The Weimar Republic and the National Socialist
Dictatorship
Establishing the New Republic stab-in-the-back myth (Dolchstoßlegende)
The government's right-wing propaganda had promised German victory even though defeat was
already close. After Germany had been defeated in World War I, right-wing politicians propagated
the "stab-in-the-back" myth which blamed politicians, socialists, communists and Jews for the lost
war. The politicians had betrayed the army, the German military had not lost the war, it had been
"stabbed in the back". Consequently, the population's trust in the politicians decreased and the
position of the government was further undermined.
November Revolution / sailors’ mutiny
On October 28 the Seekriegsleitung ordered a naval attack on England. As it was obvious that
Germany would lose the war, many sailors opposed this order. In a spontaneous, unorganised
movement which encountered little resistance, the soldiers and werft workers in Kiel revolted in
Kiel on November 3. Then there were demonstrations, a general strike and Workers and Soldiers'
Councils were founded throughout the country (Soviet model). They took over power mostly in
cities thought not permanently and by November 8 all of Germany's lesser kings had been deposed.
The Chancellor Max von Baden recognised the Kaiser's need to abdicate and published an
unauthorised abdication telegram of William II. On November 9, Scheidemann proclaimed a
republic with Friedrich Ebert as Chancellor while Liebknecht proclaimed a Socialist Council
Republic. The next day the Council of the People's Deputies, a provisional government which
should cooperate with the existing government, was founded. It opposed the Berlin Workers' and
Soldiers' Council. On November 11, the armistice was signed. (by Erzberger, later assassinated)
proportional representation (Verhältniswahl) On January 19, 1919 elections for the National Assembly were held following a new procedure, the
one of proportional representation. The seats in the National Assembly were to be allocated to the
different parties according to the number of votes they had received. It was a fair procedure but
made it difficult to achieve an overall majority, so that coalitions had to be formed to pass laws.
Also, female suffrage was introduced and the voting age lowered to the age of twenty. After the
elections the SPD, the Centre Party and the DDP formed a coalition. As they were in favour of the
coming into being of a parliamentary democracy, this formed a solid basis for the new republic.
parliamentary democracy
democracy: based on freedom and equality of all citizens, wishes of entire people shall be
represented, people's sovereignty, majority decisions
people's representatives (elected) decide on laws, government needs its confidence and is
controlled by it
Weimar Constitution (Article 25, Article 48)
The Weimar Constitution came into effect on August 11, 1919. Germany remained a federal state,
the existing Länder were slightly re-organised and reduced to seventeen. All state monarchs were
replaced and the new states organised along similar lines to the national government.
According to the constitution, a Reichstag comprising the Members of the Parliament elected by
Germans over twenty every four years on the basis of proportional representation should exist
alongside the Reichsrat, an assembly of 67 representatives representing the seventeen Länder. It
could give advice and reject new laws, but could be overridden by the Reichstag. The Government
was to include a Chancellor and his ministers. It needed the confidence of the Reichstag and could
propose laws to the Reichstag. Furthermore, plebiscites were introduced.
Also, the Head of State would be a President who would be elected by the German People every
seven years. He would have the power to appoint and dismiss the Chancellor. According to Article
25 he could dissolve the Reichstag (but never twice for the same reason) and then arrange for new
elections. According to Article 48, he was allowed to issue laws by decree in an emergency and
could override the constitutional rights of the German people (=emergency decree
[Notverordnung]).
Basic Rights
Already attempted in 1848 by the liberals, they were adopted in 1919 as a part of the constitution
but in a modernised version to include more social rights, e.g. to belong to a union. They also
included freedom of assembly, of expressing one's opinion, of press and equality before the law. But
every one of them could be overridden in an emergency according to Article 48.
