Post on 14-Apr-2022
Test/re-Test Reliability of a Football Specific Passing Test Kieran Kelly A dissertation submitted in part fulfilment of the requirement for the BBS (Honours) in Recreation and Sport Management
May 2020
Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences
Supervisor: Chris Thompson
i
Statement of Originality and Ownership of Work
Department of Health, Sport and Exercise Science
BB (Hons) Recreation and Sports Management
Name: Kieran Kelly.
I confirm that all the work submitted in this dissertation is my own work, not copied from any other person’s work (published or unpublished) and that it has not previously been submitted for assessment on any other course, in any other college institution.
Double click the following box and select ‘ticked’ to agree with above statement: þ
Date: 03/05/2020
Student Number: 20075468
Address: The Railway,
Ballywilliam,
Enniscorthy,
Co.Wexford
Word processor word count: 8656
ii
Acknowledgements
I would like to extend my sincere thanks to my supervisor Christopher Thompson for all
his help and guidance throughout this thesis. You constantly went out of your way for me
and I truly can’t thank you enough for how helpful you have been. This year wouldn’t
have been possible without your help, thanks again.
I would also like to thank Dr. Patrick Delaney for all the additional help, sorry for all the
added questions asked!
To my mother, Anne Marie, who has been my motivator in college the past 4 years, I am
honestly so grateful for everything you have given me and without you, college would
have not been possible for me. You are the strongest person I know mentally and thank
you for everything.
To my classmates in Rec man, thanks so much for the 4 years, special mention to Alan
Ryan and Diarmuid Leahy. My God we had some laugh. Also, a shout out to my friends
at home, thanks for always putting me at ease away from college work. I can’t express
how much it meant to me also.
iii
Contents
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................. vi
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... vii
1.0 – Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1
2.0 Literature Review ................................................................................................................. 3
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 – Passing in football match-play .......................................................................................... 3
2.2.1 - Possession statistics in football ...................................................................................... 3
2.2.2 - Effect of passing modality on goalscoring opportunities ............................................... 4
2.2.3 - Styles of play ................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 – The influence of fatigue on passing ability ....................................................................... 5
2.3.1 - Influence of physical fatigue on passing performance ................................................... 5
2.3.2 - Influence of mental fatigue on passing ability ................................................................ 6
2.4 – Tests used to measure passing accuracy in football ........................................................ 7
2.4.1 - LSPT ............................................................................................................................... 7
2.4.2 – AccuKick ........................................................................................................................ 8
2.4.3 – Footbonaut ................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.4 - Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 11
2.4.5 – Rationale ...................................................................................................................... 11
3.0– Methodology ...................................................................................................................... 12
3.1 - Research design ............................................................................................................... 12
3.2 - Population and sampling ................................................................................................. 12
3.3 - Ethical considerations ..................................................................................................... 13
3.4 - Variables and concepts .................................................................................................... 13
3.5 - Data collection methods ................................................................................................... 14
3.5.1 - The Kieran Kelly Passing Test (KKPT) ........................................................................ 14
3.5.2 - Procedure ..................................................................................................................... 14
3.5.3 – Statistical analysis ........................................................................................................ 14
4.0 – Results ............................................................................................................................... 15
4.1 - What is the reliability of accuracy in the Kieran Kelly Passing Test? ............................ 15
4.2 - What is the reliability of time reaction in the Kieran Kelly Passing Test? ..................... 18
5.0 – Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 21
5.1 - What is the reliability of time reaction the Kieran Kelly Passing Test? ......................... 21
5.2 - What is the reliability of accuracy in the Kieran Kelly Passing Test? ............................ 23
5.3 - Can the Footbonaut be replicated in a cost-effective manner? ....................................... 24
5.4 - Will a cost-effective passing Test be beneficial for recreational football clubs? ............ 24
5.5 – Thesis Limitations ........................................................................................................... 25
iv
6.0 - Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 26
6.1 - Recommendations for further research ........................................................................... 26
References .................................................................................................................................. 28
Appendices ................................................................................................................................ 30
Appendix A: Opt-Out letter ..................................................................................................... 31
Appendix B- Letter to club ...................................................................................................... 32
Appendix C- Participant information sheet ............................................................................. 33
v
List of Figures
Figure 1- A schematic representation of the Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (Le Moal et al., 2014) ............................................................................................................................................. 8
Figure 2- A visualisation of the AccuKick (Dello Iacono, Basevitch, Bracha & Halperin,2019) 9
Figure 3- A schematic drawing of the Footbonaut (Beavan et al., 2018). .................................. 11
Figure 4- Results of each participants Time Reaction and Accuracy for Test 1 and 2. .............. 15
Figure 5- This table compares the means of all mean averages amongst the KKPT .................. 16
Figure 6- Scatter plot of Accuracy for Test 1 (pre) and Test 2 (post) for each participant. ....... 17
Figure 7- Test 1 Accuracy percentage for each participant. ...................................................... 17
Figure 8- Test 2 Accuracy percentage for each participant ....................................................... 18
Figure 9- Accuracy average percent for the group Test 1 and Test 2. ....................................... 18
Figure 10 - Time reaction average Test (Pre) and Test 2 (Post) per participant. (Seconds) ..... 19
Figure 11-Time reaction average per participant Test 1 ............................................................ 20
Figure 12- Time reaction average per participant Test 2 ........................................................... 20
vi
List of Abbreviations
LSPT- Loughborough Soccer Passing Test
KKPT- Kieran Kelly Passing Test
vii
Abstract
Overview - The purpose of this study is to research the test/retest reliability of the Kieran
Kelly Passing Test (KKPT). Furthermore, to examine the performance variables of time
reaction and accuracy amongst the test. In additional research the study will investigate
if a cost-effective passing test can be beneficial for recreational clubs.
Method - This research used an experimental approach solely. The test was completed
by 12 reactional football players (mean age of 20 years old). The test was completed on
the one day with each person doing two tests separated by a 15-minute interval. The data
gathered by the test was broken down frame by frame via VLC media player to gather the
time reaction scores of each pass and the accuracy of the pass.
Results- The research found that the KKPT is an unreliable test for time reaction and
accuracy. There was no significant difference in time reaction, scores resulted in an
overall average of 0.04 difference between Test 1 and Test 2. Furthermore, the accuracy
test was also found to be unreliable with a group average of 7.4% increase in accuracy.
Conclusion- The KKPT was found to unreliable for accuracy and time reaction. There
are limitations that can be changed towards the test that can change the outcome of the
reliability. It is conclusive that football passing tests can improve with time reaction and
accuracy within players. Further research is needed to examine the difference in time
reaction and accuracy amongst different age groups within the KKPT with a greater
number of participants to study.
1
1.0 – Introduction
Over the past half century, football match-play speed and technical performance has
evolved. Matches are evidently becoming quicker, intensity levels have increased,
meaning athletes need to perform at the best of their ability to be able to deal with the
demands of the current game (Wallace & Norton, 2014). By the overall advancement of
the game, performance variables such as time reaction are becoming more important. The
demands of an athlete are increasing with the demand of the game. Research conducted
by (Lago & Martin, 2007, Rampinini, Impellizzeri, Castagna, Coutts & Wisløff, 2009 and
Russell, Rees & Kingsley, 2013) show the overall advancement of possession in the
different professional leagues. It outlines a greater knowledge towards the importance of
possession can have on the outcome of a football match and it identifies the need for
players to be able to technically perform on the ball to withstand the demand of the game.
