The Weimar Republic and the National Socialist

Dictatorship

Establishing the New Republic stab-in-the-back myth (Dolchstoßlegende)

The government's right-wing propaganda had promised German victory even though defeat was

already close. After Germany had been defeated in World War I, right-wing politicians propagated

the "stab-in-the-back" myth which blamed politicians, socialists, communists and Jews for the lost

war. The politicians had betrayed the army, the German military had not lost the war, it had been

"stabbed in the back". Consequently, the population's trust in the politicians decreased and the

position of the government was further undermined.

November Revolution / sailors’ mutiny

On October 28 the Seekriegsleitung ordered a naval attack on England. As it was obvious that

Germany would lose the war, many sailors opposed this order. In a spontaneous, unorganised

movement which encountered little resistance, the soldiers and werft workers in Kiel revolted in

Kiel on November 3. Then there were demonstrations, a general strike and Workers and Soldiers'

Councils were founded throughout the country (Soviet model). They took over power mostly in

cities thought not permanently and by November 8 all of Germany's lesser kings had been deposed.

The Chancellor Max von Baden recognised the Kaiser's need to abdicate and published an

unauthorised abdication telegram of William II. On November 9, Scheidemann proclaimed a

republic with Friedrich Ebert as Chancellor while Liebknecht proclaimed a Socialist Council

Republic. The next day the Council of the People's Deputies, a provisional government which

should cooperate with the existing government, was founded. It opposed the Berlin Workers' and

Soldiers' Council. On November 11, the armistice was signed. (by Erzberger, later assassinated)

proportional representation (Verhältniswahl) On January 19, 1919 elections for the National Assembly were held following a new procedure, the

one of proportional representation. The seats in the National Assembly were to be allocated to the

different parties according to the number of votes they had received. It was a fair procedure but

made it difficult to achieve an overall majority, so that coalitions had to be formed to pass laws.

Also, female suffrage was introduced and the voting age lowered to the age of twenty. After the

elections the SPD, the Centre Party and the DDP formed a coalition. As they were in favour of the

coming into being of a parliamentary democracy, this formed a solid basis for the new republic.

parliamentary democracy

democracy: based on freedom and equality of all citizens, wishes of entire people shall be

represented, people's sovereignty, majority decisions

people's representatives (elected) decide on laws, government needs its confidence and is

controlled by it

Weimar Constitution (Article 25, Article 48)

The Weimar Constitution came into effect on August 11, 1919. Germany remained a federal state,

the existing Länder were slightly re-organised and reduced to seventeen. All state monarchs were

replaced and the new states organised along similar lines to the national government.

According to the constitution, a Reichstag comprising the Members of the Parliament elected by

Germans over twenty every four years on the basis of proportional representation should exist

alongside the Reichsrat, an assembly of 67 representatives representing the seventeen Länder. It

could give advice and reject new laws, but could be overridden by the Reichstag. The Government

was to include a Chancellor and his ministers. It needed the confidence of the Reichstag and could

propose laws to the Reichstag. Furthermore, plebiscites were introduced.

Also, the Head of State would be a President who would be elected by the German People every

seven years. He would have the power to appoint and dismiss the Chancellor. According to Article

25 he could dissolve the Reichstag (but never twice for the same reason) and then arrange for new

elections. According to Article 48, he was allowed to issue laws by decree in an emergency and

could override the constitutional rights of the German people (=emergency decree

[Notverordnung]).

Basic Rights

Already attempted in 1848 by the liberals, they were adopted in 1919 as a part of the constitution

but in a modernised version to include more social rights, e.g. to belong to a union. They also

included freedom of assembly, of expressing one's opinion, of press and equality before the law. But

every one of them could be overridden in an emergency according to Article 48.

political parties

Z = Centre Party

formed in 1870 to protect Catholic interests

in favour of political reform, defended the Weimar Republic until 1930

usually to the right of the DDP in its policies, took part in Weimar governments up to 1932,

most support from Catholic workers + middle class

NSDAP = National Socialist German Workers’ Party

formed in 1919 as the German Workers' Party (DAP)

extremely nationalist + racist party which opposed the Weimar Republic, anti-democratic

initially pursued violent methods of winning power but later focused on winning elections,

until 1923 only important as regional Bavarian party

appealed to all sectors of society after 1929 (crisis)

