Test/re-Test Reliability of a Football Specific Passing Test Kieran Kelly A dissertation submitted in part fulfilment of the requirement for the BBS (Honours) in Recreation and Sport Management

May 2020

Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences

Supervisor: Chris Thompson

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Statement of Originality and Ownership of Work

Department of Health, Sport and Exercise Science

BB (Hons) Recreation and Sports Management

Name: Kieran Kelly.

I confirm that all the work submitted in this dissertation is my own work, not copied from any other person’s work (published or unpublished) and that it has not previously been submitted for assessment on any other course, in any other college institution.

Double click the following box and select ‘ticked’ to agree with above statement: þ

Date: 03/05/2020

Student Number: 20075468

Address: The Railway,

Ballywilliam,

Enniscorthy,

Co.Wexford

Word processor word count: 8656

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Acknowledgements

I would like to extend my sincere thanks to my supervisor Christopher Thompson for all

his help and guidance throughout this thesis. You constantly went out of your way for me

and I truly can’t thank you enough for how helpful you have been. This year wouldn’t

have been possible without your help, thanks again.

I would also like to thank Dr. Patrick Delaney for all the additional help, sorry for all the

added questions asked!

To my mother, Anne Marie, who has been my motivator in college the past 4 years, I am

honestly so grateful for everything you have given me and without you, college would

have not been possible for me. You are the strongest person I know mentally and thank

you for everything.

To my classmates in Rec man, thanks so much for the 4 years, special mention to Alan

Ryan and Diarmuid Leahy. My God we had some laugh. Also, a shout out to my friends

at home, thanks for always putting me at ease away from college work. I can’t express

how much it meant to me also.

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Contents

List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................. vi

Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... vii

1.0 – Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1

2.0 Literature Review ................................................................................................................. 3

2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 3

2.2 – Passing in football match-play .......................................................................................... 3

2.2.1 - Possession statistics in football ...................................................................................... 3

2.2.2 - Effect of passing modality on goalscoring opportunities ............................................... 4

2.2.3 - Styles of play ................................................................................................................... 5

2.3 – The influence of fatigue on passing ability ....................................................................... 5

2.3.1 - Influence of physical fatigue on passing performance ................................................... 5

2.3.2 - Influence of mental fatigue on passing ability ................................................................ 6

2.4 – Tests used to measure passing accuracy in football ........................................................ 7

2.4.1 - LSPT ............................................................................................................................... 7

2.4.2 – AccuKick ........................................................................................................................ 8

2.4.3 – Footbonaut ................................................................................................................... 10

2.4.4 - Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 11

2.4.5 – Rationale ...................................................................................................................... 11

3.0– Methodology ...................................................................................................................... 12

3.1 - Research design ............................................................................................................... 12

3.2 - Population and sampling ................................................................................................. 12

3.3 - Ethical considerations ..................................................................................................... 13

3.4 - Variables and concepts .................................................................................................... 13

3.5 - Data collection methods ................................................................................................... 14

3.5.1 - The Kieran Kelly Passing Test (KKPT) ........................................................................ 14

3.5.2 - Procedure ..................................................................................................................... 14

3.5.3 – Statistical analysis ........................................................................................................ 14

4.0 – Results ............................................................................................................................... 15

4.1 - What is the reliability of accuracy in the Kieran Kelly Passing Test? ............................ 15

4.2 - What is the reliability of time reaction in the Kieran Kelly Passing Test? ..................... 18

5.0 – Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 21

5.1 - What is the reliability of time reaction the Kieran Kelly Passing Test? ......................... 21

5.2 - What is the reliability of accuracy in the Kieran Kelly Passing Test? ............................ 23

5.3 - Can the Footbonaut be replicated in a cost-effective manner? ....................................... 24

5.4 - Will a cost-effective passing Test be beneficial for recreational football clubs? ............ 24

5.5 – Thesis Limitations ........................................................................................................... 25

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6.0 - Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 26

6.1 - Recommendations for further research ........................................................................... 26

References .................................................................................................................................. 28

Appendices ................................................................................................................................ 30

Appendix A: Opt-Out letter ..................................................................................................... 31

Appendix B- Letter to club ...................................................................................................... 32

Appendix C- Participant information sheet ............................................................................. 33

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List of Figures

Figure 1- A schematic representation of the Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (Le Moal et al., 2014) ............................................................................................................................................. 8

Figure 2- A visualisation of the AccuKick (Dello Iacono, Basevitch, Bracha & Halperin,2019) 9

Figure 3- A schematic drawing of the Footbonaut (Beavan et al., 2018). .................................. 11

Figure 4- Results of each participants Time Reaction and Accuracy for Test 1 and 2. .............. 15

Figure 5- This table compares the means of all mean averages amongst the KKPT .................. 16

Figure 6- Scatter plot of Accuracy for Test 1 (pre) and Test 2 (post) for each participant. ....... 17

Figure 7- Test 1 Accuracy percentage for each participant. ...................................................... 17

Figure 8- Test 2 Accuracy percentage for each participant ....................................................... 18

Figure 9- Accuracy average percent for the group Test 1 and Test 2. ....................................... 18

Figure 10 - Time reaction average Test (Pre) and Test 2 (Post) per participant. (Seconds) ..... 19

Figure 11-Time reaction average per participant Test 1 ............................................................ 20

Figure 12- Time reaction average per participant Test 2 ........................................................... 20

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List of Abbreviations

LSPT- Loughborough Soccer Passing Test

KKPT- Kieran Kelly Passing Test

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Abstract

Overview - The purpose of this study is to research the test/retest reliability of the Kieran

Kelly Passing Test (KKPT). Furthermore, to examine the performance variables of time

reaction and accuracy amongst the test. In additional research the study will investigate

if a cost-effective passing test can be beneficial for recreational clubs.

Method - This research used an experimental approach solely. The test was completed

by 12 reactional football players (mean age of 20 years old). The test was completed on

the one day with each person doing two tests separated by a 15-minute interval. The data

gathered by the test was broken down frame by frame via VLC media player to gather the

time reaction scores of each pass and the accuracy of the pass.

Results- The research found that the KKPT is an unreliable test for time reaction and

accuracy. There was no significant difference in time reaction, scores resulted in an

overall average of 0.04 difference between Test 1 and Test 2. Furthermore, the accuracy

test was also found to be unreliable with a group average of 7.4% increase in accuracy.

Conclusion- The KKPT was found to unreliable for accuracy and time reaction. There

are limitations that can be changed towards the test that can change the outcome of the

reliability. It is conclusive that football passing tests can improve with time reaction and

accuracy within players. Further research is needed to examine the difference in time

reaction and accuracy amongst different age groups within the KKPT with a greater

number of participants to study.

