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PSY 321PSY 321Dr. SanchezDr. Sanchez
Stereotyping, Prejudice Stereotyping, Prejudice and Discrimination: and Discrimination:
Intergroup BiasIntergroup Bias
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What is the state of What is the state of intergroup bias in the intergroup bias in the
U.S.?U.S.?““Not everybody’s life is what they Not everybody’s life is what they make it. Some people’s life is what make it. Some people’s life is what
other people make it.”other people make it.”- Alice Walker- Alice Walker
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Racism: HealthcareRacism: Healthcare• Black and Latino cardiac patients less likely to Black and Latino cardiac patients less likely to
receive appropriate heart medicinereceive appropriate heart medicine• Less likely to undergo coronary bypass surgeryLess likely to undergo coronary bypass surgery• Less likely to receive dialysis or kidney Less likely to receive dialysis or kidney
transplanttransplant• Receive lower quality basic clinical servicesReceive lower quality basic clinical services• EVEN WHEN CONTROLLING FOR INSURANCE EVEN WHEN CONTROLLING FOR INSURANCE
STATUS, AGE, INCOME, COMORBITY OF OTHER STATUS, AGE, INCOME, COMORBITY OF OTHER CONDITIONS, AND EXPRESSION OF SYMPTOMS, CONDITIONS, AND EXPRESSION OF SYMPTOMS, THESE EFFECTS PERSIST.THESE EFFECTS PERSIST.
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Racism: HiringRacism: Hiring(Bertrand & Mullainathan, 2003)(Bertrand & Mullainathan, 2003)
– Sent 5000 phantom applications to job Sent 5000 phantom applications to job ads in Boston & Chicagoads in Boston & Chicago
– Resumes were identical, EXCEPT:Resumes were identical, EXCEPT: RACE WAS VARIED by use of NAMES (Tamika RACE WAS VARIED by use of NAMES (Tamika
vs Kristin; Tyrone vs Brad)vs Kristin; Tyrone vs Brad)
– Results: Applicants with white-sounding Results: Applicants with white-sounding names 50% more likely to get call-backsnames 50% more likely to get call-backs
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Racism: Mortgage Racism: Mortgage DiscriminationDiscrimination
White people are far more likely than White people are far more likely than Black people to be granted mortgage Black people to be granted mortgage loansloans
This effect cannot be “explained away” This effect cannot be “explained away” statistically by differences in statistically by differences in creditworthinesscreditworthiness
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Sexism: Pay InequitySexism: Pay Inequity In 2003, women who worked full-time made In 2003, women who worked full-time made
__ cents for every dollar a man made.__ cents for every dollar a man made.– Asian women: 75 centsAsian women: 75 cents– White women: 70 centsWhite women: 70 cents– Black women: 63 centsBlack women: 63 cents– Native women: 57 centsNative women: 57 cents– Latina women: 52 centsLatina women: 52 cents
* These differences cannot be explained * These differences cannot be explained away by number of hours worked or by away by number of hours worked or by productivity.productivity.
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Sexism: “Be careful!”Sexism: “Be careful!”(Morrongiello & Dawber, 2000)(Morrongiello & Dawber, 2000)
Moms watched video of child on Moms watched video of child on playground playground – ½ of moms have sons½ of moms have sons– ½ of moms have daughters½ of moms have daughters
Told to stop tape whenever they would Told to stop tape whenever they would scold or warn child, if he were their scold or warn child, if he were their childchild
DV: How often did moms stop tape to DV: How often did moms stop tape to warn child?warn child?
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What Mothers SayWhat Mothers Say
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What Is a Social Group?What Is a Social Group? Two or more people perceived as having at Two or more people perceived as having at
least one of the following characteristics:least one of the following characteristics:– Direct interactions with each other over a period Direct interactions with each other over a period
of time.of time.– Joint membership in a social category based on Joint membership in a social category based on
sex, race, or other attributes.sex, race, or other attributes.– A shared, common fate, identity, or set of goals.A shared, common fate, identity, or set of goals.
We see people in fundamentally different We see people in fundamentally different ways if we see them as a group rather than ways if we see them as a group rather than individuals.individuals.
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Defining Important TermsDefining Important Terms StereotypesStereotypes: Beliefs about the traits of : Beliefs about the traits of
a social group, which are then applied a social group, which are then applied to individual members of that group.to individual members of that group.
PrejudicePrejudice: Feelings about others based : Feelings about others based on their perceived membership in a on their perceived membership in a social group.social group.