DNVP = German National People’s Party

nationalist party formed in 1918 to protect the interests of the land-owning class,

conservative, monarchist

rejected the Republic, the Treaty of Versailles, democracy

most support came from Junkers (landed nobility) and some urban lower middle class

ally of Hitler in final phase of Weimar Republic

DVP = German People’s Party

formed in 1918, right-wing liberal party, opposed the Weimar Republic in principle but took

part in governments

most support from upper middle class/employers

led by Gustav Stresemann

DDP = German Democratic Party

a left-wing liberal party formed in 1980

supported the Weimar constitution but lost electoral support after 10

most support came from liberal intellectuals + businessmen

SPD = Social Democratic Party

strongest supporter of Weimar Republic, formed in 1875, moderate

received more votes than any other party up to 1932

most support came from workers + lower middle class

radical members were thrown out in 1917 (formed USPD)

KPD = Communist Party

formed in 1918 by the Spartacus League

joined Comintern (international communist organisation led by Russia) in 1919

opposed the Weimar Republic + wanted to establish a communist state in Germany

became more popular after 1929

How strong were the roots of democracy in 19th century Germany? not that strong because of monarchy before, failed 48/49 revolutions, Germans used

to having a strong leader (Bismarck, kings), Social Democrats/government was

blamed for defeat, German conservatism + nationalism remained influential

however:

some democratic/revolutionary movements (-> 48/49) but did not

predominate

SPD largest party in the Reichstag, tradition of Social Democracy in Germany

The “revolution from above”: Why was a democratic regime born out of

Germany’s defeat? monarchy had led to defeat, dissatisfaction after lost war

democracy had been demanded before (48/49), Social Democracy = tradition in

Germany

other countries' influence (revolution in Russia), spreading of democratic ideas in

Europe

Chancellor recognised King's need to abdicate, Parlamentisierung imposed from

above (Why? More lenient treatment by Allies expected…)

The “revolution from below”: Did the 1918 German Revolution provide

a strong basis for democracy? no: Workers' and Soldiers' councils came into being but dispersed, no common leader

no: Chancellor recognised King's need to abdicate, foundation of the Council of the

People's Deputies from "above"

What were the strengths and weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution?

weaknesses: Article 25 + 48 -> fundamental rights not inalienable, giving (too) much

power to the President, no 5% threshold (very small parties could take part, difficult

decision-making), direct vote for President, his powerful position, referenda

undermining decisions by government, anti-constitutional parties not prohibited, no

SUSPENSIVE vote of no confidence

strengths: female/general suffrage, Reichstag could control government + President,

Reichsrat can veto laws, President was elected and replaced hereditary monarch

1919-23: Crises

Ebert-Groener-Pact

agreement between Friedrich Ebert (Chancellor) and Wilhelm Groener (general in German

army)

on Nov 9 1918, two days before the official end of the Second World War

army given free pass in dealing with communists in Germany (-> Spartacists), in return

army promised support to Ebert (weakness of government in case of crisis…)

free corps military unions, not demobilised, nationalist, anti-democratic attitude

murdered Spartacus leaders Rosa Luxemburg + Karl Liebknecht on 15 Jan 1919

Spartacist Rising in December 1918: foundation of KPD

started on 5 Jan 1919, violent attempt to overthrow government by Spartacus League after

dismissal of Berlin Police President Eichhorn (USPD), uprising defeated with help of free

corps under leadership of General von Lüttwitz

Spartacists led by Rosa Luxemburg + Karl Liebknecht

Kapp Putsch The first major crisis that occurred in the Weimar Republic. By the end of 1919, the government

had less need for the Freikorps and was trying to reduce the size of the army according to the

Treaty of Versailles. In February 1920 the Defence Minister ordered two Freikorps brigades to

disband, but one of the leaders, General Walther von Lüttwitz, refused to do so. Together with

other army officers and Wolfgang Kapp, a right-wing journalist and leader of the Fatherland Party,

he planned to overthrow the government. On 12 March the Freikorps marched to Berlin. Because

the army refused to support the government, it had to flee and the Freikorps entered Berlin. A new

government headed by Kapp was proclaimed but did not win widespread support, the army

remained mostly neutral. The left organised general strikes in protest. So in general, Kapp's

government occupied government buildings but was unable to govern. After four days, Kapp and

his government fled and Ebert's government returned. It took no action against the army leaders,

as they knew they might still need their support in the future, others who were involved were

treated leniently. Kapp could not be prosecuted as he died before.