political parties
Z = Centre Party
formed in 1870 to protect Catholic interests
in favour of political reform, defended the Weimar Republic until 1930
usually to the right of the DDP in its policies, took part in Weimar governments up to 1932,
most support from Catholic workers + middle class
NSDAP = National Socialist German Workers’ Party
formed in 1919 as the German Workers' Party (DAP)
extremely nationalist + racist party which opposed the Weimar Republic, anti-democratic
initially pursued violent methods of winning power but later focused on winning elections,
until 1923 only important as regional Bavarian party
appealed to all sectors of society after 1929 (crisis)
DNVP = German National People’s Party
nationalist party formed in 1918 to protect the interests of the land-owning class,
conservative, monarchist
rejected the Republic, the Treaty of Versailles, democracy
most support came from Junkers (landed nobility) and some urban lower middle class
ally of Hitler in final phase of Weimar Republic
DVP = German People’s Party
formed in 1918, right-wing liberal party, opposed the Weimar Republic in principle but took
part in governments
most support from upper middle class/employers
led by Gustav Stresemann
DDP = German Democratic Party
a left-wing liberal party formed in 1980
supported the Weimar constitution but lost electoral support after 10
most support came from liberal intellectuals + businessmen
SPD = Social Democratic Party
strongest supporter of Weimar Republic, formed in 1875, moderate
received more votes than any other party up to 1932
most support came from workers + lower middle class
radical members were thrown out in 1917 (formed USPD)
KPD = Communist Party
formed in 1918 by the Spartacus League
joined Comintern (international communist organisation led by Russia) in 1919
opposed the Weimar Republic + wanted to establish a communist state in Germany
became more popular after 1929
How strong were the roots of democracy in 19th century Germany? not that strong because of monarchy before, failed 48/49 revolutions, Germans used
to having a strong leader (Bismarck, kings), Social Democrats/government was
blamed for defeat, German conservatism + nationalism remained influential
however:
some democratic/revolutionary movements (-> 48/49) but did not
predominate
SPD largest party in the Reichstag, tradition of Social Democracy in Germany
The “revolution from above”: Why was a democratic regime born out of
Germany’s defeat? monarchy had led to defeat, dissatisfaction after lost war
democracy had been demanded before (48/49), Social Democracy = tradition in
Germany
other countries' influence (revolution in Russia), spreading of democratic ideas in
Europe
Chancellor recognised King's need to abdicate, Parlamentisierung imposed from
above (Why? More lenient treatment by Allies expected…)
The “revolution from below”: Did the 1918 German Revolution provide
a strong basis for democracy? no: Workers' and Soldiers' councils came into being but dispersed, no common leader
no: Chancellor recognised King's need to abdicate, foundation of the Council of the
People's Deputies from "above"
What were the strengths and weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution?
weaknesses: Article 25 + 48 -> fundamental rights not inalienable, giving (too) much
power to the President, no 5% threshold (very small parties could take part, difficult
decision-making), direct vote for President, his powerful position, referenda
undermining decisions by government, anti-constitutional parties not prohibited, no
SUSPENSIVE vote of no confidence
strengths: female/general suffrage, Reichstag could control government + President,
Reichsrat can veto laws, President was elected and replaced hereditary monarch
1919-23: Crises
Ebert-Groener-Pact
agreement between Friedrich Ebert (Chancellor) and Wilhelm Groener (general in German
army)
on Nov 9 1918, two days before the official end of the Second World War
army given free pass in dealing with communists in Germany (-> Spartacists), in return
army promised support to Ebert (weakness of government in case of crisis…)
free corps military unions, not demobilised, nationalist, anti-democratic attitude
murdered Spartacus leaders Rosa Luxemburg + Karl Liebknecht on 15 Jan 1919
Spartacist Rising in December 1918: foundation of KPD
started on 5 Jan 1919, violent attempt to overthrow government by Spartacus League after
dismissal of Berlin Police President Eichhorn (USPD), uprising defeated with help of free
corps under leadership of General von Lüttwitz
Spartacists led by Rosa Luxemburg + Karl Liebknecht
Kapp Putsch The first major crisis that occurred in the Weimar Republic. By the end of 1919, the government
had less need for the Freikorps and was trying to reduce the size of the army according to the
Treaty of Versailles. In February 1920 the Defence Minister ordered two Freikorps brigades to
disband, but one of the leaders, General Walther von Lüttwitz, refused to do so. Together with
other army officers and Wolfgang Kapp, a right-wing journalist and leader of the Fatherland Party,
he planned to overthrow the government. On 12 March the Freikorps marched to Berlin. Because
the army refused to support the government, it had to flee and the Freikorps entered Berlin. A new
government headed by Kapp was proclaimed but did not win widespread support, the army
remained mostly neutral. The left organised general strikes in protest. So in general, Kapp's
government occupied government buildings but was unable to govern. After four days, Kapp and
his government fled and Ebert's government returned. It took no action against the army leaders,
as they knew they might still need their support in the future, others who were involved were
treated leniently. Kapp could not be prosecuted as he died before.