DiscriminationDiscrimination: Behaviors directed : Behaviors directed against persons because of their against persons because of their membership in a particular group.membership in a particular group.
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Defining Important TermsDefining Important Terms StereotypesStereotypes: : COGNITIONS/BELIEFSCOGNITIONS/BELIEFS
PrejudicePrejudice: : AFFECT/EMOTIONSAFFECT/EMOTIONS
DiscriminationDiscrimination: : BEHAVIORSBEHAVIORS
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Perceiving Groups: Three Perceiving Groups: Three ReactionsReactions
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Social Categorization:Social Categorization:Jane Elliot’s Class ExerciseJane Elliot’s Class Exercise
Blue Eyes vs. Brown EyesBlue Eyes vs. Brown Eyes
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Ingroup Favoritism, Outgroup Ingroup Favoritism, Outgroup Derogation?Derogation?
What did you see in the video?What did you see in the video?
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How Stereotypes Form: How Stereotypes Form: In-groups vs. Out-groupsIn-groups vs. Out-groups
We have a strong tendency to divide We have a strong tendency to divide people into ingroups and outgroups.people into ingroups and outgroups.
BenefitsBenefits– Form impressions quickly Form impressions quickly – Use past experiences to guide new interactionsUse past experiences to guide new interactions
ConsequencesConsequences– Exaggerate differences between ingroups and Exaggerate differences between ingroups and
other outgroups.other outgroups.– Minimize the differences within groups -- Minimize the differences within groups --
outgroup homogeneity effectoutgroup homogeneity effect
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Social CategorizationTajfel’s Minimal Group Paradigm
Minimal Groups = categorizing persons on the basis of trivial info
– Ps watch a coin toss that randomly assigned them to X or W
– “Overestimators” vs. “Underestimators”
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Social CategorizationTajfel’s Minimal Group Paradigm
General Findings
– Ps like members of their own group more
– Ps rate in-group members more positively
– Ps allocate more $ to in-group
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Social Identity TheorySocial Identity Theory
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Social Identity TheorySocial Identity Theory Basic Predictions:Basic Predictions: 1) Threats to SE = need for ingroup 1) Threats to SE = need for ingroup
favoritismfavoritism 2) Ingroup favoritism = repairs SE2) Ingroup favoritism = repairs SE
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What’s the theme?What’s the theme? All forms of bias involve a All forms of bias involve a category-category-
based based response, reacting to an response, reacting to an individual as an interchangeable individual as an interchangeable member of some social category.member of some social category.
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Why Are Out-groups Seen Why Are Out-groups Seen As Homogeneous?As Homogeneous?
Lack of personal contact: Often do Lack of personal contact: Often do not notice subtle differences among not notice subtle differences among out-groupsout-groups
Lack of contact with many: Often do Lack of contact with many: Often do not encounter a representative not encounter a representative sample of out-group members.sample of out-group members.
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StereotypesStereotypes
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DefinitionsDefinitions What is a What is a stereotypestereotype??
– beliefs about characteristics of group beliefs about characteristics of group membersmembers
e.g., professore.g., professorabsent-minded reads booksabsent-minded reads booksdrinks coffee wears glassesdrinks coffee wears glasses
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Stereotype ContentStereotype Content
Gender: Agency-CommunionGender: Agency-Communion
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Gendered Scripts = Example Sexual Agency
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Stereotype ContentStereotype Content
Warm-CompetenceWarm-Competence
HomelessHomelessPeoplePeople
WomenWomen
The ElderlyThe Elderly
RichRich
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The Stereotype Content ModelThe Stereotype Content Model(Fiske et al., 2002)(Fiske et al., 2002)
Two fundamental dimensions: warmth & competenceTwo fundamental dimensions: warmth & competence Entirely Entirely positivepositive stereotypes (high warmth/high stereotypes (high warmth/high
competence) => competence) => in-groupsin-groups Entirely Entirely negativenegative stereotypes (low warmth/low stereotypes (low warmth/low
competencecompetence– welfare recipients, homeless peoplewelfare recipients, homeless people
Warmth and competence often Warmth and competence often negatively correlatednegatively correlated,,– => Stereotypes with a => Stereotypes with a mixedmixed content: content: – PaternalisticPaternalistic stereotypes (high warmth/low stereotypes (high warmth/low
competence)competence) e.g., elderly, disabled people, some gender e.g., elderly, disabled people, some gender
