Sport Books Publisher1 The Mental Side of Human Performance Chapter 14.

Sport Books Publisher 1

The Mental Side of Human Performance

Chapter 14


INTRODUCTION


History of Sport Psychology

Chinese and Greek Civilizations– “Healthy mind in a healthy body”

1800’s– First sport psychology research– Effects of audience on cyclist performance

Past Three Decades– Recognition and growth of sport

psychology discipline


Growth of Sport Psychology

Sport psychology has only recently developed and grown due to:

1. Expansion of scientific knowledge and emergence of different branches

2. Increased media attention


Outline

In this section you will be introduced to the following sport psychology issues:– Influence of personality on performance– Effect of sport on personality– Relationship between anxiety and

performance– Effect of motivation on sport performance– Effects of the audience on athletic

accomplishments


PERSONALITY AND THE ATHLETE


Personality: Pattern of characteristic thoughts,

feelings, and behaviours that distinguish one person from another and persist

over time and situations.


The study of personality in sport psychology can help us answer the following questions:Do athletes possess different personality

characteristics than non-athletes? Do winners possess different personality profiles

than losers? Does personality determine sport preference, or

does a particular sport mould our personality accordingly?

Can personality be changed, or does it remain relatively fixed throughout involvement in sport?


Personalities of Athletes vs. Non-Athletes



Compared to non-athletes, athletes are more:Stable

ExtrovertedCompetitive

DominantSelf-confident

Achievement-orientedPsychologically well-adjusted

Conservative with respect to political viewsAuthoritarian

PersistentDisplay higher levels of self-esteem



Although differences exist,

clear pattern of differences

has yet to emerge


Personality Profiles of Athletes Differing in Skill Level


Definitions

Personality traits: psychological characteristics of the athlete which remain relatively stable over time

Personality states: “right now kinds of feelings” which are situation-specific

State-trait controversy: disagreement of the relative merits of studying states versus traits

Interactional theory: the best state-trait approach, which considers personality traits and states, as well as situation-specific factors


It is NOT yet possible to distinguish between successful and unsuccessful athletes using personality traits

However, it is possible to distinguish between the elite athletes and the lesser skilled in terms of mood states


Mood States of Elite vs. Non-Elite Athletes Mood states of elite athletes vs. lesser

skilled athletes are below in:

And are markedly higher in:

Tension

Depression

Anger

Fatigue

Confusion

Vigor


Iceberg Profile This mood state profile resembles an iceberg and is

therefore often referred to as the iceberg profile

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

Tension Depression Anxiety Vigor Fatigue Confusion

PROFILE OF MOOD STATES

T-S

CO

RE

Successful Athletes

Unsuccessful Athletes


Developmental Effects of Sport on Personality


Are personality differences due to the athletic experience?

OrDo certain personality traits cause the individual

to go out for sports (gravitational hypothesis)?

Evidence tends to support the gravitational hypothesis

HOWEVER, participation in sports can also enhance personality development


Personality and the Athlete: Conclusions Athletes tend to be more extroverted, independent, and

self-confident than non-athletes; they also tend to be less anxious

Elite athletes can be distinguished from lesser skilled athletes by means of the iceberg profile; it is not possible, however, to distinguish between winners and losers

Individuals with certain personality traits tend to gravitate toward sports; sport also has the potential to enhance certain personality traits


ANXIETY AND ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE


Arousal

Physiological state of readiness and psychological activation

Involves the autonomic nervous system

Body’s way of preparing you for “fight or flight”


Stress Non-specific response of the body to any

demand made upon it Unemotional bodily response to some type of

stressor Can be either good or bad, depending upon

the individual’s personal interpretation– Eustress (e.g., winning a lottery)– Distress (e.g., receiving a failing grade on a

midterm test)


Anxiety

Tension and worry that results from distress A negatively charged emotional state

characterized by discomfort and nervousness Two forms of anxiety:

– Trait anxiety: a personality characteristic

– State anxiety: a “right now” kind of anxiety


Anxiety Cont’d

Two components of state anxiety: – Cognitive state anxiety (psychological component)