Rapallo Pact The Rapallo Pact was concluded between Germany (Rathenau = foreign minister) and the Soviet
Union. It implied the restart of diplomatic relations, was the first achievement in German post-war
foreign policy and a first step away from isolation. It included the renunciation of all territorial
claims and war cost demands against the other. The Pact was seen critically by France. Revisionist
Germans hoped it was intended to divide Poland and to restore pre-war frontiers.
political assassinations
Between 1919 and 1923 Weimar politicians lived in fear of assassination. Some right-wing
Germans were encouraged to resort to murder to weaken the democratic regime; this was
reinforced by the lenient attitude to such actions of conservative judges. The Republic lost
hundreds of servants through assassination including an important statesman, Walter Rathenau
(participated in arranging armistice, became Foreign Minister in 1922, assassinated in June 1922)
(as well as Erzberger, see above)
Erfüllungspolitik (fulfilment policy)
Complying with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles in order to show their unjust conditions and
the impossibility to e.g. pay all the reparation payments. It should improve the relations to Great
Britain and France by diplomatic means and the "appearance of goodwill" rather than an openly
hostile attitude. It can be seen as being successful to a certain extent as reparation payments were
suspended in 1931 and not resumed. (=> Stresemann)
Year of Crises 1923: Ruhr occupation (passive resistance), hyperinflation,
Munich Beer Hall Putsch
Because Germany was unable to fulfil reparation payments at the end of 1921, French and Belgian
troops were sent into the Ruhr in January 1923 to collect coal. They faced no military opposition
but passive resistance, the workers refused to work for the French which led to a collapse of
services. This had severe consequences for the German economy. The government had to pay the
striking workers and received less tax revenue from the Ruhr as well as no coal supplies which
had thus to be imported. The government had two options: They could either raise taxation or print
more money. Because taxation was already too high, it opted for the latter option. Consequently
prices rose and the value of the mark was decreased, reinforcing inflation. Another reason for the
Hyperinflation Crisis of 1923 was the economic "legacy" of WWI which had left a budget deficit.
Mostly people with savings, students, people relying on the welfare system or with fixed incomes
and generally the middle class lost. Consequently extremist parties received more support as
people lost faith in Weimar and turned against democracy. Hyperinflation came to an end when the
new Chancellor Stresemann appointed Hjalmar Schacht an expert financier to the Reichsbank in
November 1923. Also a new currency was introduced, one Rentenmark replaced 1,000 billion
papermarks.
On November 8 Ottow von Lossow and Gustav von Kohr addressed a meeting of 2,000 right-wing
supporters in a Munich beer hall. Hitler and his stormtroopers disrupted the meeting and declared
a national revolution. They forced the two men to state their support for a march on Berlin to
impose a new government with General Luddendorff as the new Commander-in-Chief.
Meanwhile, 1000s of stormtroopers seized other members of the Bavarian government. The next
day, President Ebert declared a national state of emergency, General Seeckt ordered Lossow to
crush the revolt. They issued a proclamation denouncing the putsch. At noon 2,000 armed Nazis
marched to a military base in Munich and were met with armed police and Bavarian soldiers. A
shot was fired, then the police returned fire. Ludendorff was arrested, Hitler the next day. Seeckt
banned the Nazis.
In February 1924, Hitler, Ludendorff and other leaders were tried for treason which carried the
death penalty. Hitler turned the trial into an opportunity to attack the Weimar regime and to
expound his views. He achieved national fame, the trial helped the Nazi vote and they became the
third largest group in Bavaria. Because the judges were sympathetic, Luddendorff was acquitted
and Hitler was sentenced to the minimum possible sentence of five years in prison. Hitler was then
kept in good conditions in the Landsberg prison where he dictated "Mein Kampf". The Nazis
nearly disintegrated without their leader. (In how far did the Munich Beer Hall Putsch make Hitler
change his tactics upon his release from prison and how was this implemented / achieved?)
How great a burden for the Weimar Republic was the Treaty of Versailles? "economic legacy" (reparation payments, high budget deficit) → hyperinflation (territorial
losses / disarmament?)