In elite football, teams are likely to use passing drills to aid players adjust to the high-
speed demands of match-play. One example is the Footbonaut. Designed to the highest
possible technical standards Footbonaut is a four-sided ball feeding machine, on a 20-
metre square grid, with a synthetic grass surface, which provides a non-stop service of
footballs to the receiving player. The Footbonaut allows balls to be played into the
participants at different heights and speeds from four different directions (Wells, 2010).
The overall costs of these tests are too expensive for recreational clubs to consider getting
as most professional clubs are unable to afford them. The Footbonaut tests for time
reaction and accuracy scores within the elite players. However, there are two other
passing tests available for recreational clubs which measure time reaction and accuracy.
The LSPT and AccuKick are both reliable tests to measure these performance variables
but does not represent the realistic nature of football within the test itself. Due to the fact
there are limited cost-effective passing tests for recreational clubs to develop skills such
as the Footbonaut, there is a requirement to design a skill test solely for the purpose of
benefitting recreational players to improve their technical skills.
Once the test is created, the purpose of the test will be to examine the reliability of time
reaction and accuracy within the designed test on recreational players to see if a cost-
effective passing test to measure these performance variables are reliable and beneficial
for all clubs.
2
The following chapter will discuss the current literature in the development of football
match-play, the influence of passing in football match-play, the effect fatigue can have
on passing and the common accuracy tests currently available for teams. The next section
will discuss the methods used to carry out the research and data collection, which will be
followed by the results chapter. Afterwards, a discussion will be presented in relation to
current literature, limitations present within the study and recommendations for further
research. Lastly, a conclusion will close the dissertation.
3
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
Research has demonstrated that the speed of football match-play has significantly
increased over the last fifty years. A study investigating the FIFA World Cup matches
from 1966–2010 demonstrated that ball (i.e. game) speed increased by 15% over the 44-
year period. The player structure changed towards a higher player density, with a 35%
greater passing rate (Wallace & Norton, 2014). Match-play has increased significantly in
intensity, which means players must release the ball quicker to retain possession. Players
reactions must be much quicker to be able to cope with the pace and demands of the game.
According to McGuckian, Cole, Jordet, Chalkley & Pepping (2018), an increase in head
movement of scanning left and right 10 seconds before encountering the ball increases
the likelihood of retention of the ball. Furthermore, players who turn their head before
receiving the ball resulted in a greater likelihood of turning with the ball and successful
passes. The overall advancement of the game means vision and time reactions are
becoming more important in retaining possession in football matches. Players then need
to train passing to perform at the highest quality. There are a few football-specific passing
tests that exist, but they have limitations. There is a need for a novel passing test which is
cost-effective and accessible to a greater population. Therefore, the purpose of this
dissertation is to measure the test/re-test reliability of a cost-effective novel football
passing test which can be used by recreational clubs. The following literature review will
discuss the importance of passing in football, factors influencing passing ability and
available tests which measure passing accuracy.
2.2 – Passing in football match-play
2.2.1 - Possession statistics in football
Modern elite football has predominantly altered into a possession-based tactical outlook.
Indeed, being in possession of the ball can lead to more opportunities created and
successful match outcome. Match-play data from the past fifteen years has demonstrated
the importance of possession and passing accuracy. For example, a study of the
determinants of the possession of the ball in 170 La Liga matches from 2003-2004
4
concluded that home teams have more possession of the ball than away teams. There is
also a 6% increase in possession at home compared to away. Although overall possession
does not win a game conclusively, it can contribute to more chances created (Lago &
Martin, 2007). Additional research distinguished between technical performance of Serie
A match-play, concluding that players from the successful teams (which were ranked in
the top five positions in the league) had more involvement with the ball than the less
successful teams (which were ranked in the bottom five of the league). This showed there
was more completed short passes, successful short passes, dribbling and shots compared
to the less successful team. It also stated a significant decline for both physical and
technical scores (involvements with the ball, short passes and successful short passes)
between the first and second half of matches (Rampinini, Impellizzeri, Castagna, Coutts
& Wisløff, 2009). Passing in football is a difficult task to maintain throughout a whole
match as there are many factors that can affect the overall possession of a team such as
fatigue, concentration and environmental issues. Further work (Russell, Rees & Kingsley,
2013) assessing the technical demands of the English Championship (23 games from the
2010/2011 season) showed that total possessions and number of ball distributions were
lower in the second half versus the first half of match play. Analysis across 15-minute
intervals revealed reductions during the last 15-minutes of match play in the total number
of possessions and distribution. To summarise, research has demonstrated that the number
of passes can play a key part in match outcome and differs between successful and
unsuccessful teams.
2.2.2 - Effect of passing modality on goalscoring opportunities
Whilst research has demonstrated the impact of the number of passes performed in a
match, the length of these passes is currently under-researched. Indeed, passes may be
short or long, and each team likely varies in passing philosophy. A recent study (Rein,
Raabe & Memmert, 2017) measured the modality of passing in relation to majority
situations and space control in front of goal from 103 German Bundesliga games (2011-
2012 to 2014-2015 seasons). To calculate the effects of passing behaviour on majority
situations, a straightforward approach can be obtained by calculating the number of
defenders between the ball carrier and the goal and then the pass. If the number of
defenders increased, it would be a negative pass, and if it decreased, it would be
considered a positive pass. Space control was estimated by using Voronoi-diagrams based
on player’s position on the pitch. Results showed changes in space dominance for the
5
attacking third area are shown as a function of pass type. Furthermore, it showed that both
measures are related to successful gameplay with respect to the number of goals scored
and the probability of winning the game. Lastly, it revealed that passes from the midfield
to the attacking area are most effective. This study suggests that short passes are more
beneficial towards the creating of space and chances. However, the results of this study
must be interpreted with caution as it represents solely one league. Indeed, further
research is required from different leagues and teams to strengthen these findings.
2.2.3 - Styles of play
In football, there are many styles of play such as (but not limited to) possession-dominant
play (attempting to spend more time with the ball than the opposition), direct play
(attempting to successfully complete predominantly long passes forward) and the use of
counter attacks (attacking at speed when the opposition momentarily loses defensive
shape). Indeed, each team has their own style of play and may adopt different tactical
systems dependent on the opposition and the ongoing match-play scenario (i.e.
winning/losing). Research has demonstrated that each style of play has varying outcomes
on match-play performance. Fernandez-Navarro, Fradua, Zubillaga & McRobert (2019)
studied 380 matches of the 2015/16 English Premier League season, 38 games studied
each from the 20 teams in the league. A computerised match analysis tracking system
showed that the effectiveness of direct play, counterattacks, maintenance and crossing
increased significantly when teams were winning by one or two goals. Counterattacks
were more effective when winning by a goal and decreased effectiveness when losing by
one goal. Direct play was more effective when losing by two goals or more. Playing away
matches can negatively affect a team’s tactical approach (such as direct play, maintenance
of the ball and high pressure) due to home advantage of the opponents. In addition,
playing a higher quality opponent reduces the overall effectiveness of all styles of play.