Rapallo Pact The Rapallo Pact was concluded between Germany (Rathenau = foreign minister) and the Soviet

Union. It implied the restart of diplomatic relations, was the first achievement in German post-war

foreign policy and a first step away from isolation. It included the renunciation of all territorial

claims and war cost demands against the other. The Pact was seen critically by France. Revisionist

Germans hoped it was intended to divide Poland and to restore pre-war frontiers.

political assassinations

Between 1919 and 1923 Weimar politicians lived in fear of assassination. Some right-wing

Germans were encouraged to resort to murder to weaken the democratic regime; this was

reinforced by the lenient attitude to such actions of conservative judges. The Republic lost

hundreds of servants through assassination including an important statesman, Walter Rathenau

(participated in arranging armistice, became Foreign Minister in 1922, assassinated in June 1922)

(as well as Erzberger, see above)

Erfüllungspolitik (fulfilment policy)

Complying with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles in order to show their unjust conditions and

the impossibility to e.g. pay all the reparation payments. It should improve the relations to Great

Britain and France by diplomatic means and the "appearance of goodwill" rather than an openly

hostile attitude. It can be seen as being successful to a certain extent as reparation payments were

suspended in 1931 and not resumed. (=> Stresemann)

Year of Crises 1923: Ruhr occupation (passive resistance), hyperinflation,

Munich Beer Hall Putsch

Because Germany was unable to fulfil reparation payments at the end of 1921, French and Belgian

troops were sent into the Ruhr in January 1923 to collect coal. They faced no military opposition

but passive resistance, the workers refused to work for the French which led to a collapse of

services. This had severe consequences for the German economy. The government had to pay the

striking workers and received less tax revenue from the Ruhr as well as no coal supplies which

had thus to be imported. The government had two options: They could either raise taxation or print

more money. Because taxation was already too high, it opted for the latter option. Consequently

prices rose and the value of the mark was decreased, reinforcing inflation. Another reason for the

Hyperinflation Crisis of 1923 was the economic "legacy" of WWI which had left a budget deficit.

Mostly people with savings, students, people relying on the welfare system or with fixed incomes

and generally the middle class lost. Consequently extremist parties received more support as

people lost faith in Weimar and turned against democracy. Hyperinflation came to an end when the

new Chancellor Stresemann appointed Hjalmar Schacht an expert financier to the Reichsbank in

November 1923. Also a new currency was introduced, one Rentenmark replaced 1,000 billion

papermarks.

On November 8 Ottow von Lossow and Gustav von Kohr addressed a meeting of 2,000 right-wing

supporters in a Munich beer hall. Hitler and his stormtroopers disrupted the meeting and declared

a national revolution. They forced the two men to state their support for a march on Berlin to

impose a new government with General Luddendorff as the new Commander-in-Chief.

Meanwhile, 1000s of stormtroopers seized other members of the Bavarian government. The next

day, President Ebert declared a national state of emergency, General Seeckt ordered Lossow to

crush the revolt. They issued a proclamation denouncing the putsch. At noon 2,000 armed Nazis

marched to a military base in Munich and were met with armed police and Bavarian soldiers. A

shot was fired, then the police returned fire. Ludendorff was arrested, Hitler the next day. Seeckt

banned the Nazis.

In February 1924, Hitler, Ludendorff and other leaders were tried for treason which carried the

death penalty. Hitler turned the trial into an opportunity to attack the Weimar regime and to

expound his views. He achieved national fame, the trial helped the Nazi vote and they became the

third largest group in Bavaria. Because the judges were sympathetic, Luddendorff was acquitted

and Hitler was sentenced to the minimum possible sentence of five years in prison. Hitler was then

kept in good conditions in the Landsberg prison where he dictated "Mein Kampf". The Nazis

nearly disintegrated without their leader. (In how far did the Munich Beer Hall Putsch make Hitler

change his tactics upon his release from prison and how was this implemented / achieved?)

How great a burden for the Weimar Republic was the Treaty of Versailles? "economic legacy" (reparation payments, high budget deficit) → hyperinflation (territorial

losses / disarmament?)