Psychological impact: humiliation, dissatisfaction → opposition from right/left, difficult to
establish democracy
but: collapse of Weimar Republic also because of hard decision-making, "republic without
republicans", Nazi ideology, economic slump
Which impact did the challenge from the Left have and how strong was the
challenge from the Right? challenge from the right worse (better organisation, more violent, more support)
→ Kapp Putsch, assassinations
challenge from the left not that cohesive, no leadership/organisation, several groups
→ Marxists (wanted to establish Communism, KPD, showed their opposition through strikes,
demonstrations), Red Guard (militia of communists, street battles with free corps, workers'
councils)
In how far did hyperinflation and other crises of 1923 contribute to
undermining Weimar democracy? resentment against Weimar/democracy grew because of government’s failure to address
crises more efficiently → leading to the rise of extremist parties, population looked to the
far right/left to find solution to their problems
Why did the Weimar Republic survive the crises of 1919-1923? extremist parties had no mass support/majority in elections, government addressed crises
(Hyperinflation, Ruhr occupation) adequately, at least in the end
conservative elements, such as the army, supported government (greater evil =
Communism)
1923 crisis was overcome because of patriotic feelings (against the French, Ruhr
occupation) + collapse of German currency convinced U.S.A to participate more actively in
more moderate enforcement of the peace terms
1923-29: Recovery
Gustav Stresemann: policy of détente
He was a leading statesman of the Weimar Republic, member of the Pan-German Colonial League
and of the DVP. Stresemann became Chancellor in 1923 and was Foreign minister from 1923 to
1929. He was rather monarchist and opposed to the Weimar constitution.
The policy of détente implies the reassurance of other countries, the "easing of strained relations".
Stresemann tried to reassure the Western powers by promoting a peaceful revision. He tried to
create common interests by for example stressing Germany's importance for the European economy.
Dawes Plan (1924)
An international plan which included an agreement on the annual reparation payments until 27/28.
This occurred in Germany's interest, in the initial recovery phase 4/5ths were paid from
international loans. Also, the repayment period was extended and the USA received an assurance
that the European countries could repay the loans. The final amount of reparations was left open.
Treaty of Locarno (1925)
Some call this treaty Stresemann's greatest achievement. It was concluded between Germany,
Belgium, Poland, GB, Czechoslovakia and France. Germany accepted its western borders as
defined in the Treaty of Versailles and the demilitarisation of the Rhineland. There were arbitration
treaties with Czechoslovakia and Poland, but they did not receive any guarantees. The eastern
borders could still be revised. Stresemann hoped that the treaty would defuse domestic criticism of
his policies and help his eastern strategies.
In July 1925, French troops began to leave the Ruhr and the first area of the Rhineland was
evacuated. (So how about the eastern borders?)
Berlin Treaty (1926)
The Berlin Treaty of 1926 confirmed the new relations between Germany and the Soviet Union that
had first been expressed in the Rapallo Pact. Germany assured Russia of German neutrality if
Russia went to war with a third power. Thus, if Russia was at war with Poland, France could not
come to help through Germany, which weakened Poland's position.
League of Nations (Völkerbund) In September 1926, Germany became a member of the League of Nations thereby regaining its
place in the international system. It obtained a great power status on the Council League with veto
power. The League of Nations was founded after World War I in 1919. It was an intergovernmental
organisation whose main aim was the maintenance of world peace and it existed until 1946. (Why
did it fail?)
Kellogg-Briand Pact (Aug 1928)
Germany helped to mediate between the USA and France. The pact was an agreement to outlaw war
as an instrument of national policy. It was signed by Germany, France (Briand) and the USA
(Kellogg). (Was it an efficient one?)
Young Plan
In August 1929 this agreement on the German reparation payments was concluded between twelve
European countries. They were to be spaced out over fifty-seven years and a new total figure was
set with a reduced annual average in comparison with the Dawes Plan. Also the evacuation of the
Rhineland until June 1930 was decided, as well as the removal of foreign controls five years earlier
than envisaged in the Treaty of Versailles.
Golden Years time from the end of the First World War until 1929, also: "Roaring Twenties" (USA)
economic prosperity, spread of new forms of art and communication (Jazz, film, records),
"Americanisation"
for some it represented a distraction from war and unemployment
Nationalist opposed the new cultural products and phenomena which they deemed immoral
wages and industrial production increased, new currency, Stresemann appointed in 1923,
reflects that life in Germany improved compared to troubles in 1923
however: not everyone prospered, many problems remained
Was Stresemann a good European or a good German?