The overall effectiveness of styles of play can change under specific circumstances and
that not all variables affect teams in the same way.
2.3 – The influence of fatigue on passing ability
2.3.1 - Influence of physical fatigue on passing performance
Match-play data in elite football has shown that players cover over 10km, with a variation
in high-speed running and sprinting distances (Mohr et al. 2003). This study also reported
6
that transient fatigue is incurred through football match-play, which can influence
technical performance. In one study, Russell, Benton & Kingsley, (2011) examined the
effects of exercise-induced fatigue on passing, shooting and dribbling through simulated
match play. Results concluded that shooting accuracy decreased by 25.5% compared to
pre-exercise conditions, and that passing speed in the last 15 minutes were 7.8% slower
than the starting 15 minutes. Shot and pass speeds also were slower during the second
half compared to the first half of testing. Dribbling overall was not affected by exercise.
Although, this study was conducted in a laboratory setting and not a full 90-minute match
which can affect results. In a more ecologically valid setting, Rampinini, Impellizzeri,
Castagna, Coutts & Wisløff, (2009) measured the effect of fatigue on technical
performance during a total of 416 individual Italian Serie A matches studying 186 football
players aged from 27-31. The purpose of this study was to examine the changes in
technical and physical performance between the first and second half during the matches.
Results concluded that only three technical measures from the first half to the second half
decreased. The overall involvement with the ball decreased by 9%. The total number of
short passes and successful short passes both decreased by 11% also. Overall, physical
fatigue negatively impacts football-specific performance. Fitness levels of professionals
is important to maintain required performance throughout the match. Players who fatigue
can ultimately make more mistakes which can affect the result of a match. Indeed, fatigue
is a complex phenomenon, and further research is required to strengthen the current
findings.
2.3.2 - Influence of mental fatigue on passing ability Mental fatigue refers to the feeling that people may experience after or during prolonged
periods of cognitive activity. This feeling is very common in everyday modern life and
can involve tiredness or even exhaustion, a feeling to give up with the present activity,
and a decrease in the level of commitment to the task at hand (Boksem, 2008). Coutts
(2016) theorises that mental fatigue arises during matches, where players must remain
vigilant and make numerous decisions.
A study by (Smith et al. 2016) focuses on how mental fatigue impairs football-specific
physical and technical performance. Mental fatigue was introduced using a 30-minute
modified Stroop colour word task. This demands response inhibition and sustained
attention which has been previously shown to induce mental fatigue. Participants then
had to do the LSPT straight after. Results concluded LSPT original time was not
7
significantly different between conditions; however, in the mental fatigue state penalty
time increased as the intended targets were missed. Average shot sequence time was
slower during the mental fatigue condition. Although the results being conclusive,
however, the Stroop task does not support ecological validity, and future research must
investigate real-life causations of mental fatigue and use football and lifestyle-specific
cognitive tasks to induce mental fatigue (Thompson et al. 2018).
In another study (Fortes et al., 2019) examined the effect of exposure time to smartphone
applications on the passing decision- making performance in professional football
athletes. Twenty football athletes aged 18-35 years participated in the study. Male football
athletes participated in four randomized conditions. 15 min, 30 min and 45 min
smartphone exposure, the Stroop test assessed the overall level of mental fatigue before
and after each experimental condition. The participants then played a simulated football
match, which was filmed to analyse passing decision- making performance. Results
concluded an impairment for passing decision making performance with 30 min and 45
min smartphone exposure.
2.4 – Tests used to measure passing accuracy in football
There have been several tests designed to measure passing skills in football; including the
Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT), the AccuKick and the Footbonaut. The
following section of the literature review will discuss each of these tests.
2.4.1 - LSPT
The first passing test examined is the Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT). The
test is used to measure passing accuracy and reaction time. The LSPT is conducted by
using four benches as rebound boards on four different lines. Four coloured targets areas
(green, red, blue and yellow) were attached in the middle of each board. In addition,
another black target is attached in the middle of the targeted areas and 1 second was
deducted from there total time each time they hit the attended target. Coloured cones are
used to distinguish the different zones. Participants start with the ball positioned by the
central cone, and the examiner begins timing the test (using data acquisition software
specially designed for the study for more efficient data collection) from the moment the
ball is played outside the inner rectangle. The specific colour is called out by the coach
8
just before the participant completes the current pass (Le Moal et al. 2014). The LSPT is
a reliable and valid test that has been used as a measure of passing performance in
previous football research (Smith et al. 2016). The validity of the LSPT was assessed by
comparing performances of elite, sub-elite and non-elite players. In this study, the main
effect group of the test were elite players who scored 44.2% and 65.2% greater
performance than sub-elite and non-elite players respectively. Sub-elite players showed
14.6% greater performance scores than non-elite players (Le Moal Et al. 2014). The LSPT
was able to distinguish players from their playing levels; this gives the possibility to
examine the passing skills of players. The LSPT is limited as there are only four targets
the participants must pass the ball too. This lacks complexity compared to match play of
football. During a match, players are subjected to numerous cognitive cues and processes
which provides greater complexity than four targets. The movement demand of the test
does not isolate skill performance. The movement required of the test can cause fatigue
towards the player which can affect their results.
Figure 1- A schematic representation of the Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (Le Moal et al., 2014
2.4.2 – AccuKick The AccuKick is another passing test and is an improvement on the LSPT as it is a more
realistic match related passing test. The AccuKick measures passing accuracy and time
to ball release under time constraints. This is a cost-effective test which measures passing
accuracy and time reaction by using footballs, cones and sensors. The coach passes in a
ball which must be placed through the selected cone designated by the coach. Time is
9
calculated between when the coach passes the ball and when the ball is passed through
the gate by sensors. As demonstrated in recent research (Dello Iacono, Basevitch, Bracha
& Halperin, 2018), test-retest reliability was accepted and constructed by the distinction
of the different age and role of football players and the similarity between the AccuKick
results with other implemented physical tests that were examined. Test-retest reliability
was investigated on two separate days, three days apart by repeating the AccuKick and
comparing the results among three age groups (U16s, U17s, U19s). Following the tests,
over a two-week period the athletes completed physical tests. AccuKick was found to be
reliable, as measured across two testing days to have high levels of discriminant towards
the ability of football players at different levels as measured in passing performance.
AccuKick results found a clear differential between age groups by a measure of passing
accuracy. U19s were 8% more accurate than U17s and 22% more accurate than the U16s
group. The U17s were also more accurate in passing than the U16s by a 4% margin.
Despite the positives of the AccuKick, it does process some major limitations. The
Accukick is one dimensional from its approach. When performing the test, the player
knows where the ball is being played from each time as it is only the coach who passes
the ball in, which allows for greater anticipation. Indeed, match-play is characterised by
unpredictable passages of play with external distractions, which may impair passing
performance.
