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The Mental Side of Human Performance
Chapter 14
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INTRODUCTION
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History of Sport Psychology
Chinese and Greek Civilizations– “Healthy mind in a healthy body”
1800’s– First sport psychology research– Effects of audience on cyclist performance
Past Three Decades– Recognition and growth of sport
psychology discipline
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Growth of Sport Psychology
Sport psychology has only recently developed and grown due to:
1. Expansion of scientific knowledge and emergence of different branches
2. Increased media attention
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Outline
In this section you will be introduced to the following sport psychology issues:– Influence of personality on performance– Effect of sport on personality– Relationship between anxiety and
performance– Effect of motivation on sport performance– Effects of the audience on athletic
accomplishments
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PERSONALITY AND THE ATHLETE
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Personality: Pattern of characteristic thoughts,
feelings, and behaviours that distinguish one person from another and persist
over time and situations.
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The study of personality in sport psychology can help us answer the following questions:Do athletes possess different personality
characteristics than non-athletes? Do winners possess different personality profiles
than losers? Does personality determine sport preference, or
does a particular sport mould our personality accordingly?
Can personality be changed, or does it remain relatively fixed throughout involvement in sport?
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Personalities of Athletes vs. Non-Athletes
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Personalities of Athletes vs. Non-Athletes
Compared to non-athletes, athletes are more:Stable
ExtrovertedCompetitive
DominantSelf-confident
Achievement-orientedPsychologically well-adjusted
Conservative with respect to political viewsAuthoritarian
PersistentDisplay higher levels of self-esteem
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Personalities of Athletes vs. Non-Athletes
Although differences exist,
clear pattern of differences
has yet to emerge
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Personality Profiles of Athletes Differing in Skill Level
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Definitions
Personality traits: psychological characteristics of the athlete which remain relatively stable over time
Personality states: “right now kinds of feelings” which are situation-specific
State-trait controversy: disagreement of the relative merits of studying states versus traits
Interactional theory: the best state-trait approach, which considers personality traits and states, as well as situation-specific factors
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It is NOT yet possible to distinguish between successful and unsuccessful athletes using personality traits
However, it is possible to distinguish between the elite athletes and the lesser skilled in terms of mood states
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Mood States of Elite vs. Non-Elite Athletes Mood states of elite athletes vs. lesser
skilled athletes are below in:
And are markedly higher in:
Tension
Depression
Anger
Fatigue
Confusion
Vigor
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Iceberg Profile This mood state profile resembles an iceberg and is
therefore often referred to as the iceberg profile
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Tension Depression Anxiety Vigor Fatigue Confusion
PROFILE OF MOOD STATES
T-S
CO
RE
Successful Athletes
Unsuccessful Athletes
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Developmental Effects of Sport on Personality
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Are personality differences due to the athletic experience?
OrDo certain personality traits cause the individual
to go out for sports (gravitational hypothesis)?