Stresemann can be described as an "advocate of international understanding" when taking into
consideration that he employed negotiations as a means of policy-making in order to regain a strong
German position instead of violent means. Also he aimed at establishing friendly relations with the
Soviet Union and supported fulfilment policy trying to meet the requirements of the Treaty of
Versailles and thus appeasing the other powers. Also, he played a crucial role in concluding the
Kellogg-Briand Pact and supported the USA's involvement in Germany in economic ways. The
Treaty of Locarno is an argument for both: As it recognised Germany's western borders, it led to a
better understanding with France, for example, but because it did not accept Germany's eastern
borders, relations with the East, with Poland for example, did not improve. Other arguments
speaking for him being a good German rather than a good European are his revisionist attitude
towards Versailles, his aim to attain parity with France, and the fact that good relations with the SU
were a means to put pressure on the West.
Also, the conclusion of the Berlin Treaty weakened Poland's position All in all, Hitler's revisionist
policy could be seen as a continuation of Stresemann's but Stresemann was also limited in his
actions, he tried to negotiate peacefully and looked to the east and west for improving relations.
(So? Good European or good German?)
Is the term "recovery" appropriate to describe the years 1923 to 1929?
YES:
advance in social services, economy partially recovered
Dawes Plan, better foreign relations
Year of Crisis 1923 overcome
reflects that life in Germany improved compared to troubles in 1933
political threats to Republic quietened down
Stresemann appointed in '23 (international negotiations)
new currency (more secure)
more comprehensive unemployment insurance system (1927)
wages and industrial production increased
NO:
compared with other countries, economy not flourishing enough
growth unstable
cartelisation leading to high prices for goods (less foreign trade)
rationalisation leading to unemployment
loans (dependency on USA), high budget deficit
dissatisfaction among citizens (no confidence), not everyone profited
welfare state (state living beyond its means, over-strained welfare state)
opposition of nationalists continued
1929-33: Collapse
Wall Street Crash / “Black Friday” October 25
th, 1929: “Black Friday” → Wall Street Crash
German economy had been able to recover after the economic crisis of 1923 due to
American financial support → machinery in the industrial and agricultural sector could be
modernised to increase production, willingness to invest and competitiveness was increased
→ BUT: America's economic position led to overproduction, excessive investments and stock
purchases and finally to the collapse of the stock market in 1929
the Great Depression / slump Germany had received American loans after 1924, after Wall Street Crash: those loans had
to be repaid and no further loans were given
what followed was the Great Depression/slump in Germany:
→ banks had to be closed, unemployment peaked (6 million by January 1932), foreign trade
suffered as protectionism increased, people still weakened by earlier hyperinflation (1923), now
worse (no more savings), there were diseases and starvation
Harzburg Front loose right-wing grouping resulting from a meeting of nationalist opposition forces in Bad
Harzburg, formed on October 11th,
1931 but only lasted a few months
united opponents of the Weimar Republic (except for communists, KPD politically isolated,
no influence on government, bureaucracy, military)
wanted resignation of Weimar governments
including the NSDAP, DNVP and the veterans' organisation Stahlhelm
military support for the NSDAP (SA)
financial support for NSDAP increased (Hugenberg (leader of DNVP): head of conservative
press // influence of “Big Business” on rise of NSDAP?)
paramilitary marching-ups + speeches by Hugenberg and Hitler against the republic
SA = stormtroopers, brownshirts (Sturmabteilung) paramilitary organisation, head: first Göring, then Röhm
military support for NSDAP, participated in the Hitler-Putsch
later mainly used by the NSDAP for means of propaganda
SS = Defence Unit (Schutzstaffel) founded in 1925 for Hitler's personal protection
SD = Security Service (Sicherheitsdienst) intelligence and security body of the NSDAP
created 1931 by Heinrich Himmler, head: Reinhard Heydrich
should observe political opponents of the NSDAP
Grand Coalition (SPD, Z, DDP, DVP) chancellor: Hermann Müller (SPD)
five parties: broad range of interests, very hard decision-making
conflicts between DVP and SPD, no consensus about how to deal with the economic crisis
(different ideas on how to solve the crisis? In how far did the welfare state contribute to
undermining Weimar democracy?)
Müller wanted to be granted use of Art. 48 but was refused as Hindenburg was opposed to
the SPD, Müller resigned March 1930
Presidential Cabinets Heinrich Brüning appointed chancellor (nickname: 'Hunger Chancellor' → unpopular
economic policy, reduced wages etc.)
lacked support of Reichstag → rule by presidential decree (→ president makes use of Art.
48 to circumvent function of parliament when no consensus is found) (So how exactly did
the Presidential Cabinets come into being?)
