From Scarcity to Visibility Gender Differences in the Careers of Doctoral Scientists and Engineers...

From Scarcity to VisibilityGender Differences in the Careers of

Doctoral Scientists and Engineers

J. Scott LongDepartment of Sociology

Indiana University

April 27, 2002

Board on Physics and Astronomy

J. Scott LongIndiana University

From Scarcity to VisibilityGender Differences in the Careers of

Doctoral Scientists and Engineers

Panel for the Study of Gender Differences in the Career Outcomes of Science and Engineering Ph.D.s. (PCOMs)

“...to gain a better understanding of the ways in which the careers of men and women in science and

engineering differ, the ways in which they are similar, and the changes that have occurred since 1973.”


Is 1973 the start of a new era?

... starting in 1968 and essentially complete by 1972, there was a legal revolution in women’s education and employment rights. It promised, even seemed to guarantee, broad ramifications for women’s careers in science and engineering, but its full implementation would require many battles in the years ahead. One era had ended and a new, more equitable one was beginning.

Margaret W. Rossiter Women Scientists in America, 1995


The data

• Sources: Survey of Doctorate Recipients; Survey of Earned Doctorates

• Years: 1973, 1979, 1989, and 1995; limited data from 1999

• Broad Fields: engineering, mathematical sciences, physical sciences, life sciences, and social/behavioral sciences


Percent of PhDs to women

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Engineering Mathematics PhysicalSciences

LifeSciences

Social/BehavioralSciences

% o

f P

hDs

to w

omen

1973 1979 1989 1995 1999

20 years

Figure 3.5, p.38Figure 3.5, p.38


% of PhDs to women: physical sciences

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Physical Sciences Physics Astronomy

% o

f PhD

s to

wom

en1973 1979 1989 1995 1999

jslong:

OK as per JV on 4/9/02; tab 3.5&4.2

jslong:

OK as per JV on 4/9/02; tab 3.5&4.2


# of PhDs to women

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

Physics Astronomy

# of

PhD

s to

wom

en1973 1979 1989 1995 1999

jslong:

Tab 4.2%3.5; revised with new data from JV on 9ap02.

jslong:

Tab 4.2%3.5; revised with new data from JV on 9ap02.


Entry into the labor force

PhD Less than full employment

Full time S&E employment


From PhD to the labor force

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

1973 1979 1989 1995

% f

emal

eNew PhDs Full Time in S&E

20

33

7

13

Figure 4.1, p. 64.Figure 4.1, p. 64.


PhDs and FT labor force

Number of women is listed at top of bars

0

5

10

15

20

25

PhD FT labor force PhD FT labor force

% fe

mal

e1973 1979 1989 1995 1999

Astronomy Physics

jslong:

4.2&3.6 from JV 4/9/02

jslong:

4.2&3.6 from JV 4/9/02


Less than full employment

0

5

10

15

20

25

1973 1979 1989 1995 1973 1979 1989 1995

Men Women

Per

cent

Part time Seeking work Not seeking work

4

1411

4

5

4



Marital Status

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

% m

arrie

d

Men Women

Year of PhD

3-23 p583-23 p58


Young children in 1995

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Years since PhD

% o

f mar

ried

with

you

ng c

hild

ren

Men Women

3.24 p583.24 p58


Family as reason for PT work

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

0 5 10 15 20 25

Years since PhD

% c

iting

fam

ily a

s re

ason

for

part

tim

e

Men Women

4-12 p904-12 p90


Family & full time work for women

50

60

70

80

90

100

Single Married Olderchildren

Youngerchildren

% o

f wom

en w

ith F

T e

mpl

oym

ent

1979 1989 1995



Family & full time work - 1995

50

60

70

80

90

100

Men Women

% w

ith fu

ll tim

e e

mpl

oym

ent

Single Married Older children Younger children

9488

80

71

94

Figure 4-13, p. 92Figure 4-13, p. 92


Family & LFP for women

-20

-15

-10

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Full TimePart Time

Not SeekingWork

Seeking Work

% if

sin

gle

- %

if s

mal

l chi

ldre

n1979 1989 1995

Morelikely ifsingle

Lesslikely ifsingle

4-15 p934-15 p93


Family & work experience 1989

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

5 10 15 20

Years since PhD

Yea

rs le

ss w

ork

for

wom

enSingle Married Children

4-18 p984-18 p98


Steps in the academic career

PhD

Tenured

Full professor

On-track

Off-track


Academic LF: Physical Sciences

0

5

10

15

20

25

11+ years from PhD 1-10 years from PhD

% fe

mal

e

1973 1979 1989 1995



The faculty and the unfaculty

Female research associates represented a good investment. They were skilled, low cost, and grateful for the work.