Figure 2- A visualisation of the AccuKick (Dello Iacono, Basevitch, Bracha & Halperin,2019)
10
2.4.3 – Footbonaut The Footbonaut has been designed efficiently to measure players short-passing ability.
Developed by Christian Guettler in Berlin (Wells, 2010), only four Footbonauts currently
exists, which are situated around the world (Borussia Dortmund, TSG 1899 Hoffenheim,
Russia and Qatar). The design of the Footbonaut is a four-sided ball machine, on a 20-
metre square grid with 64/72 gates and synthetic grass surface providing a frequent
service of footballs to the receiving player. The technology allows footballs to be
distributed at different heights and speeds and from four different directions. Players must
attempt to pass the ball as efficiently and accurately into one of the 64/72 randomly
highlighted gates as quickly as possible. The test is connected to an iPad device which
displays each players performance (number of accurate passes, average time per pass
completion). The Footbonaut produces a technical ranking system which can be used to
compare the results of players and measure improvements of each player at separate
intervals. Subsequently, this data can be used to compare the technical ability of each
position on the team. Essentially, the Footbonaut provides an objective measure of each
individual's technical ability in a learning environment similar to a match situation.
A study by Beavan et al., (2018), assessed the test-retest reliability of the Footbonaut. The
study was conducted from U13-U23, who was assessed on separate days but followed the
same procedures. The participants completed two bouts of the Footbonaut (32 balls each
round). The athletes performed two sessions on the same day and received a 15-min
resting period in-between tests. Throughout the players sessions, no encouragement was
used nor were the players informed how many balls remained at any point. Players were
provided with their results (accuracy and speed of the passes) upon completion of each
session. Results concluded U19 and U23 players were more accurate than U12 players.
There were no differences observed in speed between players of U15-U23 teams, but
speed decreased when it came to U12-U14. Accuracy, speed and points demonstrated
acceptable test-retest reliability.
Indeed, a major limitation of the Footbonaut is the cost. The cost is valued at 3.5million
Dollars ("5 Technologies in Soccer", 2019) which in comparison is 3.1 million Euro,
which does not consider the annual maintenance costs. This expense would deter many
elite clubs from purchasing it and rule out the possibility of a sub-elite/recreational team
from obtaining access to such technology.
11
Figure 3- A schematic drawing of the Footbonaut (Beavan et al., 2018).
2.4.4 - Conclusion
To summarise, passing in football is an important variable to successful match outcome.
Indeed, high possession of the ball can increase the number of opportunities created. Two
valid and reliable football-specific passing accuracy tests have been used as a marker of
performance in previous literature.
Overall, the technical demands of football match play have increased in recent years, with
evidence demonstrating an increase in the speed of match-play. Players vision and
reaction time can have a significant factor in keeping possession in a match which can
lead to more chances created. Research has demonstrated that passing performance can
vary between playing style adopted by a team and the playing standard of the team.
Furthermore, physical and mental fatigue has been demonstrated to impair passing
performance in laboratory and match-play settings. Therefore, it is essential to the use of
reliable tests to measure passing accuracy. Overall, the LSPT, Accukick and the
Footbonaut are reliable measurements of passing accuracy but consist of limitations.
2.4.5 – Rationale
Within these three passing tests, there are clear limitations that hold back the overall
effectiveness of the test. An example is being too expensive, one dimensional and too
unrealistic. There is a need for a new passing test which can benefit participants with
12
results but without the limitations. Within the three passing tests the limitations found
have been fixed towards the Kelly Passing Soccer Test, extra targets have been
implemented, less movement is required for fatigue not to be an issue and cost would not
be a consideration for recreational clubs. This makes the test more reliable and beneficial
towards the demands of the game.
3.0– Methodology
3.1 - Research design
Throughout the study, research was gathered solely experimental based. The study was a
test/re-test reliability of a football-specific passing test. Participants strictly followed a
standardised procedure and were instructed to refrain from any physical training on the
morning of the assessment. The test was conducted in a 14 square metre grid with target
gates all around the circle. Participants received passes from four different directions at
different speeds each time after the coach indicated which gate to pass the ball through.
The test then examined their first touch and passing accuracy. The entire test was video
recorded, using a total of four iPhones on four separate tripods. The resulting footage was
slowed down frame by frame using VLC media player editor, and the overall reaction
times were then calculated. To measure the test-retest reliability, participants performed
two trials of the test on the same day separated by a 15-min resting period. There was no
encouragement throughout the test; neither of the players were told how many balls was
remaining throughout any period of the testing.
3.2 - Population and sampling
The study population were 16 recreational football players. An email was sent to 28
recreational male football players with 16 players replying confirming their ability. The
order the participants take the test will be chosen at random so it will be unbiased. The
players ages ranged between 20-22, the mean age of the football players was 21. The
participants were all from the one club in county Wexford. All players a were recreational
players with none of the payers ever playing elite/semi-elite level of football. All
participants have played football since underage, train twice a week and a match on the
weekend, this ensures the players have experience. The test will be conducted in an indoor
13
complex on the same surface (and using the same footwear/balls) to allow for test/re-test
reliability.
3.3 - Ethical considerations
Ethical approval was obtained and accepted by the Waterford Institute of Technology.
Consent forms were handed out to each participant. All participants were adults and over
18. No participant was forced at any point to attempt the test and no physical harm to
participants occurred throughout the research. Each participant in the test were all
volunteers and had the right to withdraw from the study at any point they wished. All
participants involved were aware of their responsibilities and demands throughout the
test.
3.4 - Variables and concepts
Reaction-time - In football, the reaction time is the time taken for a player to react to
external match-play cues. Its importance can be transformed all over the pitch into many
situations. Players all around the pitch need to react quickly to the demands of their
position. Indeed, reaction-time can be an important difference in the outcome of football-
specific actions (e.g. claiming the ball before an opponent, executing an accurate pass
under defensive pressure).
Accuracy - Passing accuracy is essential for maintaining possession and creating
goalscoring opportunities. Keep possession and create chances or they will get
dispossessed but also, they must shoot accurately to be within a chance of scoring a goal.
Due to the demands of the game, passing accuracy by players need to be at the highest
quality to create chances and potentially win games.
Cost-effective - The Footbonaut is not feasible for teams to afford or to access. Therefore,
a cost-effective alternative must be considered for greater accessibility to clubs of
different levels. A cost-effective passing test available for recreational players which can
benefit performance which results in a better standard of players.
Passing- Passing in football is one of the most common and challenging technical skills during due to the evolution in the speed of match-play and modern tactical preference. Maintaining possession is a demand expected by professional footballers. Passing contributes hugely to chances created in a football match. Passing the ball can change the appoint of attack from defence to an attacking area.
14
3.5 - Data collection methods
3.5.1 - The Kieran Kelly Passing Test (KKPT)
The KKPT is a cost-effective passing test to improve players reaction times and vision.