Psychological impact: humiliation, dissatisfaction → opposition from right/left, difficult to

establish democracy

but: collapse of Weimar Republic also because of hard decision-making, "republic without

republicans", Nazi ideology, economic slump

Which impact did the challenge from the Left have and how strong was the

challenge from the Right? challenge from the right worse (better organisation, more violent, more support)

→ Kapp Putsch, assassinations

challenge from the left not that cohesive, no leadership/organisation, several groups

→ Marxists (wanted to establish Communism, KPD, showed their opposition through strikes,

demonstrations), Red Guard (militia of communists, street battles with free corps, workers'

councils)

In how far did hyperinflation and other crises of 1923 contribute to

undermining Weimar democracy? resentment against Weimar/democracy grew because of government’s failure to address

crises more efficiently → leading to the rise of extremist parties, population looked to the

far right/left to find solution to their problems

Why did the Weimar Republic survive the crises of 1919-1923? extremist parties had no mass support/majority in elections, government addressed crises

(Hyperinflation, Ruhr occupation) adequately, at least in the end

conservative elements, such as the army, supported government (greater evil =

Communism)

1923 crisis was overcome because of patriotic feelings (against the French, Ruhr

occupation) + collapse of German currency convinced U.S.A to participate more actively in

more moderate enforcement of the peace terms

1923-29: Recovery

Gustav Stresemann: policy of détente

He was a leading statesman of the Weimar Republic, member of the Pan-German Colonial League

and of the DVP. Stresemann became Chancellor in 1923 and was Foreign minister from 1923 to

1929. He was rather monarchist and opposed to the Weimar constitution.

The policy of détente implies the reassurance of other countries, the "easing of strained relations".

Stresemann tried to reassure the Western powers by promoting a peaceful revision. He tried to

create common interests by for example stressing Germany's importance for the European economy.

Dawes Plan (1924)

An international plan which included an agreement on the annual reparation payments until 27/28.

This occurred in Germany's interest, in the initial recovery phase 4/5ths were paid from

international loans. Also, the repayment period was extended and the USA received an assurance

that the European countries could repay the loans. The final amount of reparations was left open.

Treaty of Locarno (1925)

Some call this treaty Stresemann's greatest achievement. It was concluded between Germany,

Belgium, Poland, GB, Czechoslovakia and France. Germany accepted its western borders as

defined in the Treaty of Versailles and the demilitarisation of the Rhineland. There were arbitration

treaties with Czechoslovakia and Poland, but they did not receive any guarantees. The eastern

borders could still be revised. Stresemann hoped that the treaty would defuse domestic criticism of

his policies and help his eastern strategies.

In July 1925, French troops began to leave the Ruhr and the first area of the Rhineland was

evacuated. (So how about the eastern borders?)

Berlin Treaty (1926)

The Berlin Treaty of 1926 confirmed the new relations between Germany and the Soviet Union that

had first been expressed in the Rapallo Pact. Germany assured Russia of German neutrality if

Russia went to war with a third power. Thus, if Russia was at war with Poland, France could not

come to help through Germany, which weakened Poland's position.

League of Nations (Völkerbund) In September 1926, Germany became a member of the League of Nations thereby regaining its

place in the international system. It obtained a great power status on the Council League with veto

power. The League of Nations was founded after World War I in 1919. It was an intergovernmental

organisation whose main aim was the maintenance of world peace and it existed until 1946. (Why

did it fail?)

Kellogg-Briand Pact (Aug 1928)

Germany helped to mediate between the USA and France. The pact was an agreement to outlaw war

as an instrument of national policy. It was signed by Germany, France (Briand) and the USA

(Kellogg). (Was it an efficient one?)

Young Plan

In August 1929 this agreement on the German reparation payments was concluded between twelve

European countries. They were to be spaced out over fifty-seven years and a new total figure was

set with a reduced annual average in comparison with the Dawes Plan. Also the evacuation of the

Rhineland until June 1930 was decided, as well as the removal of foreign controls five years earlier

than envisaged in the Treaty of Versailles.

Golden Years time from the end of the First World War until 1929, also: "Roaring Twenties" (USA)

economic prosperity, spread of new forms of art and communication (Jazz, film, records),

"Americanisation"

for some it represented a distraction from war and unemployment

Nationalist opposed the new cultural products and phenomena which they deemed immoral

wages and industrial production increased, new currency, Stresemann appointed in 1923,

reflects that life in Germany improved compared to troubles in 1923

however: not everyone prospered, many problems remained

Was Stresemann a good European or a good German?