Hindenburg was influenced by Kurt von Schleicher (politician in the Defence Ministry),
who thought NSDAP should be included in government, wanted even more conservative
regime
“Cabinet of Barons” 1932 Brüning was forced to resign, Franz von Papen appointed chancellor with Schleicher
as the Defence Minister
“Cabinet of Barons” → aristocratic politicians who were not members of the Reichstag and
most of them had no ties to political parties
Papen wanted to continue ruling by decree but had a difficult position, Nazi + KPD votes
increased, Hitler did not want to work together with Papen, thought due to his election result
(namely? he should be chancellor himself
special path (Sonderweg) theory that Germany deviates from the other European countries and their development, that
it has a "special path"
→ Germany became economically advanced, but the aristocratic ruling elite kept power,
opposed democracy
→ middle class with fostered representative government merely supported successful
autocratic state
→ limited 1918 revolution failed to break free from these authoritarian tendencies
→ so: Weimar failed
Why and how did the Wall Street Crash in the USA affect Weimar
economically? October 1929: American stock market crashes
→ no more American loans granted, Germany had to repay already received loans (cannot
pay reparations to GB / F => GB / F cannot pay war debts to US => vicious circle)
→ Great Depression/slump in Germany
causes: weak economy, general lack of confidence and growth of protectionism (people
want to keep their properties and savings) → fall in demand as people buy less → decline in
world trade → businesses cut back production/lower prices to try to attract customers →
wages reduced, workers laid off → workers have less money → fall in demand as people
buy less... : vicious circle
consequences: banks closed, unemployment peaked, people still weakened by earlier
hyperinflation (1923), now worse (no more savings), diseases, starvation
Was the Grand coalition the beginning of the end of Weimar? foreseeable that they would not be able to agree on one issue → broad range of interests
the Republic's last Social Democratic administration
In how far did Hitler's experience with the Beer Hall Putsch lead him to
change his tactics in gaining power? abandoned violent tactics, wanted to win electoral support, legal way of gaining power
wanted strict organisation of the Party, wider geographical base, larger membership
Führer's will should dominate completely (also cf. different slogans to appeal to a broad
range of possible voters; role of “Big Business” / e.g. Hugenberg)
Why was the Nazi Party so successful from 1930 to 1932? due to economic crisis which was even more devastating than the one from 1923
dissatisfaction among the people increased, they wanted radical change
→ voted for NSDAP and not KPD because:
people were afraid of Bolshevist revolution (Russia)
NSDAP was supported also financially (Thyssen, Hugenberg (DNVP, newspaper))
fame + hype over Hitler and his trial after the Hitler-Putsch, Mein Kampf, famous)
paramilitary groups (SS, SA...) in favour of extreme right, courts in favour of right-
wing
intimidation by SA: pressure not to vote for KPD
KPD was badly organised, support from the weakest section of the working class,
competition with the SPD
Did Hitler become chancellor “through the back door”? In May 1932, Papen was appointed Chancellor. In September, the Reichstag passed a vote of no
confidence in Papen so that in December Schleicher, Papen's former Defence Minister, was
appointed Chancellor. Schleicher did not succeed in gaining the Reichstag's support (What was his
plan with regard to the NSDAP?) which provided Papen with the chance to take revenge on
Schleicher. In January 1933 a secret meeting between Papen and Hitler took place: Papen struck a
deal with the Nazis which Hindenburg accepted (role of Hindenburg’s son?). As a consequence,
Hitler was then appointed Chancellor (with Papen as Vice Chancellor) suggesting that he did
become chancellor "through the back door", as he also indirectly influenced Hindenburg by talking
to his son and actually had no parliamentary majority. (So how about the election results of the
NSDAP / other counter-arguments? What was von Papen’s belief? => “taming” the Nazis…why
would he think so?)