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1.0 – Introduction

Over the past half century, football match-play speed and technical performance has

evolved. Matches are evidently becoming quicker, intensity levels have increased,

meaning athletes need to perform at the best of their ability to be able to deal with the

demands of the current game (Wallace & Norton, 2014). By the overall advancement of

the game, performance variables such as time reaction are becoming more important. The

demands of an athlete are increasing with the demand of the game. Research conducted

by (Lago & Martin, 2007, Rampinini, Impellizzeri, Castagna, Coutts & Wisløff, 2009 and

Russell, Rees & Kingsley, 2013) show the overall advancement of possession in the

different professional leagues. It outlines a greater knowledge towards the importance of

possession can have on the outcome of a football match and it identifies the need for

players to be able to technically perform on the ball to withstand the demand of the game.

In elite football, teams are likely to use passing drills to aid players adjust to the high-

speed demands of match-play. One example is the Footbonaut. Designed to the highest

possible technical standards Footbonaut is a four-sided ball feeding machine, on a 20-

metre square grid, with a synthetic grass surface, which provides a non-stop service of

footballs to the receiving player. The Footbonaut allows balls to be played into the

participants at different heights and speeds from four different directions (Wells, 2010).

The overall costs of these tests are too expensive for recreational clubs to consider getting

as most professional clubs are unable to afford them. The Footbonaut tests for time

reaction and accuracy scores within the elite players. However, there are two other

passing tests available for recreational clubs which measure time reaction and accuracy.

The LSPT and AccuKick are both reliable tests to measure these performance variables

but does not represent the realistic nature of football within the test itself. Due to the fact

there are limited cost-effective passing tests for recreational clubs to develop skills such

as the Footbonaut, there is a requirement to design a skill test solely for the purpose of

benefitting recreational players to improve their technical skills.

Once the test is created, the purpose of the test will be to examine the reliability of time

reaction and accuracy within the designed test on recreational players to see if a cost-

effective passing test to measure these performance variables are reliable and beneficial

for all clubs.

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The following chapter will discuss the current literature in the development of football

match-play, the influence of passing in football match-play, the effect fatigue can have

on passing and the common accuracy tests currently available for teams. The next section

will discuss the methods used to carry out the research and data collection, which will be

followed by the results chapter. Afterwards, a discussion will be presented in relation to

current literature, limitations present within the study and recommendations for further

research. Lastly, a conclusion will close the dissertation.

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2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

Research has demonstrated that the speed of football match-play has significantly

increased over the last fifty years. A study investigating the FIFA World Cup matches

from 1966–2010 demonstrated that ball (i.e. game) speed increased by 15% over the 44-

year period. The player structure changed towards a higher player density, with a 35%

greater passing rate (Wallace & Norton, 2014). Match-play has increased significantly in

intensity, which means players must release the ball quicker to retain possession. Players

reactions must be much quicker to be able to cope with the pace and demands of the game.

According to McGuckian, Cole, Jordet, Chalkley & Pepping (2018), an increase in head

movement of scanning left and right 10 seconds before encountering the ball increases

the likelihood of retention of the ball. Furthermore, players who turn their head before

receiving the ball resulted in a greater likelihood of turning with the ball and successful

passes. The overall advancement of the game means vision and time reactions are

becoming more important in retaining possession in football matches. Players then need

to train passing to perform at the highest quality. There are a few football-specific passing

tests that exist, but they have limitations. There is a need for a novel passing test which is

cost-effective and accessible to a greater population. Therefore, the purpose of this

dissertation is to measure the test/re-test reliability of a cost-effective novel football

passing test which can be used by recreational clubs. The following literature review will

discuss the importance of passing in football, factors influencing passing ability and

available tests which measure passing accuracy.

2.2 – Passing in football match-play

2.2.1 - Possession statistics in football

Modern elite football has predominantly altered into a possession-based tactical outlook.

Indeed, being in possession of the ball can lead to more opportunities created and

successful match outcome. Match-play data from the past fifteen years has demonstrated

the importance of possession and passing accuracy. For example, a study of the

determinants of the possession of the ball in 170 La Liga matches from 2003-2004

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concluded that home teams have more possession of the ball than away teams. There is

also a 6% increase in possession at home compared to away. Although overall possession

does not win a game conclusively, it can contribute to more chances created (Lago &

Martin, 2007). Additional research distinguished between technical performance of Serie

A match-play, concluding that players from the successful teams (which were ranked in

the top five positions in the league) had more involvement with the ball than the less

successful teams (which were ranked in the bottom five of the league). This showed there

was more completed short passes, successful short passes, dribbling and shots compared

to the less successful team. It also stated a significant decline for both physical and

technical scores (involvements with the ball, short passes and successful short passes)

between the first and second half of matches (Rampinini, Impellizzeri, Castagna, Coutts

& Wisløff, 2009). Passing in football is a difficult task to maintain throughout a whole

match as there are many factors that can affect the overall possession of a team such as

fatigue, concentration and environmental issues. Further work (Russell, Rees & Kingsley,

2013) assessing the technical demands of the English Championship (23 games from the

2010/2011 season) showed that total possessions and number of ball distributions were

lower in the second half versus the first half of match play. Analysis across 15-minute

intervals revealed reductions during the last 15-minutes of match play in the total number

of possessions and distribution. To summarise, research has demonstrated that the number

of passes can play a key part in match outcome and differs between successful and

unsuccessful teams.

2.2.2 - Effect of passing modality on goalscoring opportunities

Whilst research has demonstrated the impact of the number of passes performed in a

match, the length of these passes is currently under-researched. Indeed, passes may be

short or long, and each team likely varies in passing philosophy. A recent study (Rein,

Raabe & Memmert, 2017) measured the modality of passing in relation to majority

situations and space control in front of goal from 103 German Bundesliga games (2011-

2012 to 2014-2015 seasons). To calculate the effects of passing behaviour on majority

situations, a straightforward approach can be obtained by calculating the number of

defenders between the ball carrier and the goal and then the pass. If the number of

defenders increased, it would be a negative pass, and if it decreased, it would be

considered a positive pass. Space control was estimated by using Voronoi-diagrams based

on player’s position on the pitch. Results showed changes in space dominance for the

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attacking third area are shown as a function of pass type. Furthermore, it showed that both

measures are related to successful gameplay with respect to the number of goals scored

and the probability of winning the game. Lastly, it revealed that passes from the midfield

to the attacking area are most effective. This study suggests that short passes are more

beneficial towards the creating of space and chances. However, the results of this study

must be interpreted with caution as it represents solely one league. Indeed, further

research is required from different leagues and teams to strengthen these findings.

2.2.3 - Styles of play

In football, there are many styles of play such as (but not limited to) possession-dominant

play (attempting to spend more time with the ball than the opposition), direct play

(attempting to successfully complete predominantly long passes forward) and the use of

counter attacks (attacking at speed when the opposition momentarily loses defensive

shape). Indeed, each team has their own style of play and may adopt different tactical

systems dependent on the opposition and the ongoing match-play scenario (i.e.

winning/losing). Research has demonstrated that each style of play has varying outcomes

on match-play performance. Fernandez-Navarro, Fradua, Zubillaga & McRobert (2019)

studied 380 matches of the 2015/16 English Premier League season, 38 games studied

each from the 20 teams in the league. A computerised match analysis tracking system

showed that the effectiveness of direct play, counterattacks, maintenance and crossing

increased significantly when teams were winning by one or two goals. Counterattacks

were more effective when winning by a goal and decreased effectiveness when losing by

one goal. Direct play was more effective when losing by two goals or more. Playing away

matches can negatively affect a team’s tactical approach (such as direct play, maintenance

of the ball and high pressure) due to home advantage of the opponents. In addition,

playing a higher quality opponent reduces the overall effectiveness of all styles of play.