Evidence tends to support the gravitational hypothesis
HOWEVER, participation in sports can also enhance personality development
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Personality and the Athlete: Conclusions Athletes tend to be more extroverted, independent, and
self-confident than non-athletes; they also tend to be less anxious
Elite athletes can be distinguished from lesser skilled athletes by means of the iceberg profile; it is not possible, however, to distinguish between winners and losers
Individuals with certain personality traits tend to gravitate toward sports; sport also has the potential to enhance certain personality traits
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ANXIETY AND ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE
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Arousal
Physiological state of readiness and psychological activation
Involves the autonomic nervous system
Body’s way of preparing you for “fight or flight”
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Stress Non-specific response of the body to any
demand made upon it Unemotional bodily response to some type of
stressor Can be either good or bad, depending upon
the individual’s personal interpretation– Eustress (e.g., winning a lottery)– Distress (e.g., receiving a failing grade on a
midterm test)
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Anxiety
Tension and worry that results from distress A negatively charged emotional state
characterized by discomfort and nervousness Two forms of anxiety:
– Trait anxiety: a personality characteristic
– State anxiety: a “right now” kind of anxiety
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Anxiety Cont’d
Two components of state anxiety: – Cognitive state anxiety (psychological component)
• Caused by fear of failure • Result of worrying• “I am afraid I am going to lose”
– Somatic state anxiety (physical component) • perception of physiological responses• “I feel nervous before a major contest”
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Anxiety and Athletic Performance Relationship
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Pre-Competitive Anxiety Temporal changes in cognitive and somatic state
anxiety as competition approaches:
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The Effect of Pre-competitive Anxiety on Performance
Relationship between somatic anxiety and performance takes the form of an inverted-U
Relationship between cognitive anxiety and athletic performance has been shown to be linear and negative
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Implications
Increases in somatic anxiety are associated with improved athletic performance up to a certain optimal level; therefore, athletes should attempt to increase their somatic anxiety up to an optimal level by “psyching-up”
The lower the level of cognitive state anxiety, the better the athlete will perform; therefore, athletes must learn to deal with the symptoms of cognitive anxiety
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Symptoms of Cognitive State Anxiety
The Symptoms of Distress Checklist
Cold, clammy hands ______ Increased heart rate ______
Cotton mouth ______ Faster breathing ______
Unable to concentrate ______ Trembling hands ______
Desire to urinate often ______ Tense muscles ______
Diarrhea ______ Nausea ______
Feeling of fatigue ______ Voice distortion ______
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Relaxation Interventions to Lower Cognitive State Anxiety Progressive Muscular Relaxation (PMR)
– Takes time initially, but with practice can be completed in a matter of minutes
– Especially valuable night before
1. Lie or sit in a comfortable position 2. Inhale and tense a specific muscle group for
approximately 5 seconds 3. Exhale and release the tension from the muscles,
concentrating on the feeling of relaxation 4. Repeated for a number of muscle groups
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Relaxation Interventions Cont’d
Positive Imagery– Requires practice to be effective
1. Close eyes and picture yourself performing well in the specific anxiety-causing performance environment
2. Imagine the positive feelings associated with this successful imagery
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Relaxation Interventions Cont’d
Positive Self-talk– Reassuring oneself with positive thoughts
and statements – Example: “I’m a good free throw shooter,”
vs. “What will the coach think of me if I blow this shot?”
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MOTIVATION AND SPORT
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Motivation determines the reasons for an athlete’s behavior.
It is defined as the direction, energy, and intensity of behavior.
It is synonymous with inspiration, enthusiasm, or the will to win.
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Achievement Motivation
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Athlete’s predisposition to approach or avoid a competitive situation
Includes the concept of desire, or desire to excel
Not an innate drive, but is likely learned in the sporting environment
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McClelland-Atkinson Model
McClelland-Atkinson Model suggests that achievement motivation is a function of: 1. The motive to achieve success
• An athlete’s intrinsic motivation to engage in an exciting activity
2. The fear of failure • A psychological construct associated with
cognitive state anxiety
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Achievement Motivation =
intrinsic motivation – cognitive state anxiety
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Extrinsic Motivation
McClelland-Atkinson model of achievement motivation could NOT predict athletic success
Therefore, extrinsic motivation was added to the original model– Example: praise, money, trophies, and other forms
of reward
This modified model acknowledges that factors external to the athlete may influence individual’s overall motivation
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Factors Affecting Achievement Motivation
The following factors affect achievement motivation:
1. Self-confidence
2. Self-efficacy
3. Goal setting
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Improving Achievement Motivation
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1. Self-Confidence
Discriminating factor between individuals high and low in achievement motivation
Similar to the motive to achieve success: – The confident athlete has a high motive to
succeed and a high expectation for success
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2. Self-Efficacy
Based on Bandura’s Model Individual’s belief that he or she is capable of
succeeding at a particular task i.e., situation-specific self-confidence Used in sport psychology (vs. self-confidence)
because the sporting environment represents a very specific situation
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2. Self-Efficacy Cont’d
Self-efficacy (and subsequently achievement motivation) can be enhanced through:(a) successful performance
(b) vicarious experience
(c) verbal persuasion
(d) emotional arousal
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Improving Self-efficacy
Successful Performance– The most important factor in improving self-
efficacy – Raises expectations for future successes; while
failure lowers these expectations – For best results:
1. Break down skill learning into small steps to insure success early
2. Practice, practice, practice
3. Highlighting successes and downplaying setbacks
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Improving Self-efficacy
Vicarious Experience – Demonstrating repeated success through
participatory modeling • i.e., the subject first observes a model perform a task
– For best results:
1. Employ participatory modeling before the athlete attempts the skill on his/her own
2. Utilize only models who are technically correct in their execution
3. Ensure successful execution by the athlete in the early stages of learning
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Improving Self-efficacy
Verbal Persuasion – Constant provision of encouragement, as
well as specific skill instructions – For best results:
1. Provide specific rather than general feedback2. Have the athlete repeat your instructions back to
you before beginning 3. Focus on the positive aspects of the athlete’s
performance
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Improving Self-efficacy
Emotional Arousal – An optimal level of arousal is required to develop
self-efficacy – Too much or too little arousal will impact
negatively on the development of self-efficacy – For best results:
1. In the early stages of learning, keep things relaxed. 2. Get to know athletes one-on-one. Some will need more
arousal, while others less. 3. Help athletes recognize when they need to “psych-up
or calm-down.”
