promotion to full
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
1979 1989 1995
% fu
ll if
child
ren
- %
full
if m
arrie
d
Women Men
More likely fullprof if children
Less likely fullprof if children
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 35
Gender & publications
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Full timeacademics
Research 1academics
Tenuretrack
faculty
Tenuredfaculty
Fullprofessors
Full prof:life
sciences
% m
ore
pu
blic
atio
ns
by
me
n
Figure 6.38, p. 182Figure 6.38, p. 182
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 36
Raw salary differences
0
5
10
15
20
Mathematics PhysicalSciences
LifeSciences
Social /Behavioral
% m
ore
earn
ed b
y m
en1973 1979 1989 1995
Figure 3.5, p.38Figure 3.5, p.38
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 37
Salary in academia
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
GenderOnly
+Age +Field +Carnegie +PWA +Family
% h
ighe
r sa
larie
s fo
r m
en
1973 1979 1989 1995
Figure 7.16, p. 208Figure 7.16, p. 208
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 38
Enormous changes
• There have been enormous gains in the participation of women in science.
• These gains are reflected in changes in: The statistics for career outcomes. The climate for women in
science.
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 39
The “proper” role for women 1965
…as much as women may want to be good scientists or engineers, we must remember that they want first and foremost to be womanly companions of men and to be mothers. Bruno Bettelheim, 1965
Women and the Scientific Professions
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 40
The “proper” role for women 1984
The reason for opening science to women is not that they will do it differently and better but that good scientists are hard to find and it seems perversely absurd to place social impediments before half the human race when that half could, person for person, do the job as well as the half granted access. Stephan Jay Gould, 1984
New York Times Book Review
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 41
Institutional changes
• 1956: …MIT convened a special committee to consider whether or not to continue admitting women students; the recommendation of the committee was the termination of coeducation at the school. Evelyn Fox Keller, 1991
• 1999: I have always believed that contemporary gender discrimination within universities is part reality and part perception. True, but I now understand that reality is by far the greater part of the balance. MIT President Charles M. Vest 1999
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 42
Explaining remaining differences
1. Data problems? Poor measures of career age? Productivity?
2. Subtle or blatant discrimination?
3. Influences from “outside of science”?
4. Other possibilities?
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 43
Conclusion
“The advances represent neither unconditional success in overcoming gender inequalities nor assurance of continuing progress in the future. “
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 44
And subtle messages...
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 45
The full report is available at
books.nap.edu
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 46
Might use for NAS BPA
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 47
Bachelor’s degrees
• 1906: If the college woman is a mistake, Nature will eliminate her.
David Starr JordonPresident of Stanford University
• 1997: Is it time for affirmative action for men? Ben Gose
The Chronicle of Higher Education
Only show at IU & UW.
Only show at IU & UW.
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 48
Number of PhDs to women
0
1
2
3
4
Engineering Mathematics PhysicalSciences
LifeSciences
Social/BehavioralSciences
# o
f P
hD
s to
wo
me
n in
10
00
s
1973 1979 1989 1995 1999
Figure 3.6, p.38Figure 3.6, p.38
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 49
PhDs and FT labor force
Number of women is listed at top of bars
0
5
10
15
20
25
PhD FT labor force PhD FT labor force
% fe
mal
e1973 1979 1989 1995 1999
Astronomy Physics
68
32
6080
30
140
3
17
918
188
205
6
165
380
160
65
421
50
101
182
207
jslong:
4.2&3.6 from JV 4/9/02
jslong:
4.2&3.6 from JV 4/9/02
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 50
Ph.D. to labor force: by field
0
10
20
30
40
50
New Labor New Labor PhDs force PhDs force
% fe
mal
e
Physical Sciences Life Sciences
1973 1979 1989 1995 1999
Figure 3.5, p.38Figure 3.5, p.38
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 51
Industry & academia
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
% e
mpl
oyed
in g
iven
sec
tor
Men: Academia Women: Academia
Men: Industry Women: Industry
Figure 3.5, p.38Figure 3.5, p.38
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 52
Carnegie type of institution
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
% fe
mal
e
Research Medical Research Doctoral Master’s Bachelor’s 1 2
1973 1979 1989 1995
Figure 3.5, p.38Figure 3.5, p.38
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 53
Salary differences
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Genderonly
+Age +Field +Sector +PWA
% h
ighe
r sa
lary
for
men
1973 1979 1989 1995
Figure 7.12, p. 204Figure 7.12, p. 204
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 54
Salary within academia
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Allscientists
Allacademics
Assistantprofessors
Asst prof:Life Sci
Asst prof:|Life Sci
Research 1
% h
ighe
r sa
lary
for
me
n1979 1995
Figure ., p.Figure ., p.