Participants will be following standardized procedures. The test was conducted in a 14
square metre grid with target gates all around the circle. Participants then received passes
from four different directions at different speeds each time after the coach indicated which
gate to pass the ball through. The KKPT successfully examines players first touch and
passing accuracy. The overall test finishes after 32 balls have been completed by the
participant.
3.5.2 - Procedure
Each player was assessed on the same day and followed a set procedure. Players were
told not to conduct any physical training before the assessment. All players started the
test in the centre zone. Before entering the KKPT, the participants were allowed ten trial
attempts to familiarise themselves with the test. Participants were all informed to perform
the tests as fast and accurate as possible. Four people were then indicated to pass the ball
to the participant at different times after the coach called for the gate which the ball must
be passed through. After the ball entered through the gate, the player then swiftly returned
to the middle of the test zone to receive the next pass. After a 15-min interval, the players
were then told to rest in the hallway and prepare to do the test again so they cannot analyse
another participant. The participants all then did indeed perform the test again after the
interval and repeated the procedure of the test. Players were then notified of their results
via text message.
3.5.3 – Statistical analysis
Data was all collected experiment based. Scores were accurately measured via video
footage. The test ultimately focused on time reaction and accuracy. Video footage was
then slowed down frame by frame using VLC media player and the time was calculated
when the player took their first touch from the received pass and time was stopped when
the player passed the ball through the aimed target. If the player missed the gate, that shot
was recorded as a miss for the accuracy test, if the ball went through the intended target
it was recorded as a successful hit. An overall score was then collected, each player got
15
their overall average time reaction score and compared to the other player's attempts to
see the groups averages. Scores were then analysed using SPSS. Pearson’s correlation
and the coefficient of variation were used to assess test-retest reliability for speed and
accuracy of the entire sample. Test-retest reliability is a form of reliability that asses the
stability and precision of a construct across time. There is a baseline or “pre-test”
administration of the survey, in this case test 1, and then a post-test administration of the
same survey after a predetermined period of time or intervention. Ultimately, test retest
reliability measures the stability of scores across time. If scores from both administrations
are highly correlated with stable scores and error variances across time, then evidence of
test-retest reliability is assumed ("Use and Interpret Test-Retest Reliability in SPSS",
n.d.).
4.0 – Results
The following sections will present the findings from the football specific passing test.
This section will show the accuracy and time reaction by each participant via Test 1 and
Test 2. The results are illustrated in the form of tables and graphs. Figure 1 will show all
results, figure 2 and 3 will show accuracy Test 1 and Test 2. Figure 3 and 4 will show
time reaction via Test 1 and Test 2. Research questions will be displayed also.
4.1 - What is the reliability of accuracy in the Kieran Kelly Passing Test?
Pearson’s correlation and the coefficient of variation were used for the test-retest
reliability Test 1 concluded an overall group accuracy average of 77.3% (Figure 5). Test
2 results saw an improvement in accuracy compared to Test 1. Two participants scores
increased by 12.5% accuracy in Test 2 (Figure 7). Results showed 10 out of 12
participants improved accuracy in Test 2 compared to Test 1. Overall, there was an
average of 6.3% increase in accuracy amongst the group with a score of 83.6% (Figure
9). The most accurate score by a single participant was 93.8% which is a 6.3% increase
than the highest in Test 1. The lowest accuracy score in Test 2 was 75% which is an
increase of 6.2% (Figure 8). These results conclusively show improvement in accuracy
in all areas of the results.
After calculating accuracy mean, the Pearson’s correlation showed that the P- Value
((Sig.(2-taied)) was more than .05 (.775) then the research does not have evidence of test-
16
retest reliability. Therefore, the results of the reliability of accuracy in the KKPT is
negative.
Figure 4- Results of each participants Time Reaction and Accuracy for Test 1 and 2.
Figure 5- This table compares the means of all mean averages amongst the KKPT.
Participant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Average Time reaction Test 1 (seconds)
1.84 1.69 1.69 1.79 1.63 1.67 1.56 1.68 1.74 1.46 1.66 1.63
Average Time reaction Test 2 (seconds)
1.91 1.57 1.66 1.56 1.28 1.68 1.53 1.67 1.73 1.71 1.64 1.51
Accuracy Test 1 (%)
81.3 78.1 68.8 75 68.8 71.9 81.3 84.4 75 78.1 87.5 78.1
Accuracy Test 2 (%)
93.8 84.4 87.5 81.3 81.3 75.1 90.6 75 84.4 81.3 84.3 84.4
Test 1 (MEAN)
Accuracy out of 32
Average time reaction
Min time reaction score
Max time reaction score
Median time reaction score
SCORES 77.34% 1.67 seconds
0.87 seconds
2.93 seconds
1.66 seconds
Test 2 (MEAN)
Accuracy out of 32
Average time reaction
Min time reaction score
Max time reaction score
Median time reaction score
SCORES 83.60% 1.63 seconds
0.78 seconds
2.67 seconds
1.63 seconds
17
Figure 6- Scatter plot of Accuracy for Test 1 (pre) and Test 2 (post) for each participant.
Figure 7- Test 1 Average accuracy percentage of successful scores for each participant.
81.2578.125
68.7775
68.7771.875
81.2584.375
7578.125
87.5
78.125
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Accu
racy
(%)
Participant
18
Figure 8- Test 2 Average accuracy percentage of successful scores for each participant
Figure 9- Accuracy average percent of successful scores for the group Test 1 and Test 2. (Orange= Accuracy mean percentage successful, Blue= Average mean percentage miss)
4.2 - What is the reliability of time reaction in the Kieran Kelly Passing Test?
Pearson’s correlation and the coefficient of variation were used for the test-retest
reliability. Test 1 resulted in a mean group average of 1.67 seconds. The minimum score
by a participant in one pass was 0.87 seconds and the maximum time reaction score was
2.97 seconds for a single pass. The overall median time reaction score was 1.66 seconds
(Figure 5). Test 2 was conducted 15 minutes after Test 1. Test 2 results saw an
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Accu
racy
(%)
Participant
23%
77%
ACCURACY MEAN TEST 1
16%
84%
ACCURACY MEAN TEST 2
19
improvement in time reaction compared to Test 1. Test 2 results showed a decrease in
time reaction of a mean group average of 1.63 seconds. This is a 0.04 seconds
improvement. The minimum score by a single shot of a participant was 0.78 seconds
resulting in 0.09 seconds decrease than Test 1. The maximum score by a single participant
also decreased by 0.30 seconds with a time of 2.67 seconds. The overall median time
reaction resulted in 1.63 seconds in Test 2 (Figure 5).
After calculating the time reactions mean average, the Pearson’s correlation showed the
P-value ((Sig.(2-taied)) was more than .05 (.312) then the research does not have evidence
of test-retest reliability. Therefore, the results of the reliability of time reaction in the
KKPT are unreliable.