Mary Frank Fox

The Outer Circle, 1991


On the tenure track

Figure 6.13, p.146 – revised 3/28/02

Figure 6.13, p.146 – revised 3/28/02

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Men Women

% o

n T

enur

e T

rack

1979 1989 1995 1999


Gender comparisons of outcomes

% of men with outcome = 35%

- % of women with outcome = 25%Percentage point difference = 10%


On the tenure track (if in FTLF)

0

3

6

9

12

15

1979 1989 1995

% o

f men

- %

of w

omen

Observed

Figure 6.18, p.151Figure 6.18, p.151Figure 6.8, p.131Figure 6.8, p.131Figure 6.18, p.151Figure 6.18, p.151


0 5 10 15 20

05101520

1-3

7-9

13-15

19-21

25-27

31-33

37-39

43+

Age structure in 1973

Percent Percent

WomenMen

18% 3%



0 5 10 15 20

05101520

1-3

7-9

13-15

19-21

25-27

31-33

37-39

43+

Age structure in 1995

Percent Percent

WomenMen

4%8%



Age and outcomes

0 5 10 15 20

05101520

1-3

7-9

13-15

19-21

25-27

31-33

37-39

43+

Percent Percent

WomenMen

On-track

Tenure

Promotion

17%9%

26%

24%

32%

21%

50%

20%


On the tenure track (if in FTLF)

0

3

6

9

12

15

1979 1989 1995

% o

f men

- %

of w

omen

Observed Adjusted for age


Young children vs being single

-6

-4

-2

0

2

4

6

Women

Men

Cha

nge

in %

on

-tra

ck1979 1989 1995

Holding other variables constant...

Morelikelyon-track

Lesslikelyon-track

Figure 6.21, p. 154Figure 6.21, p. 154


Tenure and antinepotism

Rossiter (1995) reports the case of a tenured female mathematician who was terminated after she married an untenured male member of the department; his contract was renewed.


Receipt of tenure (if on-track)

0

5

10

15

20

25

1979 1989 1995

% o

f men

- %

of w

omen

Observed Adjusted

Adjusted rates control for field, age, & Carnegie type

Figure 6.29, p. 165Figure 6.29, p. 165


Promotion to full professor

Gerty Cori was not promoted to a full professorship until the year she received the Nobel prize.

Harriet Zuckerman & Jonathan R. ColeMinerva, 1975


To full professor (if tenured)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1979 1989 1995

% o

f men

- %

of w

omen

Observed Adjusted

Adjusted rates control for field, age, & Carnegie type

Figure 6.35, p. 176Figure 6.35, p. 176


Children and promotion to full

-14

-12

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

0

2

4

6

1979 1989 1995

% fu

ll if

child

ren

- %

full

if m

arrie

d

Women Men

More likely fullprof if children

Less likely fullprof if children


Gender & publications

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Full timeacademics

Research 1academics

Tenuretrack

faculty

Tenuredfaculty

Fullprofessors

Full prof:life

sciences

% m

ore

pu

blic

atio

ns

by

me

n

Figure 6.38, p. 182Figure 6.38, p. 182


Raw salary differences

0

5

10

15

20

Mathematics PhysicalSciences

LifeSciences

Social /Behavioral

% m

ore

earn

ed b

y m

en1973 1979 1989 1995



Salary in academia

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

GenderOnly

+Age +Field +Carnegie +PWA +Family

% h

ighe

r sa

larie

s fo

r m

en

1973 1979 1989 1995

Figure 7.16, p. 208Figure 7.16, p. 208


Enormous changes

• There have been enormous gains in the participation of women in science.

• These gains are reflected in changes in: The statistics for career outcomes. The climate for women in

science.


The “proper” role for women 1965

…as much as women may want to be good scientists or engineers, we must remember that they want first and foremost to be womanly companions of men and to be mothers. Bruno Bettelheim, 1965

Women and the Scientific Professions


The “proper” role for women 1984

The reason for opening science to women is not that they will do it differently and better but that good scientists are hard to find and it seems perversely absurd to place social impediments before half the human race when that half could, person for person, do the job as well as the half granted access. Stephan Jay Gould, 1984

New York Times Book Review


Institutional changes

• 1956: …MIT convened a special committee to consider whether or not to continue admitting women students; the recommendation of the committee was the termination of coeducation at the school. Evelyn Fox Keller, 1991

• 1999: I have always believed that contemporary gender discrimination within universities is part reality and part perception. True, but I now understand that reality is by far the greater part of the balance. MIT President Charles M. Vest 1999


Explaining remaining differences

1. Data problems? Poor measures of career age? Productivity?

2. Subtle or blatant discrimination?

3. Influences from “outside of science”?

4. Other possibilities?


Conclusion

“The advances represent neither unconditional success in overcoming gender inequalities nor assurance of continuing progress in the future. “


And subtle messages...


The full report is available at

books.nap.edu


Might use for NAS BPA


Bachelor’s degrees

• 1906: If the college woman is a mistake, Nature will eliminate her.