Stresemann can be described as an "advocate of international understanding" when taking into

consideration that he employed negotiations as a means of policy-making in order to regain a strong

German position instead of violent means. Also he aimed at establishing friendly relations with the

Soviet Union and supported fulfilment policy trying to meet the requirements of the Treaty of

Versailles and thus appeasing the other powers. Also, he played a crucial role in concluding the

Kellogg-Briand Pact and supported the USA's involvement in Germany in economic ways. The

Treaty of Locarno is an argument for both: As it recognised Germany's western borders, it led to a

better understanding with France, for example, but because it did not accept Germany's eastern

borders, relations with the East, with Poland for example, did not improve. Other arguments

speaking for him being a good German rather than a good European are his revisionist attitude

towards Versailles, his aim to attain parity with France, and the fact that good relations with the SU

were a means to put pressure on the West.

Also, the conclusion of the Berlin Treaty weakened Poland's position All in all, Hitler's revisionist

policy could be seen as a continuation of Stresemann's but Stresemann was also limited in his

actions, he tried to negotiate peacefully and looked to the east and west for improving relations.

(So? Good European or good German?)

Is the term "recovery" appropriate to describe the years 1923 to 1929?

YES:

advance in social services, economy partially recovered

Dawes Plan, better foreign relations

Year of Crisis 1923 overcome

reflects that life in Germany improved compared to troubles in 1933

political threats to Republic quietened down

Stresemann appointed in '23 (international negotiations)

new currency (more secure)

more comprehensive unemployment insurance system (1927)

wages and industrial production increased

NO:

compared with other countries, economy not flourishing enough

growth unstable

cartelisation leading to high prices for goods (less foreign trade)

rationalisation leading to unemployment

loans (dependency on USA), high budget deficit

dissatisfaction among citizens (no confidence), not everyone profited

welfare state (state living beyond its means, over-strained welfare state)

opposition of nationalists continued

1929-33: Collapse

Wall Street Crash / “Black Friday” October 25

th, 1929: “Black Friday” → Wall Street Crash

German economy had been able to recover after the economic crisis of 1923 due to

American financial support → machinery in the industrial and agricultural sector could be

modernised to increase production, willingness to invest and competitiveness was increased

→ BUT: America's economic position led to overproduction, excessive investments and stock

purchases and finally to the collapse of the stock market in 1929

the Great Depression / slump Germany had received American loans after 1924, after Wall Street Crash: those loans had

to be repaid and no further loans were given

what followed was the Great Depression/slump in Germany:

→ banks had to be closed, unemployment peaked (6 million by January 1932), foreign trade

suffered as protectionism increased, people still weakened by earlier hyperinflation (1923), now

worse (no more savings), there were diseases and starvation

Harzburg Front loose right-wing grouping resulting from a meeting of nationalist opposition forces in Bad

Harzburg, formed on October 11th,

1931 but only lasted a few months

united opponents of the Weimar Republic (except for communists, KPD politically isolated,

no influence on government, bureaucracy, military)

wanted resignation of Weimar governments

including the NSDAP, DNVP and the veterans' organisation Stahlhelm

military support for the NSDAP (SA)

financial support for NSDAP increased (Hugenberg (leader of DNVP): head of conservative

press // influence of “Big Business” on rise of NSDAP?)

paramilitary marching-ups + speeches by Hugenberg and Hitler against the republic

SA = stormtroopers, brownshirts (Sturmabteilung) paramilitary organisation, head: first Göring, then Röhm

military support for NSDAP, participated in the Hitler-Putsch

later mainly used by the NSDAP for means of propaganda

SS = Defence Unit (Schutzstaffel) founded in 1925 for Hitler's personal protection

SD = Security Service (Sicherheitsdienst) intelligence and security body of the NSDAP

created 1931 by Heinrich Himmler, head: Reinhard Heydrich

should observe political opponents of the NSDAP

Grand Coalition (SPD, Z, DDP, DVP) chancellor: Hermann Müller (SPD)

five parties: broad range of interests, very hard decision-making

conflicts between DVP and SPD, no consensus about how to deal with the economic crisis

(different ideas on how to solve the crisis? In how far did the welfare state contribute to

undermining Weimar democracy?)

Müller wanted to be granted use of Art. 48 but was refused as Hindenburg was opposed to

the SPD, Müller resigned March 1930

Presidential Cabinets Heinrich Brüning appointed chancellor (nickname: 'Hunger Chancellor' → unpopular

economic policy, reduced wages etc.)

lacked support of Reichstag → rule by presidential decree (→ president makes use of Art.

