11

PSY 321PSY 321Dr. SanchezDr. Sanchez

Stereotyping, Prejudice Stereotyping, Prejudice and Discrimination: and Discrimination:

Intergroup BiasIntergroup Bias

22

The Self-fulfilling Prophecy The Self-fulfilling Prophecy as a Three-Step Processas a Three-Step Process

33

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy:Self-Fulfilling Prophecy:Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968)Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968)

Teachers were told that, on the basis of an IQ test, a certain group of students was on the verge of an intellectual spurt

This group of students was randomly chosen Test was bogus 8 months later, this group of 8 months later, this group of Students actually outperformed Students actually outperformed others on an IQ testothers on an IQ test

44

Racial Profiling as a Self-fulfilling Prophecy

55

What is the state of What is the state of intergroup bias in the intergroup bias in the

U.S.?U.S.?

““Not everybody’s life is what they Not everybody’s life is what they make it. Some people’s life is make it. Some people’s life is what other people make it.”what other people make it.”

- Alice Walker- Alice Walker

66

Racism: HealthcareRacism: Healthcare

• Black and Latino cardiac patients less Black and Latino cardiac patients less likely to receive appropriate heart likely to receive appropriate heart medicinemedicine

• Less likely to undergo coronary bypass Less likely to undergo coronary bypass surgerysurgery

• Less likely to receive dialysis or kidney Less likely to receive dialysis or kidney transplanttransplant

• Receive lower quality basic clinical Receive lower quality basic clinical servicesservices

77

Racism: HiringRacism: Hiring(Bertrand & Mullainathan, 2003)(Bertrand & Mullainathan, 2003)

– Sent 5000 phantom applications to job Sent 5000 phantom applications to job ads in Boston & Chicagoads in Boston & Chicago

– Resumes were identical, EXCEPT:Resumes were identical, EXCEPT: RACE WAS VARIED by use of NAMES (Tamika RACE WAS VARIED by use of NAMES (Tamika

vs Kristin; Tyrone vs Brad)vs Kristin; Tyrone vs Brad)

– Results?Results?

88

Racism: Mortgage Racism: Mortgage DiscriminationDiscrimination

White people are far more likely than White people are far more likely than Black people to be granted mortgage Black people to be granted mortgage loansloans

This effect cannot be “explained away” This effect cannot be “explained away” statistically by differencesstatistically by differences

99

Sexism: Pay InequitySexism: Pay Inequity

In 2003, women who worked full-time In 2003, women who worked full-time made __ cents for every dollar a man made __ cents for every dollar a man made.made.– Asian women: 75 centsAsian women: 75 cents– White women: 70 centsWhite women: 70 cents– Black women: 63 centsBlack women: 63 cents– Native women: 57 centsNative women: 57 cents– Latina women: 52 centsLatina women: 52 cents

These differences cannot be explained These differences cannot be explained away….away….

1010

What Is a Social Group?What Is a Social Group?

Two or more people perceived as Two or more people perceived as having at least one of the following having at least one of the following characteristics:characteristics:– Direct interactions with each other over Direct interactions with each other over

a period of time.a period of time.– Joint membership in a social category Joint membership in a social category

based on sex, race, or other attributes.based on sex, race, or other attributes.– A shared, common fate, identity, or set A shared, common fate, identity, or set

of goals.of goals.

1111

Defining Important TermsDefining Important Terms

StereotypesStereotypes: COGNITIONS/BELIEFS: COGNITIONS/BELIEFS

PrejudicePrejudice: AFFECT/EMOTIONS: AFFECT/EMOTIONS

DiscriminationDiscrimination: BEHAVIORS: BEHAVIORS

1212

Perceiving Groups: Three Perceiving Groups: Three ReactionsReactions

1313

A CLASS DIVIDEDA CLASS DIVIDEDSocial Categorization:Social Categorization:

Jane Elliot’s Class ExerciseJane Elliot’s Class Exercise

Blue Eyes vs. Brown EyesBlue Eyes vs. Brown Eyes

1414

How Stereotypes Form: How Stereotypes Form: In-groups vs. Out-groupsIn-groups vs. Out-groups

We have a strong tendency to divide We have a strong tendency to divide people into ingroups and outgroups.people into ingroups and outgroups.

BenefitsBenefits ConsequencesConsequences

– outgroup homogeneity effectoutgroup homogeneity effect

1515

Why Are Out-groups Seen Why Are Out-groups Seen As Homogeneous?As Homogeneous?