• Caused by fear of failure • Result of worrying• “I am afraid I am going to lose”

– Somatic state anxiety (physical component) • perception of physiological responses• “I feel nervous before a major contest”


Anxiety and Athletic Performance Relationship


Pre-Competitive Anxiety Temporal changes in cognitive and somatic state

anxiety as competition approaches:


The Effect of Pre-competitive Anxiety on Performance

Relationship between somatic anxiety and performance takes the form of an inverted-U

Relationship between cognitive anxiety and athletic performance has been shown to be linear and negative


Implications

Increases in somatic anxiety are associated with improved athletic performance up to a certain optimal level; therefore, athletes should attempt to increase their somatic anxiety up to an optimal level by “psyching-up”

The lower the level of cognitive state anxiety, the better the athlete will perform; therefore, athletes must learn to deal with the symptoms of cognitive anxiety


Symptoms of Cognitive State Anxiety

The Symptoms of Distress Checklist

Cold, clammy hands ______ Increased heart rate ______

Cotton mouth ______ Faster breathing ______

Unable to concentrate ______ Trembling hands ______

Desire to urinate often ______ Tense muscles ______

Diarrhea ______ Nausea ______

Feeling of fatigue ______ Voice distortion ______


Relaxation Interventions to Lower Cognitive State Anxiety Progressive Muscular Relaxation (PMR)

– Takes time initially, but with practice can be completed in a matter of minutes

– Especially valuable night before

1. Lie or sit in a comfortable position 2. Inhale and tense a specific muscle group for

approximately 5 seconds 3. Exhale and release the tension from the muscles,

concentrating on the feeling of relaxation 4. Repeated for a number of muscle groups


Relaxation Interventions Cont’d

Positive Imagery– Requires practice to be effective

1. Close eyes and picture yourself performing well in the specific anxiety-causing performance environment

2. Imagine the positive feelings associated with this successful imagery


Relaxation Interventions Cont’d

Positive Self-talk– Reassuring oneself with positive thoughts

and statements – Example: “I’m a good free throw shooter,”

vs. “What will the coach think of me if I blow this shot?”


MOTIVATION AND SPORT


Motivation determines the reasons for an athlete’s behavior.

It is defined as the direction, energy, and intensity of behavior.

It is synonymous with inspiration, enthusiasm, or the will to win.


Achievement Motivation


Athlete’s predisposition to approach or avoid a competitive situation

Includes the concept of desire, or desire to excel

Not an innate drive, but is likely learned in the sporting environment


McClelland-Atkinson Model

McClelland-Atkinson Model suggests that achievement motivation is a function of: 1. The motive to achieve success

• An athlete’s intrinsic motivation to engage in an exciting activity

2. The fear of failure • A psychological construct associated with

cognitive state anxiety


Achievement Motivation =

intrinsic motivation – cognitive state anxiety


Extrinsic Motivation

McClelland-Atkinson model of achievement motivation could NOT predict athletic success

Therefore, extrinsic motivation was added to the original model– Example: praise, money, trophies, and other forms

of reward

This modified model acknowledges that factors external to the athlete may influence individual’s overall motivation


Factors Affecting Achievement Motivation

The following factors affect achievement motivation:

1. Self-confidence

2. Self-efficacy

3. Goal setting


Improving Achievement Motivation


1. Self-Confidence

Discriminating factor between individuals high and low in achievement motivation

Similar to the motive to achieve success: – The confident athlete has a high motive to

succeed and a high expectation for success


2. Self-Efficacy

Based on Bandura’s Model Individual’s belief that he or she is capable of

succeeding at a particular task i.e., situation-specific self-confidence Used in sport psychology (vs. self-confidence)

because the sporting environment represents a very specific situation


2. Self-Efficacy Cont’d

Self-efficacy (and subsequently achievement motivation) can be enhanced through:(a) successful performance

(b) vicarious experience

(c) verbal persuasion

(d) emotional arousal


Improving Self-efficacy

Successful Performance– The most important factor in improving self-

efficacy – Raises expectations for future successes; while

failure lowers these expectations – For best results:

1. Break down skill learning into small steps to insure success early

2. Practice, practice, practice

3. Highlighting successes and downplaying setbacks



Vicarious Experience – Demonstrating repeated success through

participatory modeling • i.e., the subject first observes a model perform a task

– For best results:

1. Employ participatory modeling before the athlete attempts the skill on his/her own

2. Utilize only models who are technically correct in their execution

3. Ensure successful execution by the athlete in the early stages of learning



Verbal Persuasion – Constant provision of encouragement, as

well as specific skill instructions – For best results:

1. Provide specific rather than general feedback2. Have the athlete repeat your instructions back to

you before beginning 3. Focus on the positive aspects of the athlete’s

performance



Emotional Arousal – An optimal level of arousal is required to develop

self-efficacy – Too much or too little arousal will impact

negatively on the development of self-efficacy – For best results:

1. In the early stages of learning, keep things relaxed. 2. Get to know athletes one-on-one. Some will need more

arousal, while others less. 3. Help athletes recognize when they need to “psych-up

or calm-down.”


3. Goal Setting Last way to improve achievement motivation

is to employ effective goal setting strategiesGoal Setting Strategies for Maximum Motivation

1. Set goals that are observable, measurable, and achievable.

2. Set realistic, yet challenging goals.

3. Set positive goals, not negative goals (such as don’t lose).

4. Coaches and teachers should negotiate goals for their athletes or students, not mandate them.

5. Set short-term as well as long-term goals.

6. Set goals for your practices, as well as your actual competitions.

7. Set goals related to the athletes performance or technical execution, not contest outcome (win vs. lose).


CAUSAL ATTRIBUTION IN SPORT


Attribution theory is a cognitive approach to motivation.

It assumes that people strive to explain, understand, and predict events based

upon their own perceptions.

What the athlete believes to be true is important for future motivation.


The Development of Causal Attribution Theory


Outcomes can be attributed:– Internally to the person (personal force)

• Composed of ability and effort

– Externally to the environment; i.e. (environmental force)

• Composed of task difficulty and luck


Classification Scheme for Causal Attribution

Ability Task Difficulty

Effort Luck

Internal External

Locus of Control

Sta

bil

ity

Sta

ble

Uns

tabl

e


Stability Dimension

Stable attributions: relatively unchanging from one day to the next (ability and task difficulty)

Unstable attributions: vary markedly from time to time (effort and luck)


Locus of Control Dimension

Internal attributions: include attributes perceives as controllable (ability and effort)

External attributions: perceived to be outside the athlete’s control (task difficulty and luck)


Implications

Before competition the athlete should be encouraged to focus on effort vs. ability– Both effort and ability are within athlete’s control,

but effort is unstable from game to game

Athletes must focus on preparing strategies that will be effective against task difficulty (e.g. an opposing team) vs. luck– Both luck and task difficulty are beyond athlete's

control, but task difficulty is stable and predictable.


Affective Responses Associated with Casual Attributions


Affective Responses Associated with Casual Attributions

Greatest affect

Lowest affect

Effort

Task Difficulty

Ability

LuckInternal

Attribution

External

Attribution


Implications

After a victory, an athlete is going to feel more pride if he/she believes that the win was a result of an effort or ability rather than an opponent’s poor ability or a lucky call from the referee.


Cause-and-effect Relations Among Attributions, Outcome, and Affect Different emotions are experienced with

different causal attributions and outcomes


Implications If after a success athletes attribute the success:

– Internally, they typically respond with pride, confidence, and satisfaction

– Externally, they will likely feel gratitude and thankfulness

After a success, regardless of attribution, affect tends to be positive and enthusiastic

The affect for failure usually is negative and possibly subdued

What is the affect after failure for internal and external attribution?


The Relationship Between Causal Attributions, Future

Expectations, and Motivation


Causal Attributions, Future Expectations, and Motivation

Causal Attributions

Future Expectation Motivation


Causal Attributions, Future Expectations, and Motivation

Whenever an outcome is different than what was expected based on past experience, the athlete tends to endorse an unstable attribution (e.g., effort or luck).