48 to circumvent function of parliament when no consensus is found) (So how exactly did

the Presidential Cabinets come into being?)

Hindenburg was influenced by Kurt von Schleicher (politician in the Defence Ministry),

who thought NSDAP should be included in government, wanted even more conservative

regime

“Cabinet of Barons” 1932 Brüning was forced to resign, Franz von Papen appointed chancellor with Schleicher

as the Defence Minister

“Cabinet of Barons” → aristocratic politicians who were not members of the Reichstag and

most of them had no ties to political parties

Papen wanted to continue ruling by decree but had a difficult position, Nazi + KPD votes

increased, Hitler did not want to work together with Papen, thought due to his election result

(namely? he should be chancellor himself

special path (Sonderweg) theory that Germany deviates from the other European countries and their development, that

it has a "special path"

→ Germany became economically advanced, but the aristocratic ruling elite kept power,

opposed democracy

→ middle class with fostered representative government merely supported successful

autocratic state

→ limited 1918 revolution failed to break free from these authoritarian tendencies

→ so: Weimar failed

Why and how did the Wall Street Crash in the USA affect Weimar

economically? October 1929: American stock market crashes

→ no more American loans granted, Germany had to repay already received loans (cannot

pay reparations to GB / F => GB / F cannot pay war debts to US => vicious circle)

→ Great Depression/slump in Germany

causes: weak economy, general lack of confidence and growth of protectionism (people

want to keep their properties and savings) → fall in demand as people buy less → decline in

world trade → businesses cut back production/lower prices to try to attract customers →

wages reduced, workers laid off → workers have less money → fall in demand as people

buy less... : vicious circle

consequences: banks closed, unemployment peaked, people still weakened by earlier

hyperinflation (1923), now worse (no more savings), diseases, starvation

Was the Grand coalition the beginning of the end of Weimar? foreseeable that they would not be able to agree on one issue → broad range of interests

the Republic's last Social Democratic administration

In how far did Hitler's experience with the Beer Hall Putsch lead him to

change his tactics in gaining power? abandoned violent tactics, wanted to win electoral support, legal way of gaining power

wanted strict organisation of the Party, wider geographical base, larger membership

Führer's will should dominate completely (also cf. different slogans to appeal to a broad

range of possible voters; role of “Big Business” / e.g. Hugenberg)

Why was the Nazi Party so successful from 1930 to 1932? due to economic crisis which was even more devastating than the one from 1923

dissatisfaction among the people increased, they wanted radical change

→ voted for NSDAP and not KPD because:

people were afraid of Bolshevist revolution (Russia)

NSDAP was supported also financially (Thyssen, Hugenberg (DNVP, newspaper))

fame + hype over Hitler and his trial after the Hitler-Putsch, Mein Kampf, famous)

paramilitary groups (SS, SA...) in favour of extreme right, courts in favour of right-

wing

intimidation by SA: pressure not to vote for KPD

KPD was badly organised, support from the weakest section of the working class,

competition with the SPD

Did Hitler become chancellor “through the back door”? In May 1932, Papen was appointed Chancellor. In September, the Reichstag passed a vote of no

confidence in Papen so that in December Schleicher, Papen's former Defence Minister, was

appointed Chancellor. Schleicher did not succeed in gaining the Reichstag's support (What was his

plan with regard to the NSDAP?) which provided Papen with the chance to take revenge on

Schleicher. In January 1933 a secret meeting between Papen and Hitler took place: Papen struck a

deal with the Nazis which Hindenburg accepted (role of Hindenburg’s son?). As a consequence,

Hitler was then appointed Chancellor (with Papen as Vice Chancellor) suggesting that he did

become chancellor "through the back door", as he also indirectly influenced Hindenburg by talking

to his son and actually had no parliamentary majority. (So how about the election results of the

NSDAP / other counter-arguments? What was von Papen’s belief? => “taming” the Nazis…why

would he think so?)