stereotypesstereotypes– EnviousEnvious stereotypes (low warmth/high competence) stereotypes (low warmth/high competence)
Asians, JewsAsians, Jews The 4 different combinations of warmth and competence The 4 different combinations of warmth and competence
are associated with different are associated with different intergroup emotions intergroup emotions
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Stereotype Content ModelStereotype Content Model(Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, & Xu, 1999; 2002)(Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, & Xu, 1999; 2002)
Low competence, Low warmth -> ContemptLow competence, Low warmth -> Contempt– (e.g., poor people, welfare recipients)(e.g., poor people, welfare recipients)
Low competence, High warmth -> Pity Low competence, High warmth -> Pity – (e.g., older people, disabled people)(e.g., older people, disabled people)
High competence, Low warmth -> EnvyHigh competence, Low warmth -> Envy – (e.g., Jews, Asians, female professionals)(e.g., Jews, Asians, female professionals)
High competence, High warmth -> PrideHigh competence, High warmth -> Pride (e.g., ingroup, close allies, reference groups)(e.g., ingroup, close allies, reference groups)
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How Stereotypes Survive: How Stereotypes Survive: Illusory CorrelationsIllusory Correlations
The tendency for people to overestimate The tendency for people to overestimate the link between variables that are only the link between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated.slightly or not at all correlated.– e.g. minorities and deviant actse.g. minorities and deviant acts
Tend to overestimate the association Tend to overestimate the association between variables when:between variables when:– The variables are distinctive.The variables are distinctive.– The variables are already expected to go The variables are already expected to go
together.together.
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How Stereotypes Survive: How Stereotypes Survive: AttributionsAttributions
Attributional biases can perpetuate Attributional biases can perpetuate stereotypes.stereotypes.– Fundamental attribution error revisited.Fundamental attribution error revisited.
If expectations are violated, more If expectations are violated, more likely to consider situational factors.likely to consider situational factors.
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How Stereotypes Survive:How Stereotypes Survive:Subtyping and Contrast Subtyping and Contrast
EffectsEffects Stereotypes stubbornly survive Stereotypes stubbornly survive disconfirmation through “subtyping.”disconfirmation through “subtyping.”– ““My friend is different from other ___ My friend is different from other ___
people”people”
If behavior varies considerably from If behavior varies considerably from expectations, the perceived difference expectations, the perceived difference may be magnified.may be magnified.– Contrast effectContrast effect– ““Hilary Clinton” effectHilary Clinton” effect
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How Stereotypes Survive: How Stereotypes Survive: Confirmation BiasesConfirmation Biases
Stereotypes are often maintained and Stereotypes are often maintained and strengthened through confirmation strengthened through confirmation biases.biases.
Stereotypes can cause a perceiver to Stereotypes can cause a perceiver to act in such a way that the stereotyped act in such a way that the stereotyped group member really does behave in a group member really does behave in a stereotype- confirming way.stereotype- confirming way.– The stereotype creates a “self-fulfilling The stereotype creates a “self-fulfilling
prophecy.”prophecy.”
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Racial Profiling as a Self-fulfilling Prophecy
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Stereotype: Stereotype: Black men are dangerousBlack men are dangerous
Is it a weapon (Correll et al., 2002)?Is it a weapon (Correll et al., 2002)? Subjects played video game (see p. 149 Subjects played video game (see p. 149
of text for picture)of text for picture) IVs: IVs:
– Race of targetRace of target– Target is holding weapon or harmless objectTarget is holding weapon or harmless object
DVs: Pushed “shoot” or “don’t shoot” DVs: Pushed “shoot” or “don’t shoot” buttonbutton
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Stereotype: Stereotype: Black men are dangerousBlack men are dangerous
Results: Results:
Subjects mistook harmless objects Subjects mistook harmless objects for guns when held by black targetsfor guns when held by black targets
In other words, subjects biases In other words, subjects biases caused them to “confirm” their caused them to “confirm” their expectationsexpectations
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““White men can’t jump”White men can’t jump”Stone et al., 1997Stone et al., 1997
Subjects listened to same basketball Subjects listened to same basketball gamegame
IV: Subjects were led to believe IV: Subjects were led to believe player was black or whiteplayer was black or white
DV: How athletic was the player? DV: How athletic was the player? How “court smart” was the player?How “court smart” was the player?
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““White Men Can’t Jump”?White Men Can’t Jump”?