When an outcome is as expected, based on past performances, a stable attribution (e.g., ability or task difficulty) is endorsed.


Predicting Future Expectations From Present Attributions

Therefore, it is beneficial to ascribe failures to unstable causes, since it does not imply repeated failure.

Lack of Ability

Expect Same Result

Lack of Luck

Expect Different Result

Attribution to Loss Future expectation Attribution to Loss Future expectation

vs.


Predicting Future Expectations From Present Attributions Cont’d Implications:

– Athletes should attribute a failure to unstable and internal cause; i.e., lack of effort

– This suggests that more effort can change the next outcome from failure to success

– And it teaches the athlete to accept responsibility for the results


Predicting Future Expectations From Present Attributions Cont’d In summary, future expectancy depends

on stability of the attributions


Promoting Self-efficacy Through Attribution and Expectancy Promotion self-efficacy and motivation for

future performance depends on both expectancy and locus of control:

Positive Expectancy

Internal Attribution

External Attribution

Negative Expectancy

or/&High

self-efficacy

Low self-efficacyor/&


Promoting Self-efficacy Cont’d

Implications– Athletes who succeed should be

encouraged to attribute the success to both stable and internal factors

• A stable attribution will improve the athlete’s expectancy for future success

• An internal attribution will enhance the athlete’s self-confidence


Putting it all together:Present Attribute

Locus of control Future Expectancy

Promotion of Self-Efficacy for

Future Event

Promotion of Motivation for Future Event

S

U

C

C

E

S

S

Good ability Internal Success

High effort Internal Success/

failure

Partially Partially

Easy task External Success Partially Partially

Good luck External Success/

failure

F

A

I

L

U

R

E

Poor ability Internal Failure Partially Partially

Low effort Internal Failure/

success

Difficult task External Failure

Bad luck External Failure/

success

Partially Partially


Promoting Self-efficacy Cont’d

Attributional training strategies leading to improved self-efficacy in future events:

1. Record and classify attributions after performances

2. After each outcome make attributions that will lead to promotion of self-efficacy (see previous table)

3. Provide an attributional training program for athletes who consistently utilize undesirable attributions

4. For best results, combine planned goal-setting with attributional training


AUDIENCE EFFECTS IN SPORT


Spectator Effect

An important social-psychological effect on athletic performance

Influences athlete’s performance through:

1. Social facilitation—enhancement of performance due to presence of others

2. Rivalry—a desire to beat the other opponent


Social Facilitation

Can be further broken down into:1. Audience effects--a situation involving the

mere presence of other individuals in the same room or area

2. Coaction effects--other people are present, but are performing the same task


In summary:

Spectator Effect

Rivalry

Social Facilitation

Coaction Effects

Audience Effects


Evaluation Component

Whether or not the audience is perceived as important for the athlete

If the athlete perceives the audience to be:– Important and/or knowledgeable, then drive level

is increased– Unimportant and/or not knowledgeable, then drive

level is decreased


Audience Effects on Performance

Audience &/ coactor

Audience perceived

as non-critical

Audience perceived as critical

Drive Lever

lowered

Drive level heightened

Simple task: performance

improved

Evaluation

Complex task:

performance improved

Simple task: performance

impeded

Complex task:

performance impeded


Appropriate Timing for Spectator Effect

“Over learning”

&

Arousal-lowering strategies in the presence

of audience

Allow audience access to

practices

Arousal-increasing strategies

in the presence of audience

Negative

Positive

LEARNING STAGE SPECTATOR EFFECTS STRATEGIES

Initial Learning

Skill is over-

learned

Skill is utilized

into game


Audience Characteristics and Team Performance The presence of supportive audience is

presently the most popular explanation for home advantage

Research has established the following audience characteristics leading to a greater home advantage:– Large– Supportive– Close to the playing arena

(i.e., high intimacy and density)


The End

Sport Books Publisher1 The Mental Side of Human Performance Chapter 14.

Documents

Transcript of Sport Books Publisher1 The Mental Side of Human Performance Chapter 14.