Figure 10 - Time reaction average score times for Test 1 (Pre) and Test 2 (Post) per participant. (Seconds)
20
Figure 11-Time reaction average score times per participant Test 1
Figure 12- Time reaction average score times per participant Test 2
1.841.69 1.69
1.791.63 1.67
1.561.68 1.74
1.46
1.66 1.63
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Seco
nds
Participants
Time reaction scores (Test 1)
1.91
1.571.66
1.56
1.28
1.68
1.53
1.671.73 1.71
1.641.51
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Seco
nds
Participants
Time Reaction scores (Test 2)
21
5.0 – Discussion
The main purpose of this dissertation was to investigate if the KKPT is a reliable test for
recreational football teams to examine time reaction and accuracy amongst their players.
Phase one of the research involved collecting information about passing tests that are
currently in place, after research, it was identified there are a limited number of tests
available for time reaction and accuracy for recreation clubs. After examining each
passing test available, limitations were examined within each of these passing tests. These
limitations had to be ensured not to be present within the KKPT. Phase two involved
finishing the design of the test to ensure the least amount of limitations possible. The
indoor location was confirmed, and the testing group were contacted for a set date. Results
concluded there was an overall decrease of reaction time by 0.04 seconds and accuracy
increased by 6.3% within the test. After interpreting the results into the Pearson’s
correlation, it was found that both time reaction and accuracy were unreliable. The
findings of this dissertation will aid researchers on how to further develop the KKPT to
be a reliable test-retest passing test. Further research is required but if applied it can help
coaches tremendously in advancing the technical development of their players at a cost-
effective price.
This chapter will talk about the results generated from the test compared to additional
relevant studies in the topic area. The chapter will answer the following research
questions.
Research questions
What is the reliability of time reaction in the Kieran Kelly Passing Test?
What is the reliability of accuracy in the Kieran Kelly Passing Test?
Can the Footbonaut be replicated in a cost-effective manner?
Will it be beneficial for recreational football clubs?
5.1 - What is the reliability of time reaction the Kieran Kelly Passing Test?
The KKPT is a new passing test being developed for recreational clubs that used to allow
athletes to be assessed in a football environment that replicates the actions experienced
throughout passing in a match day environment. A study investigating the FIFA World
Cup matches from 1966–2010 demonstrated that ball (i.e. game) speed increased by 15%
22
over the 44-year period. The player structure changed towards a higher player density,
with a 35% greater passing rate (Wallace & Norton, 2014). The KKPT focuses on time
reaction scores within each participant doing the test. Match-play has increased
significantly in intensity, which means players must release the ball quicker to retain
possession. Players reactions must be quicker to be able to cope with the pace and
demands of the game. The tests aim was to see if time reaction can be reliable within the
participants retest and if a cost-effective method to improve time reaction is available for
recreational clubs which can replicate game experience. Other passing tests such as the
Footbonaut, AccuKick and LSPT are the only tests available for time reaction, which are
either too expensive or unrealistic to match related experience.
Time reaction was calculated by the first touch of the player and by when the ball went
through the intended gate. Pearson’s correlation was used to measure the test-retest
reliability within the test. The main findings of Test 1 showed time reaction averages of
1.67 seconds per pass in the group . In Test 2 this average decreased by 0.04 seconds with
the overall group average dropping to 1.63 seconds. Results showed improvement in Test
2 in every aspect of time reaction such as average, max, min and median scores. Using
the Pearson’s correlation to identify test-retest reliability results concluded that the KKPT
was an unreliable test for time reaction.
These results differ to the work of Beavan (2018) who studied the Footbonaut to evaluate
time reaction and accuracy amongst players. The study showed acceptance of test-retest
reliability after using elite players from the ages U12-U23s to compare scores. Results of
this study concluded speed decreased with increasing age of the youngest group of players
between U12-U14 but no more differences in speed were observed between players in
the U15–U23 categories. The reasoning behind the results of this study compared to the
results of the KKPT can be due to several factors. The sample size has an impact on the
test-retest reliability results. The KKPT intended to have 16 participants however, there
were only 12 participants due to the corona virus outbreak. The Footbonaut had 152
participants taking part in the test which can have a greater influence on calculating
reliability. The Footbonaut also used a standardised ball distributer, which allows ball
distribution with a speed of 50km/hr. This is a considerable advantage compared to the
KKPT as coaches distributes the ball at different speeds for each pass, therefore, possibly
affecting the results of a player’s overall time reaction, resulting from a pass being too
slow /fast to the athlete.
23
5.2 - What is the reliability of accuracy in the Kieran Kelly Passing Test?
The second aim of this dissertation was to find if the KKPT could be a reliable test to
identify accuracy scores within the test-retest of the participants. Targets were called by
the coach with an overall aim of the player to successfully pass the ball through the
intended target. Accuracy in football can be either accurate passing or accurate shooting.
Although overall possession does not win a game conclusively, it can contribute to more
chances created (Lago & Martin, 2007). If the ball did not go through the intended target
in the test it was recorded as a miss. Test 1 concluded with an overall group accuracy
average of 77.3%. The most accurate score by a single participant was a score of 87.5%
and the lowest accuracy score being 68.8%. Test 2 was conducted 15 minutes after Test
1. Overall, there was an average of 6.26 % increase in accuracy amongst the group with
an average score of 83.6%. The most accurate score by a single participant was 93.8%,
which is a 6.3% increase on the highest score in Test 1. The lowest accuracy score in Test
2 was 75% which is an increase of 6.2% on Test 1. These results conclusively show
improvement in accuracy in all areas of the results. The results were inserted into the
Pearson’s correlation and it was concluded that accuracy in the KKPT was also unreliable.
Similar to time reaction, Beavan., (2018) examined accuracy amongst the elite players
between U12-U23s. Results concluded that U19 and U23 players were more accurate than
U12 players. The U23s (which the KKPT participants would categorise under) seen an
improvement of 7.6% accuracy compared to the KKPT seeing a 6.3% accuracy increase
in Test 2.
Reasoning behind this could be due to the use of elite players. Both the Footbonaut and
LSPT study by Le Moal et al., (2014) used elite players throughout their study. Although
the LSPT was measured for time, it required players accurately passing the ball off
benches and back to themselves to execute the next shot. Elite players are more consistent
in their ability and overall performance which can lead to more accurate results.
The AccuKick which is a cost-effective passing test is an advancement of the LSPT due
to being more realistic compared to match experiences, studies by Iacono et al,. (2018)
showed the difference in passing accuracy by U16, U17 and U19s compared to each other.
The AccuKick used 47 participants whereas the KKPT had 16. Therefore, once more,
participation numbers in the test and comparing group ages can be a future research to
determine reliability of the KKPT.
24
5.3 - Can the Footbonaut be replicated in a cost-effective manner?