The overall effectiveness of styles of play can change under specific circumstances and

that not all variables affect teams in the same way.

2.3 – The influence of fatigue on passing ability

2.3.1 - Influence of physical fatigue on passing performance

Match-play data in elite football has shown that players cover over 10km, with a variation

in high-speed running and sprinting distances (Mohr et al. 2003). This study also reported

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that transient fatigue is incurred through football match-play, which can influence

technical performance. In one study, Russell, Benton & Kingsley, (2011) examined the

effects of exercise-induced fatigue on passing, shooting and dribbling through simulated

match play. Results concluded that shooting accuracy decreased by 25.5% compared to

pre-exercise conditions, and that passing speed in the last 15 minutes were 7.8% slower

than the starting 15 minutes. Shot and pass speeds also were slower during the second

half compared to the first half of testing. Dribbling overall was not affected by exercise.

Although, this study was conducted in a laboratory setting and not a full 90-minute match

which can affect results. In a more ecologically valid setting, Rampinini, Impellizzeri,

Castagna, Coutts & Wisløff, (2009) measured the effect of fatigue on technical

performance during a total of 416 individual Italian Serie A matches studying 186 football

players aged from 27-31. The purpose of this study was to examine the changes in

technical and physical performance between the first and second half during the matches.

Results concluded that only three technical measures from the first half to the second half

decreased. The overall involvement with the ball decreased by 9%. The total number of

short passes and successful short passes both decreased by 11% also. Overall, physical

fatigue negatively impacts football-specific performance. Fitness levels of professionals

is important to maintain required performance throughout the match. Players who fatigue

can ultimately make more mistakes which can affect the result of a match. Indeed, fatigue

is a complex phenomenon, and further research is required to strengthen the current

findings.

2.3.2 - Influence of mental fatigue on passing ability Mental fatigue refers to the feeling that people may experience after or during prolonged

periods of cognitive activity. This feeling is very common in everyday modern life and

can involve tiredness or even exhaustion, a feeling to give up with the present activity,

and a decrease in the level of commitment to the task at hand (Boksem, 2008). Coutts

(2016) theorises that mental fatigue arises during matches, where players must remain

vigilant and make numerous decisions.

A study by (Smith et al. 2016) focuses on how mental fatigue impairs football-specific

physical and technical performance. Mental fatigue was introduced using a 30-minute

modified Stroop colour word task. This demands response inhibition and sustained

attention which has been previously shown to induce mental fatigue. Participants then

had to do the LSPT straight after. Results concluded LSPT original time was not

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significantly different between conditions; however, in the mental fatigue state penalty

time increased as the intended targets were missed. Average shot sequence time was

slower during the mental fatigue condition. Although the results being conclusive,

however, the Stroop task does not support ecological validity, and future research must

investigate real-life causations of mental fatigue and use football and lifestyle-specific

cognitive tasks to induce mental fatigue (Thompson et al. 2018).

In another study (Fortes et al., 2019) examined the effect of exposure time to smartphone

applications on the passing decision- making performance in professional football

athletes. Twenty football athletes aged 18-35 years participated in the study. Male football

athletes participated in four randomized conditions. 15 min, 30 min and 45 min

smartphone exposure, the Stroop test assessed the overall level of mental fatigue before

and after each experimental condition. The participants then played a simulated football

match, which was filmed to analyse passing decision- making performance. Results

concluded an impairment for passing decision making performance with 30 min and 45

min smartphone exposure.

2.4 – Tests used to measure passing accuracy in football

There have been several tests designed to measure passing skills in football; including the

Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT), the AccuKick and the Footbonaut. The

following section of the literature review will discuss each of these tests.

2.4.1 - LSPT

The first passing test examined is the Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT). The

test is used to measure passing accuracy and reaction time. The LSPT is conducted by

using four benches as rebound boards on four different lines. Four coloured targets areas

(green, red, blue and yellow) were attached in the middle of each board. In addition,

another black target is attached in the middle of the targeted areas and 1 second was

deducted from there total time each time they hit the attended target. Coloured cones are

used to distinguish the different zones. Participants start with the ball positioned by the

central cone, and the examiner begins timing the test (using data acquisition software

specially designed for the study for more efficient data collection) from the moment the

ball is played outside the inner rectangle. The specific colour is called out by the coach

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just before the participant completes the current pass (Le Moal et al. 2014). The LSPT is

a reliable and valid test that has been used as a measure of passing performance in

previous football research (Smith et al. 2016). The validity of the LSPT was assessed by

comparing performances of elite, sub-elite and non-elite players. In this study, the main

effect group of the test were elite players who scored 44.2% and 65.2% greater

performance than sub-elite and non-elite players respectively. Sub-elite players showed

14.6% greater performance scores than non-elite players (Le Moal Et al. 2014). The LSPT

was able to distinguish players from their playing levels; this gives the possibility to

examine the passing skills of players. The LSPT is limited as there are only four targets

the participants must pass the ball too. This lacks complexity compared to match play of

football. During a match, players are subjected to numerous cognitive cues and processes

which provides greater complexity than four targets. The movement demand of the test

does not isolate skill performance. The movement required of the test can cause fatigue

towards the player which can affect their results.

Figure 1- A schematic representation of the Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (Le Moal et al., 2014

2.4.2 – AccuKick The AccuKick is another passing test and is an improvement on the LSPT as it is a more

realistic match related passing test. The AccuKick measures passing accuracy and time

to ball release under time constraints. This is a cost-effective test which measures passing

accuracy and time reaction by using footballs, cones and sensors. The coach passes in a

ball which must be placed through the selected cone designated by the coach. Time is

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calculated between when the coach passes the ball and when the ball is passed through

the gate by sensors. As demonstrated in recent research (Dello Iacono, Basevitch, Bracha

& Halperin, 2018), test-retest reliability was accepted and constructed by the distinction

of the different age and role of football players and the similarity between the AccuKick

results with other implemented physical tests that were examined. Test-retest reliability

was investigated on two separate days, three days apart by repeating the AccuKick and

comparing the results among three age groups (U16s, U17s, U19s). Following the tests,

over a two-week period the athletes completed physical tests. AccuKick was found to be

reliable, as measured across two testing days to have high levels of discriminant towards

the ability of football players at different levels as measured in passing performance.

AccuKick results found a clear differential between age groups by a measure of passing

accuracy. U19s were 8% more accurate than U17s and 22% more accurate than the U16s

group. The U17s were also more accurate in passing than the U16s by a 4% margin.