January 30, 1933: “seizure of power”, “takeover of power”, “handing-over of

power” or “sneaking into power”? “seizure of power” = Nazi propaganda term

“takeover of power”: on the one hand, Hitler had an active part (as he talked to and

influenced Hindenburg's son who influenced his father; also cf. election results), but

takeover would imply a direct/open strategy, which was not the case → rather scheming

“handing-over of power”: on the one hand Franz von Papen convinced Hindenburg to

appoint Hitler chancellor, thinking of his own advantages, they thought Hitler could be

“tamed” (as he had lost electoral support a short time before and seemed to pose less of a

threat / cf. Nazis in his government!), but on the other hand Hitler also actively influenced

Hindenburg's son

“sneaking into power”: Hitler actively influenced Hindenburg's son, legal part missing→

intrigue, BUT: Hitler had big support, many votes (but no majority)

Is there a German special path? Yes:

authoritarian tradition (“failed” revolutions, Bismarck, Weimar Constitution)

→ influence of elites, preference for order, weak liberalism

No:

Europe: many dictatorships

propaganda, right circumstances

Hindenburg's, Papen's, Brüning's role: contributed to collapse of parliamentary

system

Hitler’s personality / goals

achievements of the 1848/9 Revolutions!!

Was the WR doomed to fail from its very beginnings?

Pro

psychological impact of Treaty of Versailles → excuse for Hitler to come to power

lacking support for democracy (among population / political parties => Republic without

Republicans)

→ population, parties, radical parties

president's position (Ersatzkaiser, Art. 25: can dissolve Reichstag and arrange for new

elections; 48: in an emergency, can issue laws by decree and override constitutional rights of

the German people, president could decide about state of emergency)

no democratic tradition, imposed from “above”, Republic without Republicans

old elites (hostile to WR) remained in power (e.g. Hindenburg 1925 voted president, very

conservative, not so much support for WR from population but he never acted against

constitution)

no 5% threshold (if party has 5% votes → Bundestag, difficult decision making, weak

coalitions, radical parties also allowed, threat to stability)

Con

Weimar survived early crises → indicates strength

crises were followed by the “Golden Years” '23-'29

Stresemann's foreign policy

very democratic elements of the constitution → (everyone over 20 allowed to vote (f.

president every 7 years), could arrange for plebiscites)

Dawes + Young Plan, reduced reparations to help German economy recover

Art. 25;48: thought to prevent Weimar from attacks

“doomed to fail” = Hitler inevitable => guilt?

Which political and ideological prerequisites of NS/which conditions in the

WR favoured the rise of the Nazis (long-term/medium-term causes)? Nazi ideology appealed to large parts of the population as it addressed nationalist / anti-

Semitic / Pan-Germanist tendencies

economic crises → people wanted radical change → NSDAP = alternative option instead of

KPD as people were afraid of a communist revolution

stab-in-the-back myth, option for Hitler to blame the new (socialist) Weimar government for

losing the first World War → people turn against the Weimar regime

old conservative elite still in powerful positions and in favour of the right wing → NSDAP

impact of Versailles Treaty

NS ideology

Where can the origins of Nazi ideology be found? pre-war Germany, end of 19

th century: two distinct but overlapping ideological responses to

rapid industrial change which followed unification: anti-Semitism, Pan-Germanism

nationalism (abolish Treaty of Versailles, reclaim lost territories, Anschluss of Austria, union

of ethnic Germans, expansion to provide "living space"

anti-Semitism (scapegoats = Jews, increasingly classed as race)

nothing new… merged into “something new”

Which interdependencies can be detected in the cornerstones of NS ideology

and which consequences result from the pursuit of their fulfilment? nationalism - anti-Semitism - Social Darwinism: union of all Germans, at the same time

excluding "non-Germans" = Jews (defined as race)

→ Herrenvolk (Aryan master race) at the top (hierarchy of races), racial purity of Germans,

everything achieved through struggle

nationalism - Pan-Germanism: making Germany great, demanding "living space"

anti-Semitism - anti-Marxism - anti-Capitalism: exclusion of Jews and of everything linked

to them

Why were those ideas so appealing to some parts of Weimar society? addressed nationalists' wishes to make Germany great again (no more reparation payments,

abolition of Treaty of Versailles, no more feeble Weimar democracy, build

Volksgemeinschaft)

addressed anti-Semitic tendencies (fight communism and Jewish capitalism)

→ work for working class

peasants: fair prices, restriction of food imports, fight Jews

civil servants: no more cuts in salaries

How did the Nazis ensure that their ideas were spread among the people? propaganda campaigns (Joseph Goebbels) → use of media

slogans targeted at particular social groups

Hitler as demagogue, skilled speaker

intimidation

Hitler cultivated the impression of a long-established, tightly organised party (use of

uniforms, symbols, Hitler salute)

Nationalism vision of greater Germany, which acquires “living space” for an expanding master race

→ abolish Treaty of Versailles, reclaim lost territories, further expansion into Eastern