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3. Goal Setting Last way to improve achievement motivation
is to employ effective goal setting strategiesGoal Setting Strategies for Maximum Motivation
1. Set goals that are observable, measurable, and achievable.
2. Set realistic, yet challenging goals.
3. Set positive goals, not negative goals (such as don’t lose).
4. Coaches and teachers should negotiate goals for their athletes or students, not mandate them.
5. Set short-term as well as long-term goals.
6. Set goals for your practices, as well as your actual competitions.
7. Set goals related to the athletes performance or technical execution, not contest outcome (win vs. lose).
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CAUSAL ATTRIBUTION IN SPORT
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Attribution theory is a cognitive approach to motivation.
It assumes that people strive to explain, understand, and predict events based
upon their own perceptions.
What the athlete believes to be true is important for future motivation.
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The Development of Causal Attribution Theory
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Outcomes can be attributed:– Internally to the person (personal force)
• Composed of ability and effort
– Externally to the environment; i.e. (environmental force)
• Composed of task difficulty and luck
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Classification Scheme for Causal Attribution
Ability Task Difficulty
Effort Luck
Internal External
Locus of Control
Sta
bil
ity
Sta
ble
Uns
tabl
e
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Stability Dimension
Stable attributions: relatively unchanging from one day to the next (ability and task difficulty)
Unstable attributions: vary markedly from time to time (effort and luck)
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Locus of Control Dimension
Internal attributions: include attributes perceives as controllable (ability and effort)
External attributions: perceived to be outside the athlete’s control (task difficulty and luck)
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Implications
Before competition the athlete should be encouraged to focus on effort vs. ability– Both effort and ability are within athlete’s control,
but effort is unstable from game to game
Athletes must focus on preparing strategies that will be effective against task difficulty (e.g. an opposing team) vs. luck– Both luck and task difficulty are beyond athlete's
control, but task difficulty is stable and predictable.
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Affective Responses Associated with Casual Attributions
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Affective Responses Associated with Casual Attributions
Greatest affect
Lowest affect
Effort
Task Difficulty
Ability
LuckInternal
Attribution
External
Attribution
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Implications
After a victory, an athlete is going to feel more pride if he/she believes that the win was a result of an effort or ability rather than an opponent’s poor ability or a lucky call from the referee.
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Cause-and-effect Relations Among Attributions, Outcome, and Affect Different emotions are experienced with
different causal attributions and outcomes
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Implications If after a success athletes attribute the success:
– Internally, they typically respond with pride, confidence, and satisfaction
– Externally, they will likely feel gratitude and thankfulness
After a success, regardless of attribution, affect tends to be positive and enthusiastic
The affect for failure usually is negative and possibly subdued
What is the affect after failure for internal and external attribution?