Despite the positives of the AccuKick, it does process some major limitations. The

Accukick is one dimensional from its approach. When performing the test, the player

knows where the ball is being played from each time as it is only the coach who passes

the ball in, which allows for greater anticipation. Indeed, match-play is characterised by

unpredictable passages of play with external distractions, which may impair passing

performance.

Figure 2- A visualisation of the AccuKick (Dello Iacono, Basevitch, Bracha & Halperin,2019)

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2.4.3 – Footbonaut The Footbonaut has been designed efficiently to measure players short-passing ability.

Developed by Christian Guettler in Berlin (Wells, 2010), only four Footbonauts currently

exists, which are situated around the world (Borussia Dortmund, TSG 1899 Hoffenheim,

Russia and Qatar). The design of the Footbonaut is a four-sided ball machine, on a 20-

metre square grid with 64/72 gates and synthetic grass surface providing a frequent

service of footballs to the receiving player. The technology allows footballs to be

distributed at different heights and speeds and from four different directions. Players must

attempt to pass the ball as efficiently and accurately into one of the 64/72 randomly

highlighted gates as quickly as possible. The test is connected to an iPad device which

displays each players performance (number of accurate passes, average time per pass

completion). The Footbonaut produces a technical ranking system which can be used to

compare the results of players and measure improvements of each player at separate

intervals. Subsequently, this data can be used to compare the technical ability of each

position on the team. Essentially, the Footbonaut provides an objective measure of each

individual's technical ability in a learning environment similar to a match situation.

A study by Beavan et al., (2018), assessed the test-retest reliability of the Footbonaut. The

study was conducted from U13-U23, who was assessed on separate days but followed the

same procedures. The participants completed two bouts of the Footbonaut (32 balls each

round). The athletes performed two sessions on the same day and received a 15-min

resting period in-between tests. Throughout the players sessions, no encouragement was

used nor were the players informed how many balls remained at any point. Players were

provided with their results (accuracy and speed of the passes) upon completion of each

session. Results concluded U19 and U23 players were more accurate than U12 players.

There were no differences observed in speed between players of U15-U23 teams, but

speed decreased when it came to U12-U14. Accuracy, speed and points demonstrated

acceptable test-retest reliability.

Indeed, a major limitation of the Footbonaut is the cost. The cost is valued at 3.5million

Dollars ("5 Technologies in Soccer", 2019) which in comparison is 3.1 million Euro,

which does not consider the annual maintenance costs. This expense would deter many

elite clubs from purchasing it and rule out the possibility of a sub-elite/recreational team

from obtaining access to such technology.

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Figure 3- A schematic drawing of the Footbonaut (Beavan et al., 2018).

2.4.4 - Conclusion

To summarise, passing in football is an important variable to successful match outcome.

Indeed, high possession of the ball can increase the number of opportunities created. Two

valid and reliable football-specific passing accuracy tests have been used as a marker of

performance in previous literature.

Overall, the technical demands of football match play have increased in recent years, with

evidence demonstrating an increase in the speed of match-play. Players vision and

reaction time can have a significant factor in keeping possession in a match which can

lead to more chances created. Research has demonstrated that passing performance can

vary between playing style adopted by a team and the playing standard of the team.

Furthermore, physical and mental fatigue has been demonstrated to impair passing

performance in laboratory and match-play settings. Therefore, it is essential to the use of

reliable tests to measure passing accuracy. Overall, the LSPT, Accukick and the

Footbonaut are reliable measurements of passing accuracy but consist of limitations.

2.4.5 – Rationale

Within these three passing tests, there are clear limitations that hold back the overall

effectiveness of the test. An example is being too expensive, one dimensional and too

unrealistic. There is a need for a new passing test which can benefit participants with

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results but without the limitations. Within the three passing tests the limitations found

have been fixed towards the Kelly Passing Soccer Test, extra targets have been

implemented, less movement is required for fatigue not to be an issue and cost would not

be a consideration for recreational clubs. This makes the test more reliable and beneficial

towards the demands of the game.

3.0– Methodology

3.1 - Research design

Throughout the study, research was gathered solely experimental based. The study was a

test/re-test reliability of a football-specific passing test. Participants strictly followed a

standardised procedure and were instructed to refrain from any physical training on the

morning of the assessment. The test was conducted in a 14 square metre grid with target

gates all around the circle. Participants received passes from four different directions at

different speeds each time after the coach indicated which gate to pass the ball through.

The test then examined their first touch and passing accuracy. The entire test was video

recorded, using a total of four iPhones on four separate tripods. The resulting footage was

slowed down frame by frame using VLC media player editor, and the overall reaction

times were then calculated. To measure the test-retest reliability, participants performed

two trials of the test on the same day separated by a 15-min resting period. There was no

encouragement throughout the test; neither of the players were told how many balls was

remaining throughout any period of the testing.

3.2 - Population and sampling

The study population were 16 recreational football players. An email was sent to 28

recreational male football players with 16 players replying confirming their ability. The

order the participants take the test will be chosen at random so it will be unbiased. The

players ages ranged between 20-22, the mean age of the football players was 21. The

participants were all from the one club in county Wexford. All players a were recreational

players with none of the payers ever playing elite/semi-elite level of football. All

participants have played football since underage, train twice a week and a match on the

weekend, this ensures the players have experience. The test will be conducted in an indoor

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complex on the same surface (and using the same footwear/balls) to allow for test/re-test

reliability.

3.3 - Ethical considerations

Ethical approval was obtained and accepted by the Waterford Institute of Technology.

Consent forms were handed out to each participant. All participants were adults and over

18. No participant was forced at any point to attempt the test and no physical harm to

participants occurred throughout the research. Each participant in the test were all

volunteers and had the right to withdraw from the study at any point they wished. All

participants involved were aware of their responsibilities and demands throughout the

test.

3.4 - Variables and concepts

Reaction-time - In football, the reaction time is the time taken for a player to react to

external match-play cues. Its importance can be transformed all over the pitch into many

situations. Players all around the pitch need to react quickly to the demands of their

position. Indeed, reaction-time can be an important difference in the outcome of football-

specific actions (e.g. claiming the ball before an opponent, executing an accurate pass

under defensive pressure).

Accuracy - Passing accuracy is essential for maintaining possession and creating

goalscoring opportunities. Keep possession and create chances or they will get

dispossessed but also, they must shoot accurately to be within a chance of scoring a goal.

Due to the demands of the game, passing accuracy by players need to be at the highest

quality to create chances and potentially win games.

Cost-effective - The Footbonaut is not feasible for teams to afford or to access. Therefore,

a cost-effective alternative must be considered for greater accessibility to clubs of

different levels. A cost-effective passing test available for recreational players which can

benefit performance which results in a better standard of players.

Passing- Passing in football is one of the most common and challenging technical skills during due to the evolution in the speed of match-play and modern tactical preference. Maintaining possession is a demand expected by professional footballers. Passing contributes hugely to chances created in a football match. Passing the ball can change the appoint of attack from defence to an attacking area.