The Footbonaut is a multi-million invention, making it difficult for recreational clubs to
replicate in a cost-effective manner. The Footbonaut being a passing test which can
measure performance variables such as time reaction and accuracy is why the machine is
so highly rated by the current clubs who possess the test, perhaps the overall price of the
test is why only a limited amount of clubs use the Footbonaut due to some professional
clubs not willing to invest. If professional clubs find it financially difficult to invest in,
recreational clubs would not consider measuring time reaction and accuracy using this
test. Although the performance variables of time reaction and accuracy can be developed
into a cost-effective passing test, there are many limitations that these tests will process
compared to the Footbonaut. The technology of the Footbonaut allows footballs to be fed
in at varying heights and speeds and from four different directions, as they would in a live
match. The Footbonaut has standardised ball distributions speed, which have been used
in both Beavan (2018) and Vogt (2018) studies of the Footbonaut where a set speed of
50km/hr is used for the player to receive a pass. Cost-effective passing tests will often
have coaches distributing the ball therefore no test will have the same ball distribution
speed as the Footbonaut. According to Wells (2010) the most sophisticated element of
Footbonaut is that it produces a computer printout of each player's performance measured
against speed and accuracy, which is aggregated into a point score. This can produce
ranking systems for the coach to compare performances against other players. A cost-
effective test would require recording the test and breaking down each video separately,
which could take hours even days depending on the number of participants.
Ultimately, the performance variables of time reaction and accuracy can be implemented
to a cost-effective passing test for recreational clubs. Although it is clear the passing tests
will not have the luxury features which the Footbonaut possess that makes it valuable
such as the ball dispensers.
5.4 - Will a cost-effective passing Test be beneficial for recreational
football clubs?
The aim of this dissertation was to conduct a reliable passing test to measure time reaction
and accuracy for recreational clubs. Although the KKPT was declared unreliable, it does
25
not mean that cost effective passing tests are not beneficial. More research is needed into
the test to declare it reliable, but it can have a huge influence towards future training for
coaches if further research is implemented. Two current cost-effective passing tests
available for recreational clubs are the LSPT and AccuKick. Although both tests are not
the most match related passing tests like the Footbonaut they are both reliable and can
identify the performance variables of accuracy and time reaction amongst players.
Therefore, although the Footbonaut is ultimately better and more efficient, the results
from the LSPT and AccuKick can still be useful for recreational clubs and both tests are
affordable and easy to execute making it beneficial for clubs.
With further research and development of the KKPT it can be another passing test which
can be more benefitting for clubs than the tests above.
5.5 – Thesis Limitations
Despite the advantages of the KKPT, there are a number of limitations recreational
football clubs should consider when interpreting the results of the study. Limitations are
the weaknesses which are present in the study.
Firstly, the test requires video recording each participant. The coach is required to break
down each pass for each participant to calculate time reaction and accuracy. If there are
numerous participants, breaking down the videos and interpreting the results can be a
time-consuming task.
Secondly, the sample size of the test was intended to be 16 participants. Due to the
worldwide pandemic of the corona virus, only 12 participants were ultimately tested. As
the results were concluded on 12 participants instead of the intended 16, this had a major
impact on the test-retest reliability as the intended figure could not be met.
Furthermore, the speed of the ball coming out to each participant varies, unlike the
Footbonaut, the KKPT was unable to set speed ball distribution for each person as there
is a coach passing the ball in, meaning each pass will be at different speeds which can
have an impact on results depending on the pass. The Footbonaut has standardized speeds
which allows ball distribution at a set speed. A study by T, Vogt., et al (2018) which used
the Footbonaut to study football practice, used 33 randomly assigned competitive football
players (U14 to U16) to perform a standardized Footbonaut practice pattern (i.e. 20 balls
randomly drawn at 50 km/hr each). This shows the effectiveness of being able to use the
26
Footbonaut being able to set the same pass speed leading to more reliable outcomes on
results.
The final limitation of this study was the researcher had no previous experience. This can
affect the way research was carried out as experience can have a key role to results.
6.0 - Conclusion
In summary the purpose of this study was to create a test/retest football specific passing
test to measure time reaction and accuracy. The research indicates in general that the
KKPT is an unreliable test to measure time reaction and accuracy. Tests available such
as the AccuKick and LSPT can successfully measure these performance variables at a
cost- effective price but does process limitations. These findings enhance the
understanding that recreational football clubs can use passing test to improve their players
technical skills in terms of their time reaction and accuracy instead of needing to pay
millions for passing tests such as the Footbonaut to improve their players. This indicates
that coaches should engage with cost effective passing tests to help improve players
technical abilities. It is apparent further research is needed to improve the development
of the KKPT, therefore it can result to another cost effective, match related passing test
for recreational clubs.
6.1 - Recommendations for further research
Due to the KKPT resulting as an unreliable test, there are further recommendations that
can help develop the test to become reliable. The first recommendation is to try and
conduct the test again the same way with a higher number of participants. Due to the
corona virus only 12 participants could be used which had an influence on the results as
the intended number of participants was 16 which could have made the results more
reliable.
Secondly, Further research might explore difference of time reactions and accuracy from
different ages to see if there are any changes. This would be an interesting study as the
Footbonaut focuses on the accuracy and time reaction ranging from u12/u23s. A study
comparing the overall results from the Footbonaut to the KKPT would be interesting
research to see if results of the test are still similar for the younger ages compared to the
27
older ages. The Footbonaut study by A. Beavan (2018) which looked at the Footbonaut
as a new football-specific skills test: reproducibility and age-related differences in highly
trained youth players concluded in U19 and U23 players were more accurate than U12
players, and speed decreased with increasing age in the youngest group of players (U12–
U14), it concluded that they were no more differences in speed observed between players
in the U15–U23 categories. This would be interesting to compare with the KKPT if the
same age groups and number of participants were used.
Another interesting topic is to research the different positions players play on a team and
see if there are difference in time reaction and accuracy amongst them. This study would
be to compare different positions and sections on a team to see if a certain position has
better technical passing players who are quicker and more accurate compared to other set
positions. Often the argument in recreational football is the best passing players are
midfielders, so this study would be interesting to put this view into test.
A further possibility of research is that the LSPT test compares between elite and non-
elite players. The KKPT test has studied recreational players, so to compare elite players
results would be interesting to see if they get faster reaction times and better accuracy.
Also, it would be interesting to see the retest results if it has an effect on reliability. Both
the Footbonaut and LSPT past studies involved elite players. Elite participants can result
in more consistent ability, this can result in greater reliability in the KKPT.
The final recommendation would be to investigate passing tests within non elite and elite
women’s teams to see the difference in accuracy and reaction times. There is limited
research on these performance variables amongst women teams which would make an
interesting study.
All these research ideas could help coaches in the near future, by adapting their training
methods to affiliate the needs of improving their players technical skills by conducting
passing tests instead of just passing training drills throughout a session. These passing
tests could influence a major improvement in standard of players within a recreational set
up and best-case scenario result in a player going elite level.
28
References Beavan, A., Fransen, J., Spielmann, J., Mayer, J., Skorski, S., & Meyer, T. (2019). The Footbonaut as a new football-specific skills test: reproducibility and age-related differences in highly trained youth players. Science and Medicine in Football, 3(3), 177-182.
Boksem, M. A. S., & Tops, M. (2008). Mental fatigue: Costs and benefits. Brain Research Reviews, 59(1), 125–139. doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.07.001
Coutts, A. J. (2016). Fatigue in football: it's not a brainless task!. Journal of Sports Sciences, 34(14), 1296.