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The Relationship Between Causal Attributions, Future
Expectations, and Motivation
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Causal Attributions, Future Expectations, and Motivation
Causal Attributions
Future Expectation Motivation
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Causal Attributions, Future Expectations, and Motivation
Whenever an outcome is different than what was expected based on past experience, the athlete tends to endorse an unstable attribution (e.g., effort or luck).
When an outcome is as expected, based on past performances, a stable attribution (e.g., ability or task difficulty) is endorsed.
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Predicting Future Expectations From Present Attributions
Therefore, it is beneficial to ascribe failures to unstable causes, since it does not imply repeated failure.
Lack of Ability
Expect Same Result
Lack of Luck
Expect Different Result
Attribution to Loss Future expectation Attribution to Loss Future expectation
vs.
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Predicting Future Expectations From Present Attributions Cont’d Implications:
– Athletes should attribute a failure to unstable and internal cause; i.e., lack of effort
– This suggests that more effort can change the next outcome from failure to success
– And it teaches the athlete to accept responsibility for the results
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Predicting Future Expectations From Present Attributions Cont’d In summary, future expectancy depends
on stability of the attributions
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Promoting Self-efficacy Through Attribution and Expectancy Promotion self-efficacy and motivation for
future performance depends on both expectancy and locus of control:
Positive Expectancy
Internal Attribution
External Attribution
Negative Expectancy
or/&High
self-efficacy
Low self-efficacyor/&
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Promoting Self-efficacy Cont’d
Implications– Athletes who succeed should be
encouraged to attribute the success to both stable and internal factors
• A stable attribution will improve the athlete’s expectancy for future success
• An internal attribution will enhance the athlete’s self-confidence
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Putting it all together:Present Attribute
Locus of control Future Expectancy
Promotion of Self-Efficacy for
Future Event
Promotion of Motivation for Future Event
S
U
C
C
E
S
S
Good ability Internal Success
High effort Internal Success/
failure
Partially Partially
Easy task External Success Partially Partially
Good luck External Success/
failure
F
A
I
L
U
R
E
Poor ability Internal Failure Partially Partially
Low effort Internal Failure/
success
Difficult task External Failure
Bad luck External Failure/
success
Partially Partially
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Promoting Self-efficacy Cont’d
Attributional training strategies leading to improved self-efficacy in future events:
1. Record and classify attributions after performances
2. After each outcome make attributions that will lead to promotion of self-efficacy (see previous table)
3. Provide an attributional training program for athletes who consistently utilize undesirable attributions
4. For best results, combine planned goal-setting with attributional training
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AUDIENCE EFFECTS IN SPORT
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Spectator Effect
An important social-psychological effect on athletic performance
Influences athlete’s performance through:
1. Social facilitation—enhancement of performance due to presence of others
2. Rivalry—a desire to beat the other opponent
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Social Facilitation
Can be further broken down into:1. Audience effects--a situation involving the
mere presence of other individuals in the same room or area
2. Coaction effects--other people are present, but are performing the same task
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In summary:
Spectator Effect
Rivalry
Social Facilitation
Coaction Effects
Audience Effects
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Evaluation Component
Whether or not the audience is perceived as important for the athlete
If the athlete perceives the audience to be:– Important and/or knowledgeable, then drive level
is increased– Unimportant and/or not knowledgeable, then drive
level is decreased
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Audience Effects on Performance
Audience &/ coactor
Audience perceived
as non-critical
Audience perceived as critical
Drive Lever
lowered
Drive level heightened
Simple task: performance
improved
Evaluation
Complex task:
performance improved
Simple task: performance
impeded
Complex task:
performance impeded
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Appropriate Timing for Spectator Effect
“Over learning”
&
Arousal-lowering strategies in the presence
of audience
Allow audience access to
practices
Arousal-increasing strategies
in the presence of audience
Negative
Positive
LEARNING STAGE SPECTATOR EFFECTS STRATEGIES
Initial Learning
Skill is over-
learned
Skill is utilized
into game
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Audience Characteristics and Team Performance The presence of supportive audience is
presently the most popular explanation for home advantage
Research has established the following audience characteristics leading to a greater home advantage:– Large– Supportive– Close to the playing arena
(i.e., high intimacy and density)
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The End
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