David Starr JordonPresident of Stanford University

• 1997: Is it time for affirmative action for men? Ben Gose

The Chronicle of Higher Education

Only show at IU & UW.

Only show at IU & UW.


Number of PhDs to women

0

1

2

3

4


LifeSciences

Social/BehavioralSciences

# o

f P

hD

s to

wo

me

n in

10

00

s

1973 1979 1989 1995 1999



PhDs and FT labor force

Number of women is listed at top of bars

0

5

10

15

20

25

PhD FT labor force PhD FT labor force

% fe

mal

e1973 1979 1989 1995 1999

Astronomy Physics

68

32

6080

30

140

3

17

918

188

205

6

165

380

160

65

421

50

101

182

207

jslong:

4.2&3.6 from JV 4/9/02

jslong:

4.2&3.6 from JV 4/9/02


Ph.D. to labor force: by field

0

10

20

30

40

50

New Labor New Labor PhDs force PhDs force

% fe

mal

e

Physical Sciences Life Sciences

1973 1979 1989 1995 1999



Industry & academia

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

% e

mpl

oyed

in g

iven

sec

tor

Men: Academia Women: Academia

Men: Industry Women: Industry



Carnegie type of institution

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

% fe

mal

e

Research Medical Research Doctoral Master’s Bachelor’s 1 2

1973 1979 1989 1995



Salary differences

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Genderonly

+Age +Field +Sector +PWA

% h

ighe

r sa

lary

for

men

1973 1979 1989 1995

Figure 7.12, p. 204Figure 7.12, p. 204


Salary within academia

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Allscientists

Allacademics

Assistantprofessors

Asst prof:Life Sci

Asst prof:|Life Sci

Research 1

% h

ighe

r sa

lary

for

me

n1979 1995

Figure ., p.Figure ., p.


Policy recommendations

1. Continue current programs.

2. Target the transition from Ph.D. to the full-time labor force.

3. Children, family, and re-entry.

4. Conduct institutional reviews.

5. PFF programs.


Non-policy issues

1. Institutional conflicts.

2. The impact of war stories.

3. Subtle messages to young women about their proper role.


Mothers and the PhD

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

Year of PhD

% o

f mot

hers

with

col

lege

deg

rees Women Men

3.9 p.423.9 p.42


Fathers and the PhD

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

Year of PhD

% o

f fat

hers

with

col

lege

deg

rees

Women Men

3.8 p 423.8 p 42


Gender differences working FT

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0


Life Sciences Social/BehavioralSciences

Rat

io o

f % w

omen

FT

to %

men

FT 1973 1979 1989 1995

4-19 p 994-19 p 99


NOT USED FOR NAS BPA


Tenure track by field

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

Mathematics PhysicalSciences

LifeSciences

Social /Behavioral

% o

f men

- %

of w

omen

Results are adjusted for age.

1979 1989 1995



Tenure & type of institution

-15

-5

0

35

% o

f men

- %

of w

omen

Observed difference Adjusted difference

Research 1Other

Medical

Research 1

Medical

Other

1979 1989 1995

“Excess” women

“Excess” men

Figure 6.32, p. 170Figure 6.32, p. 170


Summary

1. Entry into the FT labor force is where familial effects are strongest.

2. The loss at entry into the FT labor force is not reflecting in other statistics on career outcomes.

3. The effects are decreasing, but still significant.


Steps in the scientific career

PhD

Work activity

Out of the S&E labor force

Full time S&E

Work sector


The overall findings

1. There have been dramatic increases in the presence and participation of women in science and engineering.

2. But, differences remain between the careers of female scientists and those of male scientists.


Gender comparisons of outcomes

1. Differences in percentages:

% of men with outcome = 35%

- % of women with outcome = 25%Percentage point difference = 10%

2. The following results compare:a) observed differencesb) adjusted differences


Adjusting for age

1. Unadjusted comparisons can be misleading since…

2. Female and male scientists differ in their distribution of career ages.

3. And, career age strongly affects outcomes such as tenure track status, tenure, and salary.


Two types of statistics

• Unadjusted statistics comparing career outcomes for men and women without controls for variables that might affect the outcomes.

Male academics publish 29% more papers that female academics.

• Adjusted statistics that control for variables that affect the outcomes.

Among tenure faculty, men published 6% more than women.


The effects of family

• Familial obligations continue to affect women differently than men in the critical stage of entering the full time labor force.

• Women who leave the labor force do not show up in the statistics for other career outcomes.


Physical sciences: LFP

0

5

10

15

20

25

Phys. Sci.PhDs

Phys. Sci.

Labor Force

Astronomy Physics

% fe

mal

e1973 1979 1989 1995

Figure 4.3, p. 68Figure 4.3, p. 68

From Scarcity to Visibility Gender Differences in the Careers of Doctoral Scientists and Engineers...

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