Fernandez-Navarro, J., Fradua, L., Zubillaga, A., & McRobert, A. (2019). Evaluating the effectiveness of styles of play in elite soccer. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 14(4), 514-527. doi: 10.1177/1747954119855361
Fortes, L., Lima-Junior, D., Nascimento-Júnior, J., Costa, E., Matta, M., & Ferreira, M. (2019). Effect of exposure time to smartphone apps on passing decision-making in male soccer athletes. Psychology Of Sport And Exercise, 44, 35-41. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2019.05.001
Iacono, A. D., Basevitch, I., Bracha, B., & Halperin, I. (2018, October 31). The AccuKick football passing test: Reliability, discriminate ability, and correlations with athletic capabilities. Retrieved from osf.io/gnm89
Lago, C., & Martín, R. (2007). Determinants of possession of the ball in soccer. Journal of sports sciences, 25(9), 969-974.
Le Moal, E., Rué, O., Ajmol, A., Abderrahman, A., Hammami, M., & Ounis, O. et al. (2014). Validation of the Loughborough Soccer Passing Test in Young Soccer Players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 28(5), 1418-1426. doi: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000000296
McGuckian, T. B., Cole, M. H., Jordet, G., Chalkley, D., & Pepping, G. J. (2018). Don’t turn blind! The relationship between exploration before ball possession and on-ball performance in association football. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2520.
Meet the Footbonaut, the futuristic pass-master currently firing Borussia Dortmund and Hoffenheim. (2018). Retrieved 3 May 2020, from https://www.bundesliga.com/en/news/Bundesliga/borussia-dortmund-and-hoffenheim-use-footbonaut-to-hone-their-passing-skills-464313.jsp
Mohr, M., Krustrup, P., & Bangsbo, J. (2003). Match performance of high-standard soccer players with special reference to development of fatigue. Journal of Sports Sciences, 21(7), 519–528. doi:10.1080/0264041031000071182
Rampinini, E., Impellizzeri, F. M., Castagna, C., Coutts, A. J., & Wisløff, U. (2009). Technical performance during soccer matches of the Italian Serie A league: Effect of fatigue and competitive level. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 12(1), 227–233. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2007.10.002
29
Rein, R., Raabe, D., & Memmert, D. (2017). “Which pass is better?” Novel approaches to assess passing effectiveness in elite soccer. Human Movement Science, 55, 172–181. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2017.07.010
Russell, M., Benton, D., & Kingsley, M. (2011). The Effects of Fatigue on Soccer Skills Performed During a Soccer Match Simulation. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 6(2), 221-233. doi: 10.1123/ijspp.6.2.221
Smith, M., Coutts, A., Merlini, M., Deprez, D., Lenoir, M., & Marcora, S. (2016). Mental Fatigue Impairs Soccer-Specific Physical and Technical Performance. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 48(2), 267-276. doi: 10.1249/mss.0000000000000762
Thompson, C., Fransen, J., Skorski, S., Smith, M., Meyer, T., Barrett, S., & Coutts, A. (2018). Mental Fatigue in Football: Is it Time to Shift the Goalposts? An Evaluation of the Current Methodology. Sports Medicine, 49(2), 177-183. doi: 10.1007/s40279-018-1016-z
Use and Interpret Test-Retest Reliability in SPSS. Retrieved 1 May 2020, from https://www.scalelive.com/Test-retest-reliability.html
Vogt, T., Gassen, S., Wrede, S., Spielmann, J., Jedrusiak-Jung, M., Härtel, S., & Mayer, J. (2018). Football practice with youth players in the “Footbonaut”. German Journal Of Exercise And Sport Research, 48(3), 341-348. doi: 10.1007/s12662-018-0514-3
Wells, H. (2010). Footbonaut. World of Soccer Newsletter, (51), p.1.
5 Technologies in Soccer. (2019). Retrieved 18 October 2019, from https://tomspassassignment.weebly.com/5-technologies-in-soccer.html
30
Appendices Appendix A- Opt-out letter
Appendix B- Letter to the club
Appendix C- Participant information sheet
31
Appendix A: Opt-Out letter My name is Kieran Kelly and I am a full-time undergraduate studying Bachelor of Business in Sport and Recreation Management in Waterford Institute of Technology.
I am carrying out some research on the Reliability of a test retest football specific passing test which is solely experiment based.
The focus of this study is to see if the Kieran Kelly Passing Test is a reliable test retest to measure time reaction and accuracy for recreational football clubs.
The research will begin March and the tests will be conducted on the one day.
I am asking for you to kindly volunteer to partake in this study as you match the criteria for the research (recreational football player)
All information collected is private and no personal details are needed. Every participant has the right to withdraw from the study at any time they want, and no participant will be forced to be involved in this study.
If you are unhappy to be involved in the study or have any questions do feel free to ask me or contact me through my email which is Kieran-kelly98@@hotmail.com or the health of department at WIT on 051845554 or healthscience@wit.ie or my supervisor Christopher Thompson on CThompson@wit.ie.
Kind regards,
Kieran Kelly.
32
Appendix B- Letter to club Dear Mr Lynch,
I am a fourth-year student in Waterford Institute of Technology studying Hons in Sport Business and recreation management. In order to obtain my final degree at the end of the year I must complete a dissertation. The topic I have chosen is a “Test/re-test Reliability of a Football specific passing test”. In order to complete this dissertation, I need volunteers of participants to partake in a football passing test, but the participants need to be performing at a recreational level. The research will involve as follows:
• Two passing football tests, 15 minutes apart from each other
I would greatly appreciate your club’s participation in this research. I have inserted a list of questions that seem valid to be answered.
When will the research take place?
The test will be conducted on the 22nd of March
Why should your club be involved?
If the test is found to be reliable, your club will have first access to a test that can measure time reaction and accuracy to better performance.
What is required of you to be involved?
I would like to meet you and the agreed participants to talk about the consent and arrangements of the test. This will allow you and the participants a chance to ask any questions you wish.
Lastly, I would like to take this opportunity to thank you for taking your time to read this letter and considering my research proposal. I look forward to hearing from you soon.
Yours faithfully,
Kieran Kelly
33
Appendix C- Participant information sheet
I …………….. voluntarily agree to participate in this research study.
I understand that even if I agree to participate now, I can withdraw at any time or refuse to answer any question without any consequence.
I understand that I can withdraw permission to use data from my interview within two weeks after
the interview, in which case the material will be deleted.
� I have had the purpose and nature of the study explained to me in writing and I have had the opportunity to ask questions about the study.
� I understand that participation involves a football passing test to measure accuracy and time reaction.
� I understand that I will not benefit directly from participating in this research.
� I understand that all information I provide for this study will be treated confidentially.
� I understand that in any report on the results of this research my identity will remain anonymous.
� I understand that under freedom of information legalisation I am entitled to access the information I have provided at any time while it is in storage as specified above.
� I understand that I am free to contact any of the people involved in the research to seek further
clarification and information.
Names, degrees, affiliations and contact details of researchers (and academic supervisors when relevant).
Signature of research participant
----------------------------------------- ----------------
Signature of participant Date
Signature of researcher
I believe the participant is giving informed consent to participate in this study
------------------------------------------ ----------------------
Signature of researcher Date