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Stereotypes as Stereotypes as (Sometimes) Automatic(Sometimes) Automatic
Devine (1989): We become highly Devine (1989): We become highly aware of the contents of many aware of the contents of many stereotypes through sociocultural stereotypes through sociocultural mechanisms.mechanisms.– Awareness can lead to its automatic Awareness can lead to its automatic
activation when exposed to a member of activation when exposed to a member of stereotyped group.stereotyped group.
Can influence behavior even when do Can influence behavior even when do not consciously endorse the stereotype.not consciously endorse the stereotype.
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What Factors Can Influence What Factors Can Influence Stereotype Activation?Stereotype Activation?
Amount of exposure to the stereotype.Amount of exposure to the stereotype.– Very important for in terms of child developmentVery important for in terms of child development
The kind and amount of information the The kind and amount of information the perceiver encounters.perceiver encounters.– Growing up in all-White town; only exposure to Growing up in all-White town; only exposure to
other people is via TV and moviesother people is via TV and movies
The perceiver’s motivational goals.The perceiver’s motivational goals.– e.g., Protecting one’s self-esteem or self-image.e.g., Protecting one’s self-esteem or self-image.
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Self-esteem Threats Self-esteem Threats and Stereotypingand Stereotyping
Sinclair & Kunda, 1999Sinclair & Kunda, 1999
White subjects received feedback on White subjects received feedback on performance from a doctor:performance from a doctor:– Doctor was Black or WhiteDoctor was Black or White– Feedback was positive or negativeFeedback was positive or negative
Completed “unrelated” measure of Completed “unrelated” measure of automatic stereotypingautomatic stereotyping
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Motivated Stereotype Motivated Stereotype Inhibition and ActivationInhibition and Activation
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Are Stereotypes Ever Are Stereotypes Ever Accurate?Accurate?
What is meant by “accurate”?What is meant by “accurate”?– ““kernel of truth”kernel of truth”– But what does “kernel of truth” reflect? Traits But what does “kernel of truth” reflect? Traits
or social structure?or social structure?
Even when based on reality, tend to Even when based on reality, tend to exaggerate differences and understate exaggerate differences and understate similarities between groups.similarities between groups.
Stereotyping is a dynamic process – Stereotyping is a dynamic process – stereotypes change over time.stereotypes change over time.
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Overcoming StereotypesOvercoming Stereotypes How much personal information do we How much personal information do we
have about someone?have about someone? What is our cognitive ability to focus on What is our cognitive ability to focus on
an individual member of a stereotyped an individual member of a stereotyped group?group?
What is our motivation level to form an What is our motivation level to form an accurate impression of someone?accurate impression of someone?
How motivated are we to avoid How motivated are we to avoid applying negative stereotypes?applying negative stereotypes?
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Prejudice: Prejudice: The emotional componentThe emotional component
Competition-based prejudiceCompetition-based prejudice
Explicit vs. Implicit prejudiceExplicit vs. Implicit prejudice
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Realistic Conflict TheoryRealistic Conflict Theory The theory that hostility between groups is The theory that hostility between groups is
caused by direct competition for limited caused by direct competition for limited resources.resources.
– The competition for resources may be more imagined The competition for resources may be more imagined than real.than real.
– People may become resentful of other groups because People may become resentful of other groups because of a sense of relative deprivationof a sense of relative deprivation
– Even if one doesn’t feel personally threatened, Even if one doesn’t feel personally threatened, perceptions of threat to one’s own group can trigger perceptions of threat to one’s own group can trigger prejudice.prejudice.
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Competition for Limited Resources
Realistic Conflict TheoryRealistic Conflict Theory
– scarce resources -------> members of in-scarce resources -------> members of in-group feel threatened group feel threatened
– People feel a sense of “relative People feel a sense of “relative deprivation” deprivation”
– feeling threatened -------> prejudice and feeling threatened -------> prejudice and discriminationdiscrimination
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Realistic Conflict Theory
Example 1 (Hovland & Sears)– cotton & lynchings in South (1882-1930)– as cotton prices went down (i.e., scarce
resources), number of lynchings of Black people increased
Example 2– Jewish Holocaust– As German economy worsened, Jewish
people were scapegoated, resented, killed.
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Next ClassNext Class Finish Types of PrejudiceFinish Types of Prejudice Stereotype Threat & Target Stereotype Threat & Target
ExperiencesExperiences EXAM next MondayEXAM next Monday EXAM review WednesdayEXAM review Wednesday
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