1616

Social CategorizationTajfel’s Minimal Group Paradigm

Minimal Groups = categorizing persons on the basis of trivial info

– Ps watch a coin toss that randomly assigned them to X or W

– “Overestimators” vs. “Underestimators”

1717

Social CategorizationTajfel’s Minimal Group Paradigm

General Findings

1818

Social Identity TheorySocial Identity Theory

1919

Social Identity TheorySocial Identity Theory

Basic Predictions:Basic Predictions: 1) Threats to SE = need for ingroup 1) Threats to SE = need for ingroup

favoritismfavoritism 2) Ingroup favoritism = repairs SE2) Ingroup favoritism = repairs SE

2020

StereotypesStereotypes

2121

DefinitionsDefinitions

What is a What is a stereotypestereotype??

– beliefs about characteristics of group beliefs about characteristics of group membersmembers

e.g., professore.g., professorabsent-minded reads booksabsent-minded reads booksdrinks coffee wears glassesdrinks coffee wears glasses

2222

Stereotype ContentStereotype Content

Warm-CompetenceWarm-Competence

HomelessHomelessPeoplePeople

WomenWomen

The ElderlyThe Elderly

RichRich

2323

The Stereotype Content ModelThe Stereotype Content Model(Fiske et al., 2002)(Fiske et al., 2002)

Two fundamental dimensions: warmth & competenceTwo fundamental dimensions: warmth & competence Positive StereotypesPositive Stereotypes Negative StereotypesNegative Stereotypes MIXED: MIXED:

– PaternalisticPaternalistic stereotypes (high warmth/low stereotypes (high warmth/low competence)competence) e.g., elderly, disabled people, some gender e.g., elderly, disabled people, some gender

stereotypesstereotypes– EnviousEnvious stereotypes (low warmth/high competence) stereotypes (low warmth/high competence)

Asians, JewsAsians, Jews The 4 different combinations of warmth and The 4 different combinations of warmth and

competence are associated with different competence are associated with different intergroup intergroup emotionsemotions

2424

Stereotype Content ModelStereotype Content Model(Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, & Xu, 1999; 2002)(Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, & Xu, 1999; 2002)

Low competence, Low warmth -> ContemptLow competence, Low warmth -> Contempt Low competence, High warmth -> Pity Low competence, High warmth -> Pity High competence, Low warmth -> EnvyHigh competence, Low warmth -> Envy

High competence, High warmth -> PrideHigh competence, High warmth -> Pride

2525

How Stereotypes Survive:How Stereotypes Survive:

Illusory Correlations Illusory Correlations – an overestimation of the association between an overestimation of the association between

variables that are only slightly or not at all variables that are only slightly or not at all correlatedcorrelated

Confirmation BiasesConfirmation Biases Self-Fulfilling PropheciesSelf-Fulfilling Prophecies Attribution & SubtypingAttribution & Subtyping

2626

Stereotype: Stereotype: Black men are dangerousBlack men are dangerous

Is it a weapon (Correll et al., 2002)?Is it a weapon (Correll et al., 2002)? Subjects played video game (see p. Subjects played video game (see p.

149 of text for picture)149 of text for picture) IVs: IVs:

– Race of targetRace of target– Target is holding weapon or harmless Target is holding weapon or harmless

objectobject DVs: Pushed “shoot” or “don’t shoot” DVs: Pushed “shoot” or “don’t shoot”

buttonbutton

2727

Stereotype: Stereotype: Black men are dangerousBlack men are dangerous

Results: Results:

Subjects mistook harmless objects Subjects mistook harmless objects for guns when held by black targetsfor guns when held by black targets

In other words, subjects biases In other words, subjects biases caused them to “confirm” their caused them to “confirm” their expectationsexpectations

2828

““White men can’t jump”White men can’t jump”Stone et al., 1997Stone et al., 1997

Subjects listened to same basketball Subjects listened to same basketball gamegame

IV: Subjects were led to believe IV: Subjects were led to believe player was black or whiteplayer was black or white

DV: How athletic was the player? DV: How athletic was the player? How “court smart” was the player?How “court smart” was the player?

2929

““White Men Can’t Jump”?White Men Can’t Jump”?

3030

Stereotypes as Stereotypes as (Sometimes) Automatic(Sometimes) Automatic

Devine (1989): We become highly Devine (1989): We become highly aware of the contents of many aware of the contents of many stereotypes through sociocultural stereotypes through sociocultural mechanisms.mechanisms.– AutomaticAutomatic

Can influence behavior even when do Can influence behavior even when do not consciously endorse the not consciously endorse the stereotype.stereotype.