January 30, 1933: “seizure of power”, “takeover of power”, “handing-over of
power” or “sneaking into power”? “seizure of power” = Nazi propaganda term
“takeover of power”: on the one hand, Hitler had an active part (as he talked to and
influenced Hindenburg's son who influenced his father; also cf. election results), but
takeover would imply a direct/open strategy, which was not the case → rather scheming
“handing-over of power”: on the one hand Franz von Papen convinced Hindenburg to
appoint Hitler chancellor, thinking of his own advantages, they thought Hitler could be
“tamed” (as he had lost electoral support a short time before and seemed to pose less of a
threat / cf. Nazis in his government!), but on the other hand Hitler also actively influenced
Hindenburg's son
“sneaking into power”: Hitler actively influenced Hindenburg's son, legal part missing→
intrigue, BUT: Hitler had big support, many votes (but no majority)
Is there a German special path? Yes:
authoritarian tradition (“failed” revolutions, Bismarck, Weimar Constitution)
→ influence of elites, preference for order, weak liberalism
No:
Europe: many dictatorships
propaganda, right circumstances
Hindenburg's, Papen's, Brüning's role: contributed to collapse of parliamentary
system
Hitler’s personality / goals
achievements of the 1848/9 Revolutions!!
Was the WR doomed to fail from its very beginnings?
Pro
psychological impact of Treaty of Versailles → excuse for Hitler to come to power
lacking support for democracy (among population / political parties => Republic without
Republicans)
→ population, parties, radical parties
president's position (Ersatzkaiser, Art. 25: can dissolve Reichstag and arrange for new
elections; 48: in an emergency, can issue laws by decree and override constitutional rights of
the German people, president could decide about state of emergency)
no democratic tradition, imposed from “above”, Republic without Republicans
old elites (hostile to WR) remained in power (e.g. Hindenburg 1925 voted president, very
conservative, not so much support for WR from population but he never acted against
constitution)
no 5% threshold (if party has 5% votes → Bundestag, difficult decision making, weak
coalitions, radical parties also allowed, threat to stability)
Con
Weimar survived early crises → indicates strength
crises were followed by the “Golden Years” '23-'29
Stresemann's foreign policy
very democratic elements of the constitution → (everyone over 20 allowed to vote (f.
president every 7 years), could arrange for plebiscites)
Dawes + Young Plan, reduced reparations to help German economy recover
Art. 25;48: thought to prevent Weimar from attacks
“doomed to fail” = Hitler inevitable => guilt?
Which political and ideological prerequisites of NS/which conditions in the
WR favoured the rise of the Nazis (long-term/medium-term causes)? Nazi ideology appealed to large parts of the population as it addressed nationalist / anti-
Semitic / Pan-Germanist tendencies
economic crises → people wanted radical change → NSDAP = alternative option instead of
KPD as people were afraid of a communist revolution
stab-in-the-back myth, option for Hitler to blame the new (socialist) Weimar government for
losing the first World War → people turn against the Weimar regime
old conservative elite still in powerful positions and in favour of the right wing → NSDAP
impact of Versailles Treaty
NS ideology
Where can the origins of Nazi ideology be found? pre-war Germany, end of 19
th century: two distinct but overlapping ideological responses to
rapid industrial change which followed unification: anti-Semitism, Pan-Germanism
nationalism (abolish Treaty of Versailles, reclaim lost territories, Anschluss of Austria, union
of ethnic Germans, expansion to provide "living space"
anti-Semitism (scapegoats = Jews, increasingly classed as race)
nothing new… merged into “something new”
Which interdependencies can be detected in the cornerstones of NS ideology
and which consequences result from the pursuit of their fulfilment? nationalism - anti-Semitism - Social Darwinism: union of all Germans, at the same time
excluding "non-Germans" = Jews (defined as race)
→ Herrenvolk (Aryan master race) at the top (hierarchy of races), racial purity of Germans,
everything achieved through struggle
nationalism - Pan-Germanism: making Germany great, demanding "living space"
anti-Semitism - anti-Marxism - anti-Capitalism: exclusion of Jews and of everything linked
to them
Why were those ideas so appealing to some parts of Weimar society? addressed nationalists' wishes to make Germany great again (no more reparation payments,
abolition of Treaty of Versailles, no more feeble Weimar democracy, build
Volksgemeinschaft)
addressed anti-Semitic tendencies (fight communism and Jewish capitalism)
→ work for working class
peasants: fair prices, restriction of food imports, fight Jews
civil servants: no more cuts in salaries
How did the Nazis ensure that their ideas were spread among the people? propaganda campaigns (Joseph Goebbels) → use of media
slogans targeted at particular social groups
Hitler as demagogue, skilled speaker
intimidation
Hitler cultivated the impression of a long-established, tightly organised party (use of
uniforms, symbols, Hitler salute)