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 55
Policy recommendations
1. Continue current programs.
2. Target the transition from Ph.D. to the full-time labor force.
3. Children, family, and re-entry.
4. Conduct institutional reviews.
5. PFF programs.
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 56
Non-policy issues
1. Institutional conflicts.
2. The impact of war stories.
3. Subtle messages to young women about their proper role.
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 57
Mothers and the PhD
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
Year of PhD
% o
f mot
hers
with
col
lege
deg
rees Women Men
3.9 p.423.9 p.42
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 58
Fathers and the PhD
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
Year of PhD
% o
f fat
hers
with
col
lege
deg
rees
Women Men
3.8 p 423.8 p 42
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 59
Gender differences working FT
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Engineering Mathematics PhysicalSciences
Life Sciences Social/BehavioralSciences
Rat
io o
f % w
omen
FT
to %
men
FT 1973 1979 1989 1995
4-19 p 994-19 p 99
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 60
NOT USED FOR NAS BPA
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 61
Tenure track by field
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
Mathematics PhysicalSciences
LifeSciences
Social /Behavioral
% o
f men
- %
of w
omen
Results are adjusted for age.
1979 1989 1995
Figure 3.5, p.38Figure 3.5, p.38
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 62
Tenure & type of institution
-15
-5
0
35
% o
f men
- %
of w
omen
Observed difference Adjusted difference
Research 1Other
Medical
Research 1
Medical
Other
1979 1989 1995
“Excess” women
“Excess” men
Figure 6.32, p. 170Figure 6.32, p. 170
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 63
Summary
1. Entry into the FT labor force is where familial effects are strongest.
2. The loss at entry into the FT labor force is not reflecting in other statistics on career outcomes.
3. The effects are decreasing, but still significant.
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 64
Steps in the scientific career
PhD
Work activity
Out of the S&E labor force
Full time S&E
Work sector
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 65
The overall findings
1. There have been dramatic increases in the presence and participation of women in science and engineering.
2. But, differences remain between the careers of female scientists and those of male scientists.
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 66
Gender comparisons of outcomes
1. Differences in percentages:
% of men with outcome = 35%
- % of women with outcome = 25%Percentage point difference = 10%
2. The following results compare:a) observed differencesb) adjusted differences
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 67
Adjusting for age
1. Unadjusted comparisons can be misleading since…
2. Female and male scientists differ in their distribution of career ages.
3. And, career age strongly affects outcomes such as tenure track status, tenure, and salary.
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 68
Two types of statistics
• Unadjusted statistics comparing career outcomes for men and women without controls for variables that might affect the outcomes.
Male academics publish 29% more papers that female academics.
• Adjusted statistics that control for variables that affect the outcomes.
Among tenure faculty, men published 6% more than women.
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 69
The effects of family
• Familial obligations continue to affect women differently than men in the critical stage of entering the full time labor force.
• Women who leave the labor force do not show up in the statistics for other career outcomes.
J. Scott LongIndiana UniversityPage 70
Physical sciences: LFP
0
5
10
15
20
25
Phys. Sci.PhDs
Phys. Sci.
Labor Force
Astronomy Physics
% fe
mal
e1973 1979 1989 1995
Figure 4.3, p. 68Figure 4.3, p. 68