Europe to provide lebensraum and destroy Russia, centre of communism (anti-

Communism)

Anti-democracy → Führerprinzip, working towards the Führer

democracy provided weak governments and should be based on the principle of an all-

powerful leader (Führer)

Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda (Reichsministerium für

Volksaufklärung und Propaganda) ministry in the Third Reich which was responsible for propagating Nazi ideology in

Germany

regulated and controlled culture and society (e.g. press)

founded on March 13, 1933 by the National Socialist government

head: Dr. Joseph Goebbels (propaganda minister)

25-Points Programme, Mein Kampf

25-Points Programme: drafted by Hitler in February 1920

Nationalism: union of all Germans, German national press + army, abolition of

Treaty of Versailles + Saint-Germaine

Racism: no Jew is to be a member of the German nation, blood defines citizen, non-

Germans live in German only as guests

Socialism: nationalisation of businesses, profits of major enterprises shared, equal

rights for every citizen, incomes not earned though work are to be abolished, small

shops instead of large department stores

Mixtures: land + territory demanded to provide food + “living space” for the German

people, land reform, higher education available to all Germans, improve nation's

health by protecting mothers, sports compulsory, freedom of religious faith (but:

party = Christian, fighting against "Jewish materialist spirit"

“Mein Kampf”: written by Adolf Hitler during his imprisonment after the failure of the 1923

Putsch, published 1925, included essential principles of NS ideology, named racial interest

as the true basis of the state → Volksgemeinschaft, Lebensraum

Programme: addressed broad range of people; deliberately vague, never to be defined in

more detail

People's community (Volksgemeinschaft) community of people sharing common race → unity of all ethnic Germans

need to work together for the common good, rich and poor, rural and urban people together

important concept to bring together groups whose unity was undermined by rapid

industrialisation

people belonging to Volksgemeinschaft have a common bond/ “common good” →

promotion of a “pure” race, expansion of German boundaries

fictitious concept / utopia but esp. appealing to people after the polarisation in WR / political

clashes / disunity

Social Darwinism Darwinism: views of British biologist Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

→ principles of evolution among animal species

→ survival of the fittest

→ in NS ideology: similar laws of development apply to the human race as well, thus some races

are more highly developed than others: “Social Darwinism”

anti-Semitism anti-Semitism increased when lower middle class felt threatened by mass production +

urbanisation

Jews were seen as the most immediate threat, positions as department store owners, bankers,

cattle dealers

long history of persecution, easy scapegoats

racial rather than cultural group → seen as foreigners

anti-Marxism/Anti Communism for Nazis: socialism = ensuring unity of people, not sharing power

Hitler: focus on Jewishness of communism, thought it was a part of “Jewish world

conspiracy”, so communists = part of Jewish threat

impact on foreign policy: no colonial expansion but expansion into Russia

dual effect of destroying “Jewish” communism and gaining lebensraum

Karl Marx = Jewish

Aryan master race (Herrenvolk) hierarchy of races

Aryan (peoples of Northern Europe, common language (German), top of the pyramid,

bottom: Slavs and Jews)

Social Darwinism: only the fittest survive in a struggle of races

anti-Semitism: Jews as his main victim, viewed as a racial and not religious group

eugenics, “racial hygiene” applied science of bio-social movement: advocates the use of practices aimed at improving

genetic composition of a population

improvement of human hereditary traits through promotion of higher reproduction of more

desired people/traits (and elimination of undesirable traits)

euthanasia, T4 programme euthanasia = euphemism for murder of thousands of physically and mentally disabled

people

“T4” → cover name, T4 = Tiergartenstraße 4 in Berlin, seat of the office which was

responsible for the carrying out of the euthanasia programme

pan-Germanism Pan-German League (leader: Heinrich Class)

emerged in the 1890s, formed by the “new Right”: successful middle class groups who felt

excluded from G's ruling class

were of the opinion that changes in society through industrialisation led to instability, lack of

unity

their solution: to protect the German people it is necessary to unite people behind common

cause: greatness of G state, 1) through expansion, 2) through keeping the “superior German

race” pure, no foreigners (the term also includes Jews)

living space (Lebensraum) foreign territory which, in the view of extreme German nationalists, had to be seized for the

proper future maintenance of the German race (esp. in the East)

socialism in action socialism means stressing the needs of the Volksgemeinschaft (people's community), and

ensuring unity, not sharing power