3131

What Factors Can Influence What Factors Can Influence Stereotype Activation?Stereotype Activation?

Cognitive FactorsCognitive Factors

Cultural Factors (e.g., media and norms)Cultural Factors (e.g., media and norms)

Motivation (e.g., be egalitarian, restore SE)Motivation (e.g., be egalitarian, restore SE)

Personal Factors (High in Prejudice)Personal Factors (High in Prejudice)

3232

Overcoming StereotypesOvercoming Stereotypes

Motivation to Control Prejudice for Motivation to Control Prejudice for Internal ReasonsInternal Reasons

Cognitive Resources (Energy & Cognitive Resources (Energy & Control)Control)

3333

Prejudice: Prejudice: The emotional componentThe emotional component

Competition-based prejudiceCompetition-based prejudice

Explicit vs. Implicit prejudiceExplicit vs. Implicit prejudice

3434

Realistic Conflict TheoryRealistic Conflict Theory

The theory that hostility between groups is The theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited caused by direct competition for limited resources.resources.

3535

Competition for Limited Resources

Realistic Conflict TheoryRealistic Conflict Theory

– scarce resources -------scarce resources -------

– People feel a sense of---People feel a sense of---

– feeling threatened -------> prejudice and feeling threatened -------> prejudice and discriminationdiscrimination

3636

Realistic Conflict Theory

Example 1 (Hovland & Sears)– cotton & lynchings in South (1882-1930)– as cotton prices went down (i.e., scarce

resources), number of lynchings of Black people increased

Example 2– Jewish Holocaust– As German economy worsened, Jewish

people were scapegoated, resented, killed.

3737

Realistic Conflict TheoryRealistic Conflict Theory

Example 2 (Sherif & Colleagues)Example 2 (Sherif & Colleagues)

3838

Realistic Conflict TheoryRealistic Conflict Theory

Example 2 (Sherif & Colleagues)Example 2 (Sherif & Colleagues)– Boy Scout Camp (Eagles vs Rattlers)Boy Scout Camp (Eagles vs Rattlers)– Strengthened cohesiveness w/in group in first Strengthened cohesiveness w/in group in first

weekweek– Enhanced competition btw groups in second Enhanced competition btw groups in second

weekweek– Resources were source of conflictResources were source of conflict– How was conflict restored????How was conflict restored????

Types of RacismTypes of Racism

Modern Racism: A form of racism that Modern Racism: A form of racism that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easy to socially acceptable, and easy to rationalizerationalize– Calling strikes by umpiresCalling strikes by umpires– Establish Establish ““moral credentialsmoral credentials””

Implicit Racism: Racism that operates Implicit Racism: Racism that operates unconsciously and unintentionallyunconsciously and unintentionally

4040

Explicit AttitudesExplicit Attitudes

– Operate at Operate at conscious levelconscious level

– Best measured by Best measured by traditional, self-traditional, self-report measuresreport measures

Implicit AttitudesImplicit Attitudes

– Function in an Function in an unconscious & unconscious & unintentional mannerunintentional manner

– How do we measure??How do we measure??

4141

How Can Implicit Racism How Can Implicit Racism Be Detected and Be Detected and

Measured?Measured? Use reaction times to measure associations Use reaction times to measure associations

between race and positive/negative wordsbetween race and positive/negative words

– Fazio et al.Fazio et al.’’s (1995) bona fide pipeline s (1995) bona fide pipeline measure.measure. see face, then respond to good/bad see face, then respond to good/bad

wordswords

– Greenwald et al.Greenwald et al.’’s (1998) Implicit Association s (1998) Implicit Association Test (IAT)Test (IAT) Pair faces with good/bad wordsPair faces with good/bad words

Facial Features and Prison Facial Features and Prison SentencesSentences

Development of Explicit vs. Development of Explicit vs. Implicit Racial PreferencesImplicit Racial Preferences

Sexism: Ambivalence and Sexism: Ambivalence and Double Standards in Section Double Standards in Section

Two Two

Beyond Racism: Age, Beyond Racism: Age, Weight, Sexuality, Weight, Sexuality, and Other Targets and Other Targets

Other types of discriminationOther types of discrimination

Being Stigmatized Being Stigmatized

Being persistently stereotyped, Being persistently stereotyped, perceived as deviant, and devalued perceived as deviant, and devalued in society because of membership in in society because of membership in a particular social group or because a particular social group or because of a particular characteristic.of a particular characteristic.