14

3.5 - Data collection methods

3.5.1 - The Kieran Kelly Passing Test (KKPT)

The KKPT is a cost-effective passing test to improve players reaction times and vision.

Participants will be following standardized procedures. The test was conducted in a 14

square metre grid with target gates all around the circle. Participants then received passes

from four different directions at different speeds each time after the coach indicated which

gate to pass the ball through. The KKPT successfully examines players first touch and

passing accuracy. The overall test finishes after 32 balls have been completed by the

participant.

3.5.2 - Procedure

Each player was assessed on the same day and followed a set procedure. Players were

told not to conduct any physical training before the assessment. All players started the

test in the centre zone. Before entering the KKPT, the participants were allowed ten trial

attempts to familiarise themselves with the test. Participants were all informed to perform

the tests as fast and accurate as possible. Four people were then indicated to pass the ball

to the participant at different times after the coach called for the gate which the ball must

be passed through. After the ball entered through the gate, the player then swiftly returned

to the middle of the test zone to receive the next pass. After a 15-min interval, the players

were then told to rest in the hallway and prepare to do the test again so they cannot analyse

another participant. The participants all then did indeed perform the test again after the

interval and repeated the procedure of the test. Players were then notified of their results

via text message.

3.5.3 – Statistical analysis

Data was all collected experiment based. Scores were accurately measured via video

footage. The test ultimately focused on time reaction and accuracy. Video footage was

then slowed down frame by frame using VLC media player and the time was calculated

when the player took their first touch from the received pass and time was stopped when

the player passed the ball through the aimed target. If the player missed the gate, that shot

was recorded as a miss for the accuracy test, if the ball went through the intended target

it was recorded as a successful hit. An overall score was then collected, each player got

15

their overall average time reaction score and compared to the other player's attempts to

see the groups averages. Scores were then analysed using SPSS. Pearson’s correlation

and the coefficient of variation were used to assess test-retest reliability for speed and

accuracy of the entire sample. Test-retest reliability is a form of reliability that asses the

stability and precision of a construct across time. There is a baseline or “pre-test”

administration of the survey, in this case test 1, and then a post-test administration of the

same survey after a predetermined period of time or intervention. Ultimately, test retest

reliability measures the stability of scores across time. If scores from both administrations

are highly correlated with stable scores and error variances across time, then evidence of

test-retest reliability is assumed ("Use and Interpret Test-Retest Reliability in SPSS",

n.d.).

4.0 – Results

The following sections will present the findings from the football specific passing test.

This section will show the accuracy and time reaction by each participant via Test 1 and

Test 2. The results are illustrated in the form of tables and graphs. Figure 1 will show all

results, figure 2 and 3 will show accuracy Test 1 and Test 2. Figure 3 and 4 will show

time reaction via Test 1 and Test 2. Research questions will be displayed also.

4.1 - What is the reliability of accuracy in the Kieran Kelly Passing Test?

Pearson’s correlation and the coefficient of variation were used for the test-retest

reliability Test 1 concluded an overall group accuracy average of 77.3% (Figure 5). Test

2 results saw an improvement in accuracy compared to Test 1. Two participants scores

increased by 12.5% accuracy in Test 2 (Figure 7). Results showed 10 out of 12

participants improved accuracy in Test 2 compared to Test 1. Overall, there was an

average of 6.3% increase in accuracy amongst the group with a score of 83.6% (Figure

9). The most accurate score by a single participant was 93.8% which is a 6.3% increase

than the highest in Test 1. The lowest accuracy score in Test 2 was 75% which is an

increase of 6.2% (Figure 8). These results conclusively show improvement in accuracy

in all areas of the results.

After calculating accuracy mean, the Pearson’s correlation showed that the P- Value

((Sig.(2-taied)) was more than .05 (.775) then the research does not have evidence of test-

16

retest reliability. Therefore, the results of the reliability of accuracy in the KKPT is

negative.

Figure 4- Results of each participants Time Reaction and Accuracy for Test 1 and 2.

Figure 5- This table compares the means of all mean averages amongst the KKPT.

Participant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Average Time reaction Test 1 (seconds)

1.84 1.69 1.69 1.79 1.63 1.67 1.56 1.68 1.74 1.46 1.66 1.63

Average Time reaction Test 2 (seconds)

1.91 1.57 1.66 1.56 1.28 1.68 1.53 1.67 1.73 1.71 1.64 1.51

Accuracy Test 1 (%)

81.3 78.1 68.8 75 68.8 71.9 81.3 84.4 75 78.1 87.5 78.1

Accuracy Test 2 (%)

93.8 84.4 87.5 81.3 81.3 75.1 90.6 75 84.4 81.3 84.3 84.4

Test 1 (MEAN)

Accuracy out of 32

Average time reaction

Min time reaction score

Max time reaction score

Median time reaction score

SCORES 77.34% 1.67 seconds

0.87 seconds

2.93 seconds

1.66 seconds

Test 2 (MEAN)

Accuracy out of 32

Average time reaction

Min time reaction score

Max time reaction score

Median time reaction score

SCORES 83.60% 1.63 seconds

0.78 seconds

2.67 seconds

1.63 seconds

17

Figure 6- Scatter plot of Accuracy for Test 1 (pre) and Test 2 (post) for each participant.

Figure 7- Test 1 Average accuracy percentage of successful scores for each participant.

81.2578.125

68.7775

68.7771.875

81.2584.375

7578.125

87.5

78.125

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Accu

racy

(%)

Participant

18

Figure 8- Test 2 Average accuracy percentage of successful scores for each participant

Figure 9- Accuracy average percent of successful scores for the group Test 1 and Test 2. (Orange= Accuracy mean percentage successful, Blue= Average mean percentage miss)

4.2 - What is the reliability of time reaction in the Kieran Kelly Passing Test?

Pearson’s correlation and the coefficient of variation were used for the test-retest

reliability. Test 1 resulted in a mean group average of 1.67 seconds. The minimum score

by a participant in one pass was 0.87 seconds and the maximum time reaction score was

2.97 seconds for a single pass. The overall median time reaction score was 1.66 seconds

(Figure 5). Test 2 was conducted 15 minutes after Test 1. Test 2 results saw an

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Accu

racy

(%)

Participant

23%

77%

ACCURACY MEAN TEST 1

16%

84%

ACCURACY MEAN TEST 2

19

improvement in time reaction compared to Test 1. Test 2 results showed a decrease in

time reaction of a mean group average of 1.63 seconds. This is a 0.04 seconds

improvement. The minimum score by a single shot of a participant was 0.78 seconds

resulting in 0.09 seconds decrease than Test 1. The maximum score by a single participant

also decreased by 0.30 seconds with a time of 2.67 seconds. The overall median time

reaction resulted in 1.63 seconds in Test 2 (Figure 5).

After calculating the time reactions mean average, the Pearson’s correlation showed the

P-value ((Sig.(2-taied)) was more than .05 (.312) then the research does not have evidence

of test-retest reliability. Therefore, the results of the reliability of time reaction in the

KKPT are unreliable.