Nationalism vision of greater Germany, which acquires “living space” for an expanding master race
→ abolish Treaty of Versailles, reclaim lost territories, further expansion into Eastern
Europe to provide lebensraum and destroy Russia, centre of communism (anti-
Communism)
Anti-democracy → Führerprinzip, working towards the Führer
democracy provided weak governments and should be based on the principle of an all-
powerful leader (Führer)
Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda (Reichsministerium für
Volksaufklärung und Propaganda) ministry in the Third Reich which was responsible for propagating Nazi ideology in
Germany
regulated and controlled culture and society (e.g. press)
founded on March 13, 1933 by the National Socialist government
head: Dr. Joseph Goebbels (propaganda minister)
25-Points Programme, Mein Kampf
25-Points Programme: drafted by Hitler in February 1920
Nationalism: union of all Germans, German national press + army, abolition of
Treaty of Versailles + Saint-Germaine
Racism: no Jew is to be a member of the German nation, blood defines citizen, non-
Germans live in German only as guests
Socialism: nationalisation of businesses, profits of major enterprises shared, equal
rights for every citizen, incomes not earned though work are to be abolished, small
shops instead of large department stores
Mixtures: land + territory demanded to provide food + “living space” for the German
people, land reform, higher education available to all Germans, improve nation's
health by protecting mothers, sports compulsory, freedom of religious faith (but:
party = Christian, fighting against "Jewish materialist spirit"
“Mein Kampf”: written by Adolf Hitler during his imprisonment after the failure of the 1923
Putsch, published 1925, included essential principles of NS ideology, named racial interest
as the true basis of the state → Volksgemeinschaft, Lebensraum
Programme: addressed broad range of people; deliberately vague, never to be defined in
more detail
People's community (Volksgemeinschaft) community of people sharing common race → unity of all ethnic Germans
need to work together for the common good, rich and poor, rural and urban people together
important concept to bring together groups whose unity was undermined by rapid
industrialisation
people belonging to Volksgemeinschaft have a common bond/ “common good” →
promotion of a “pure” race, expansion of German boundaries
fictitious concept / utopia but esp. appealing to people after the polarisation in WR / political
clashes / disunity
Social Darwinism Darwinism: views of British biologist Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
→ principles of evolution among animal species
→ survival of the fittest
→ in NS ideology: similar laws of development apply to the human race as well, thus some races
are more highly developed than others: “Social Darwinism”
anti-Semitism anti-Semitism increased when lower middle class felt threatened by mass production +
urbanisation
Jews were seen as the most immediate threat, positions as department store owners, bankers,
cattle dealers
long history of persecution, easy scapegoats
racial rather than cultural group → seen as foreigners
anti-Marxism/Anti Communism for Nazis: socialism = ensuring unity of people, not sharing power
Hitler: focus on Jewishness of communism, thought it was a part of “Jewish world
conspiracy”, so communists = part of Jewish threat
impact on foreign policy: no colonial expansion but expansion into Russia
dual effect of destroying “Jewish” communism and gaining lebensraum
Karl Marx = Jewish
Aryan master race (Herrenvolk) hierarchy of races
Aryan (peoples of Northern Europe, common language (German), top of the pyramid,
bottom: Slavs and Jews)
Social Darwinism: only the fittest survive in a struggle of races
anti-Semitism: Jews as his main victim, viewed as a racial and not religious group
eugenics, “racial hygiene” applied science of bio-social movement: advocates the use of practices aimed at improving
genetic composition of a population
improvement of human hereditary traits through promotion of higher reproduction of more
desired people/traits (and elimination of undesirable traits)
euthanasia, T4 programme euthanasia = euphemism for murder of thousands of physically and mentally disabled
people
“T4” → cover name, T4 = Tiergartenstraße 4 in Berlin, seat of the office which was
responsible for the carrying out of the euthanasia programme
pan-Germanism Pan-German League (leader: Heinrich Class)
emerged in the 1890s, formed by the “new Right”: successful middle class groups who felt
excluded from G's ruling class
were of the opinion that changes in society through industrialisation led to instability, lack of
unity
their solution: to protect the German people it is necessary to unite people behind common
cause: greatness of G state, 1) through expansion, 2) through keeping the “superior German
race” pure, no foreigners (the term also includes Jews)
living space (Lebensraum) foreign territory which, in the view of extreme German nationalists, had to be seized for the
proper future maintenance of the German race (esp. in the East)
socialism in action socialism means stressing the needs of the Volksgemeinschaft (people's community), and
ensuring unity, not sharing power
Top Related