Gay Pride and Spare Gay Pride and Spare ChangeChange

Stereotype Threat Stereotype Threat Stereotype threat is the fear that one Stereotype threat is the fear that one

will be reduced to a stereotype in the will be reduced to a stereotype in the eyes of others.eyes of others.

How can stereotype threat hamper How can stereotype threat hamper academic achievement?academic achievement?

Stereotype Threat and Stereotype Threat and Academic PerformanceAcademic Performance

General FeaturesGeneral Features– Threat is situationalThreat is situational– Domain connectedDomain connected

Strength varies with…Strength varies with…

– About social identity About social identity applies to applies to many groupsmany groups

Stereotype ThreatStereotype ThreatStereotype ThreatStereotype Threat

Stereotypes and Multiple Identities

Good at Math

Not Good at Math

Multiple Identities(Shih, Pittinsky, & Ambady,1999)

• Remind Asian-American women of their

– Asian identity (questions about languages spoken, race, etc.)

– Female identity (questions about co-ed housing)

– Neither identity (questions about telephone service)

• Take a math test

Multiple Identities(Shih, Pittinsky, & Ambady,1999)

Preventing Stereotype Preventing Stereotype Threat (Table 5.6)Threat (Table 5.6)

Test as NondiagnosticTest as Nondiagnostic Informing that Group does not perform worseInforming that Group does not perform worse Think of intelligence as malleable v. fixedThink of intelligence as malleable v. fixed

5454

Interracial Interactions- Why do all the White and Black kids sit together?* WhitesWhites

– Concern with being perceived as prejudicedConcern with being perceived as prejudiced– White Ps high in implicit racism tend to White Ps high in implicit racism tend to

experience cognitive depletion in interracial experience cognitive depletion in interracial interactionsinteractions

– Concerns and tensions influence interracial Concerns and tensions influence interracial interactions and interestinteractions and interest

BlacksBlacks– Concern with being treated negatively because Concern with being treated negatively because

of prejudice and being perceived stereotypically of prejudice and being perceived stereotypically (Mendoza-Denton et al., 2002; Shelton, 2003)(Mendoza-Denton et al., 2002; Shelton, 2003)

– Concerns influence social judgments about and Concerns influence social judgments about and during interracial contactduring interracial contact

Interpersonal Concerns with Prejudice

• Whites and Blacks

– Harbor fear of rejection because of their group memberships

– Fear that out-group members will perceive them in a way that threatens their identity (Steele, Spencer, & Aronson, 2003)

Pluralistic Ignorance

People observe others behaving similarly to themselves but believe that the same behaviors reflect different feelings and beliefs (Miller & McFarland, 1987, 1991)

Pluralistic Ignorance

• Own behavior– Reflect fears of social exclusion

• Other person’s behavior– Taken at face value– Reflects the person’s true feelings

Divergent Attributions

You enter the dining hall for dinner. You are alone because your close friends are in a review session. As you look around the dining hall for a place to sit, you notice several White (Black) students who live near you sitting together. These students also notice you. However, neither of you explicitly makes a move to sit together.

Divergent Attributions

• Fear of Rejection– How likely is that fear of being rejected

because of your race would inhibit you from sitting with these students?

• Lack of Interest– How likely is that your lack of interest in

getting to know these students would inhibit you from sitting with them?

• Answered for self and other (counterbalanced)

7-point scale where 1 = not at all and 7 = very much

Black Participants Responses for Self and Other in Interracial Contact

Same for White Participants Judgments

Black Participants with Black Partner

White Participants with White Partner

Divergent Attributions

• Blacks and Whites– Make divergent attributions for

own and out-group members’ avoidance of interracial contact

– Interpersonal Concerns with Prejudice• I’m afraid of being rejected!•They lack interest in interacting!

– Misunderstanding occurs even before the interaction

What Can We Do?What Can We Do?

Repeated Intergroup Contact that Repeated Intergroup Contact that involvesinvolves

IndividuationIndividuation Common In-Group Identity (reduce us Common In-Group Identity (reduce us

v. them)v. them)

Self-Esteem in U.S. Self-Esteem in U.S. Minority GroupsMinority Groups

From J. M. Twenge and J. Crocker, “Race and Self-Esteem: Meta-Analysis Comparing Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and American Indians,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 128, 2002, pp. 371-408.

Coping with Stigma Coping with Stigma Stigma = having an attribute that Stigma = having an attribute that

is viewed as inferior, deficient, etc.is viewed as inferior, deficient, etc. 1) attributing negative feedback to 1) attributing negative feedback to

prejudiceprejudice (2) comparing outcomes with those (2) comparing outcomes with those

of their ingroupof their ingroup (3)(3)