Figure 10 - Time reaction average score times for Test 1 (Pre) and Test 2 (Post) per participant. (Seconds)

20

Figure 11-Time reaction average score times per participant Test 1

Figure 12- Time reaction average score times per participant Test 2

1.841.69 1.69

1.791.63 1.67

1.561.68 1.74

1.46

1.66 1.63

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Seco

nds

Participants

Time reaction scores (Test 1)

1.91

1.571.66

1.56

1.28

1.68

1.53

1.671.73 1.71

1.641.51

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Seco

nds

Participants

Time Reaction scores (Test 2)

21

5.0 – Discussion

The main purpose of this dissertation was to investigate if the KKPT is a reliable test for

recreational football teams to examine time reaction and accuracy amongst their players.

Phase one of the research involved collecting information about passing tests that are

currently in place, after research, it was identified there are a limited number of tests

available for time reaction and accuracy for recreation clubs. After examining each

passing test available, limitations were examined within each of these passing tests. These

limitations had to be ensured not to be present within the KKPT. Phase two involved

finishing the design of the test to ensure the least amount of limitations possible. The

indoor location was confirmed, and the testing group were contacted for a set date. Results

concluded there was an overall decrease of reaction time by 0.04 seconds and accuracy

increased by 6.3% within the test. After interpreting the results into the Pearson’s

correlation, it was found that both time reaction and accuracy were unreliable. The

findings of this dissertation will aid researchers on how to further develop the KKPT to

be a reliable test-retest passing test. Further research is required but if applied it can help

coaches tremendously in advancing the technical development of their players at a cost-

effective price.

This chapter will talk about the results generated from the test compared to additional

relevant studies in the topic area. The chapter will answer the following research

questions.

Research questions

What is the reliability of time reaction in the Kieran Kelly Passing Test?

What is the reliability of accuracy in the Kieran Kelly Passing Test?

Can the Footbonaut be replicated in a cost-effective manner?

Will it be beneficial for recreational football clubs?

5.1 - What is the reliability of time reaction the Kieran Kelly Passing Test?

The KKPT is a new passing test being developed for recreational clubs that used to allow

athletes to be assessed in a football environment that replicates the actions experienced

throughout passing in a match day environment. A study investigating the FIFA World

Cup matches from 1966–2010 demonstrated that ball (i.e. game) speed increased by 15%

22

over the 44-year period. The player structure changed towards a higher player density,

with a 35% greater passing rate (Wallace & Norton, 2014). The KKPT focuses on time

reaction scores within each participant doing the test. Match-play has increased

significantly in intensity, which means players must release the ball quicker to retain

possession. Players reactions must be quicker to be able to cope with the pace and

demands of the game. The tests aim was to see if time reaction can be reliable within the

participants retest and if a cost-effective method to improve time reaction is available for

recreational clubs which can replicate game experience. Other passing tests such as the

Footbonaut, AccuKick and LSPT are the only tests available for time reaction, which are

either too expensive or unrealistic to match related experience.

Time reaction was calculated by the first touch of the player and by when the ball went

through the intended gate. Pearson’s correlation was used to measure the test-retest

reliability within the test. The main findings of Test 1 showed time reaction averages of

1.67 seconds per pass in the group . In Test 2 this average decreased by 0.04 seconds with

the overall group average dropping to 1.63 seconds. Results showed improvement in Test

2 in every aspect of time reaction such as average, max, min and median scores. Using

the Pearson’s correlation to identify test-retest reliability results concluded that the KKPT

was an unreliable test for time reaction.

These results differ to the work of Beavan (2018) who studied the Footbonaut to evaluate

time reaction and accuracy amongst players. The study showed acceptance of test-retest

reliability after using elite players from the ages U12-U23s to compare scores. Results of

this study concluded speed decreased with increasing age of the youngest group of players

between U12-U14 but no more differences in speed were observed between players in

the U15–U23 categories. The reasoning behind the results of this study compared to the

results of the KKPT can be due to several factors. The sample size has an impact on the

test-retest reliability results. The KKPT intended to have 16 participants however, there

were only 12 participants due to the corona virus outbreak. The Footbonaut had 152

participants taking part in the test which can have a greater influence on calculating

reliability. The Footbonaut also used a standardised ball distributer, which allows ball

distribution with a speed of 50km/hr. This is a considerable advantage compared to the

KKPT as coaches distributes the ball at different speeds for each pass, therefore, possibly

affecting the results of a player’s overall time reaction, resulting from a pass being too

slow /fast to the athlete.

23

5.2 - What is the reliability of accuracy in the Kieran Kelly Passing Test?

The second aim of this dissertation was to find if the KKPT could be a reliable test to

identify accuracy scores within the test-retest of the participants. Targets were called by

the coach with an overall aim of the player to successfully pass the ball through the

intended target. Accuracy in football can be either accurate passing or accurate shooting.

Although overall possession does not win a game conclusively, it can contribute to more

chances created (Lago & Martin, 2007). If the ball did not go through the intended target

in the test it was recorded as a miss. Test 1 concluded with an overall group accuracy

average of 77.3%. The most accurate score by a single participant was a score of 87.5%

and the lowest accuracy score being 68.8%. Test 2 was conducted 15 minutes after Test

1. Overall, there was an average of 6.26 % increase in accuracy amongst the group with

an average score of 83.6%. The most accurate score by a single participant was 93.8%,

which is a 6.3% increase on the highest score in Test 1. The lowest accuracy score in Test

2 was 75% which is an increase of 6.2% on Test 1. These results conclusively show

improvement in accuracy in all areas of the results. The results were inserted into the

Pearson’s correlation and it was concluded that accuracy in the KKPT was also unreliable.

Similar to time reaction, Beavan., (2018) examined accuracy amongst the elite players

between U12-U23s. Results concluded that U19 and U23 players were more accurate than

U12 players. The U23s (which the KKPT participants would categorise under) seen an

improvement of 7.6% accuracy compared to the KKPT seeing a 6.3% accuracy increase

in Test 2.

Reasoning behind this could be due to the use of elite players. Both the Footbonaut and

LSPT study by Le Moal et al., (2014) used elite players throughout their study. Although

the LSPT was measured for time, it required players accurately passing the ball off

benches and back to themselves to execute the next shot. Elite players are more consistent

in their ability and overall performance which can lead to more accurate results.

The AccuKick which is a cost-effective passing test is an advancement of the LSPT due

to being more realistic compared to match experiences, studies by Iacono et al,. (2018)

showed the difference in passing accuracy by U16, U17 and U19s compared to each other.

The AccuKick used 47 participants whereas the KKPT had 16. Therefore, once more,

participation numbers in the test and comparing group ages can be a future research to

determine reliability of the KKPT.

24

5.3 - Can the Footbonaut be replicated in a cost-effective manner?

The Footbonaut is a multi-million invention, making it difficult for recreational clubs to

replicate in a cost-effective manner. The Footbonaut being a passing test which can

measure performance variables such as time reaction and accuracy is why the machine is

so highly rated by the current clubs who possess the test, perhaps the overall price of the

test is why only a limited amount of clubs use the Footbonaut due to some professional

clubs not willing to invest. If professional clubs find it financially difficult to invest in,

recreational clubs would not consider measuring time reaction and accuracy using this

test. Although the performance variables of time reaction and accuracy can be developed

into a cost-effective passing test, there are many limitations that these tests will process

compared to the Footbonaut. The technology of the Footbonaut allows footballs to be fed

in at varying heights and speeds and from four different directions, as they would in a live

match. The Footbonaut has standardised ball distributions speed, which have been used

in both Beavan (2018) and Vogt (2018) studies of the Footbonaut where a set speed of

50km/hr is used for the player to receive a pass. Cost-effective passing tests will often

have coaches distributing the ball therefore no test will have the same ball distribution

speed as the Footbonaut. According to Wells (2010) the most sophisticated element of

Footbonaut is that it produces a computer printout of each player's performance measured

against speed and accuracy, which is aggregated into a point score. This can produce

ranking systems for the coach to compare performances against other players. A cost-

effective test would require recording the test and breaking down each video separately,

which could take hours even days depending on the number of participants.

Ultimately, the performance variables of time reaction and accuracy can be implemented

to a cost-effective passing test for recreational clubs. Although it is clear the passing tests

will not have the luxury features which the Footbonaut possess that makes it valuable

such as the ball dispensers.

5.4 - Will a cost-effective passing Test be beneficial for recreational

football clubs?

The aim of this dissertation was to conduct a reliable passing test to measure time reaction

and accuracy for recreational clubs. Although the KKPT was declared unreliable, it does

25

not mean that cost effective passing tests are not beneficial. More research is needed into

the test to declare it reliable, but it can have a huge influence towards future training for

coaches if further research is implemented. Two current cost-effective passing tests

available for recreational clubs are the LSPT and AccuKick. Although both tests are not

the most match related passing tests like the Footbonaut they are both reliable and can

identify the performance variables of accuracy and time reaction amongst players.

Therefore, although the Footbonaut is ultimately better and more efficient, the results

from the LSPT and AccuKick can still be useful for recreational clubs and both tests are

affordable and easy to execute making it beneficial for clubs.

With further research and development of the KKPT it can be another passing test which

can be more benefitting for clubs than the tests above.

5.5 – Thesis Limitations

Despite the advantages of the KKPT, there are a number of limitations recreational

football clubs should consider when interpreting the results of the study. Limitations are

the weaknesses which are present in the study.

Firstly, the test requires video recording each participant. The coach is required to break

down each pass for each participant to calculate time reaction and accuracy. If there are

numerous participants, breaking down the videos and interpreting the results can be a

time-consuming task.

Secondly, the sample size of the test was intended to be 16 participants. Due to the

worldwide pandemic of the corona virus, only 12 participants were ultimately tested. As

the results were concluded on 12 participants instead of the intended 16, this had a major

impact on the test-retest reliability as the intended figure could not be met.

Furthermore, the speed of the ball coming out to each participant varies, unlike the

Footbonaut, the KKPT was unable to set speed ball distribution for each person as there

is a coach passing the ball in, meaning each pass will be at different speeds which can

have an impact on results depending on the pass. The Footbonaut has standardized speeds

which allows ball distribution at a set speed. A study by T, Vogt., et al (2018) which used

the Footbonaut to study football practice, used 33 randomly assigned competitive football

players (U14 to U16) to perform a standardized Footbonaut practice pattern (i.e. 20 balls

randomly drawn at 50 km/hr each). This shows the effectiveness of being able to use the

26

Footbonaut being able to set the same pass speed leading to more reliable outcomes on

results.

The final limitation of this study was the researcher had no previous experience. This can

affect the way research was carried out as experience can have a key role to results.

6.0 - Conclusion

In summary the purpose of this study was to create a test/retest football specific passing

test to measure time reaction and accuracy. The research indicates in general that the

KKPT is an unreliable test to measure time reaction and accuracy. Tests available such

as the AccuKick and LSPT can successfully measure these performance variables at a

cost- effective price but does process limitations. These findings enhance the

understanding that recreational football clubs can use passing test to improve their players

technical skills in terms of their time reaction and accuracy instead of needing to pay

millions for passing tests such as the Footbonaut to improve their players. This indicates

that coaches should engage with cost effective passing tests to help improve players

technical abilities. It is apparent further research is needed to improve the development

of the KKPT, therefore it can result to another cost effective, match related passing test

for recreational clubs.

6.1 - Recommendations for further research

Due to the KKPT resulting as an unreliable test, there are further recommendations that

can help develop the test to become reliable. The first recommendation is to try and

conduct the test again the same way with a higher number of participants. Due to the

corona virus only 12 participants could be used which had an influence on the results as

the intended number of participants was 16 which could have made the results more

reliable.

Secondly, Further research might explore difference of time reactions and accuracy from

different ages to see if there are any changes. This would be an interesting study as the

Footbonaut focuses on the accuracy and time reaction ranging from u12/u23s. A study

comparing the overall results from the Footbonaut to the KKPT would be interesting

research to see if results of the test are still similar for the younger ages compared to the

27

older ages. The Footbonaut study by A. Beavan (2018) which looked at the Footbonaut

as a new football-specific skills test: reproducibility and age-related differences in highly

trained youth players concluded in U19 and U23 players were more accurate than U12

players, and speed decreased with increasing age in the youngest group of players (U12–

U14), it concluded that they were no more differences in speed observed between players

in the U15–U23 categories. This would be interesting to compare with the KKPT if the

same age groups and number of participants were used.

Another interesting topic is to research the different positions players play on a team and

see if there are difference in time reaction and accuracy amongst them. This study would

be to compare different positions and sections on a team to see if a certain position has

better technical passing players who are quicker and more accurate compared to other set

positions. Often the argument in recreational football is the best passing players are

midfielders, so this study would be interesting to put this view into test.

A further possibility of research is that the LSPT test compares between elite and non-

elite players. The KKPT test has studied recreational players, so to compare elite players

results would be interesting to see if they get faster reaction times and better accuracy.

Also, it would be interesting to see the retest results if it has an effect on reliability. Both

the Footbonaut and LSPT past studies involved elite players. Elite participants can result

in more consistent ability, this can result in greater reliability in the KKPT.

The final recommendation would be to investigate passing tests within non elite and elite

women’s teams to see the difference in accuracy and reaction times. There is limited

research on these performance variables amongst women teams which would make an

interesting study.

All these research ideas could help coaches in the near future, by adapting their training

methods to affiliate the needs of improving their players technical skills by conducting

passing tests instead of just passing training drills throughout a session. These passing

tests could influence a major improvement in standard of players within a recreational set

up and best-case scenario result in a player going elite level.

28

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Boksem, M. A. S., & Tops, M. (2008). Mental fatigue: Costs and benefits. Brain Research Reviews, 59(1), 125–139. doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.07.001

Coutts, A. J. (2016). Fatigue in football: it's not a brainless task!. Journal of Sports Sciences, 34(14), 1296.

Fernandez-Navarro, J., Fradua, L., Zubillaga, A., & McRobert, A. (2019). Evaluating the effectiveness of styles of play in elite soccer. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 14(4), 514-527. doi: 10.1177/1747954119855361

Fortes, L., Lima-Junior, D., Nascimento-Júnior, J., Costa, E., Matta, M., & Ferreira, M. (2019). Effect of exposure time to smartphone apps on passing decision-making in male soccer athletes. Psychology Of Sport And Exercise, 44, 35-41. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2019.05.001

Iacono, A. D., Basevitch, I., Bracha, B., & Halperin, I. (2018, October 31). The AccuKick football passing test: Reliability, discriminate ability, and correlations with athletic capabilities. Retrieved from osf.io/gnm89

Lago, C., & Martín, R. (2007). Determinants of possession of the ball in soccer. Journal of sports sciences, 25(9), 969-974.

Le Moal, E., Rué, O., Ajmol, A., Abderrahman, A., Hammami, M., & Ounis, O. et al. (2014). Validation of the Loughborough Soccer Passing Test in Young Soccer Players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 28(5), 1418-1426. doi: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000000296

McGuckian, T. B., Cole, M. H., Jordet, G., Chalkley, D., & Pepping, G. J. (2018). Don’t turn blind! The relationship between exploration before ball possession and on-ball performance in association football. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2520.

Meet the Footbonaut, the futuristic pass-master currently firing Borussia Dortmund and Hoffenheim. (2018). Retrieved 3 May 2020, from https://www.bundesliga.com/en/news/Bundesliga/borussia-dortmund-and-hoffenheim-use-footbonaut-to-hone-their-passing-skills-464313.jsp

Mohr, M., Krustrup, P., & Bangsbo, J. (2003). Match performance of high-standard soccer players with special reference to development of fatigue. Journal of Sports Sciences, 21(7), 519–528. doi:10.1080/0264041031000071182

Rampinini, E., Impellizzeri, F. M., Castagna, C., Coutts, A. J., & Wisløff, U. (2009). Technical performance during soccer matches of the Italian Serie A league: Effect of fatigue and competitive level. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 12(1), 227–233. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2007.10.002

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Rein, R., Raabe, D., & Memmert, D. (2017). “Which pass is better?” Novel approaches to assess passing effectiveness in elite soccer. Human Movement Science, 55, 172–181. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2017.07.010

Russell, M., Benton, D., & Kingsley, M. (2011). The Effects of Fatigue on Soccer Skills Performed During a Soccer Match Simulation. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 6(2), 221-233. doi: 10.1123/ijspp.6.2.221

Smith, M., Coutts, A., Merlini, M., Deprez, D., Lenoir, M., & Marcora, S. (2016). Mental Fatigue Impairs Soccer-Specific Physical and Technical Performance. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 48(2), 267-276. doi: 10.1249/mss.0000000000000762

Thompson, C., Fransen, J., Skorski, S., Smith, M., Meyer, T., Barrett, S., & Coutts, A. (2018). Mental Fatigue in Football: Is it Time to Shift the Goalposts? An Evaluation of the Current Methodology. Sports Medicine, 49(2), 177-183. doi: 10.1007/s40279-018-1016-z

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Vogt, T., Gassen, S., Wrede, S., Spielmann, J., Jedrusiak-Jung, M., Härtel, S., & Mayer, J. (2018). Football practice with youth players in the “Footbonaut”. German Journal Of Exercise And Sport Research, 48(3), 341-348. doi: 10.1007/s12662-018-0514-3

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Appendices Appendix A- Opt-out letter

Appendix B- Letter to the club

Appendix C- Participant information sheet

31

Appendix A: Opt-Out letter My name is Kieran Kelly and I am a full-time undergraduate studying Bachelor of Business in Sport and Recreation Management in Waterford Institute of Technology.

I am carrying out some research on the Reliability of a test retest football specific passing test which is solely experiment based.

The focus of this study is to see if the Kieran Kelly Passing Test is a reliable test retest to measure time reaction and accuracy for recreational football clubs.

The research will begin March and the tests will be conducted on the one day.

I am asking for you to kindly volunteer to partake in this study as you match the criteria for the research (recreational football player)

All information collected is private and no personal details are needed. Every participant has the right to withdraw from the study at any time they want, and no participant will be forced to be involved in this study.

If you are unhappy to be involved in the study or have any questions do feel free to ask me or contact me through my email which is Kieran-kelly98@@hotmail.com or the health of department at WIT on 051845554 or healthscience@wit.ie or my supervisor Christopher Thompson on CThompson@wit.ie.

Kind regards,

Kieran Kelly.

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Appendix B- Letter to club Dear Mr Lynch,

I am a fourth-year student in Waterford Institute of Technology studying Hons in Sport Business and recreation management. In order to obtain my final degree at the end of the year I must complete a dissertation. The topic I have chosen is a “Test/re-test Reliability of a Football specific passing test”. In order to complete this dissertation, I need volunteers of participants to partake in a football passing test, but the participants need to be performing at a recreational level. The research will involve as follows:

• Two passing football tests, 15 minutes apart from each other

I would greatly appreciate your club’s participation in this research. I have inserted a list of questions that seem valid to be answered.

When will the research take place?

The test will be conducted on the 22nd of March

Why should your club be involved?

If the test is found to be reliable, your club will have first access to a test that can measure time reaction and accuracy to better performance.

What is required of you to be involved?

I would like to meet you and the agreed participants to talk about the consent and arrangements of the test. This will allow you and the participants a chance to ask any questions you wish.

Lastly, I would like to take this opportunity to thank you for taking your time to read this letter and considering my research proposal. I look forward to hearing from you soon.

Yours faithfully,

Kieran Kelly

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Appendix C- Participant information sheet

I …………….. voluntarily agree to participate in this research study.

I understand that even if I agree to participate now, I can withdraw at any time or refuse to answer any question without any consequence.

I understand that I can withdraw permission to use data from my interview within two weeks after

the interview, in which case the material will be deleted.

� I have had the purpose and nature of the study explained to me in writing and I have had the opportunity to ask questions about the study.

� I understand that participation involves a football passing test to measure accuracy and time reaction.

� I understand that I will not benefit directly from participating in this research.

� I understand that all information I provide for this study will be treated confidentially.

� I understand that in any report on the results of this research my identity will remain anonymous.

� I understand that under freedom of information legalisation I am entitled to access the information I have provided at any time while it is in storage as specified above.

� I understand that I am free to contact any of the people involved in the research to seek further

clarification and information.

Names, degrees, affiliations and contact details of researchers (and academic supervisors when relevant).

Signature of research participant

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Signature of participant Date

Signature of researcher

I believe the participant is giving informed consent to participate in this study

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Signature of researcher Date