PRIMARYSIXBASICSCIENCE ANDHEALTHEDUCATIONLESSONNOTES
TERM I.
THEME:THEWORLDOFLIVINGTHINGSTOPIC:CLASSIFICATIONOFLIVINGTHINGS
CONTENTCharacteristicsoflivingthings
THEYFEEDØ Various livingthingsfeedindifferentwaysie
Organism Modeoffeeding Typesof nutritionFungilikeyeast,moulds,mushrooms,puffballsetc
Saprophytically Saprophyticnutrition
Parasitesliketapeworms,hookworms,ticks,lice,mites etc
Parasitically Parasiticnutrition
Plants AutotrophicallyTheymaketheirownfoodbythehelpofsunlight
Autotrophicnutrition
Animals Hetetrophically- SomeHeterotrophicallyanimals
feeddirectlyonalreadymadefoodbyplantsieherbivores,omnivones,carnivores
Heterotrophicnutrition
DIFFERENCES INFEEDINGBETWEENPLANTSANDANIMALSPlants AnimalsTheymaketheirownfoodbythehelpofsunlight(Autotrophically)
Thefeedonalreadymadefoodbyplants(Heterotrophically)
THEYGROW.Ø Whatisgrowth?Ø Itreferstoincreaseinheightandsizeofanorganism.
DIFFERENCESINGROWTHBETWEENANIMALSANDPLANTSAnimals PlantsGrowthoccursequallyonallpartsofthebody Growthoccursonlyatthetipsofrootsandshoots
Ø Reproductionistheprocessbywhichlivingorganismsmultiplyorincreaseinnumbersastheygivebirthtoyoungones(offspring)
MOVEMainly livingorganismslikeanimalsmove(locomote)todifferentplacesforsomereasons.Reasonwhyanimalsmovefrom oneplacetoanother
Ø Tolookforfood(pasture)andwater.Ø TolookforshelterØ Torunawayfrom theirenemies(protection)Ø Tolookformates(formating)Ø Lookingfortheiryoungones.THEYEXCRETEExcretionistheremovalofwasteproductsfrom thebody.
WHYDOLIVINGTHINGSEXCRETE?Togetridofwasteproductsfrom theirbodies.
THEYRESPIRERespirationistheprocessbywhichthebodyusesfoodandoxygentoreleaseenergy,carbondioxideandwatervapourHowdoorganismsbenefitfrom respiration?Theygetenergy
TYPESOFRESPIRATIONi)Aerobicrespirationisthetypeofrespirationwhichinvolvesuseofoxygenii)Anaerobicrespirationisthetypesofrespirationwhichdoesntinvolveuseofoxygen
THEYRESPONDTOSTIMULIAnimalsandplantresponddifferentlytocircumstancesintheenvironmentforsurvival,examplesofstimulitouch,heat,light,pain,gravity,wateretc
Livingthingsaredividedintofivekingdomsnamely;· AnimalKingdom· PlantKingdom· Prokaryotal(BacteriaKingdom)· Protoctista(singlecelledorganisms)· FungiKingdom
AnimalKingdomCLASSIFICATIONOFANIMALSwhytoclassifyanimals?AnimalsareclassifiedforeasyidentificationForeasystudy.Characteristicsusedforclassifyinganimals
- Externalfeaturessuchascolour,size,shapenumberoflegs,haironthebodyetc
- Theirdifferentmodesofreproduction,respiration and movement
Animalsareclassifiedintotwogroups· Vertebrates· Invertebrates
Vertebrates
Vertebratesareanimalswithabackbone/vertebralcolumn(spine)- Thebackboneprotectsthespinalcord.- Allverterbrateshavean endoskeleton
GroupsofvertebratesVertebratesareclassifiedintofivegroups;
· Mammals· Birds· Reptiles· Fish· Amphibians
Vertebratesarealsogrouped basingonthebodytemperature;i.Warm blooded(homoeothermic)ii. Coldblooded(poikilothermic)
Warm bloodedi) Mammalsii) Birds
Coldbloodedi) Fishii) Reptilesiii) Amphibians
MAMMALSMammalsarevertebrateswhichhavemammaryglandsandsuckleyoungonesonbreastmilk
Characteristicsofmammals· Mammalsarewarm blooded· Mostofthem furontheirbodies· Mostofthem givebirthtolivingyoungones.· Theyfeedtheiryoungonesonbreastmilk
· Theybreathethroughthelungs.· Theirheartsaredividedintofourchambers
Groupsofmammals· Primates(mostadvanced/fingeredmammals)· Ungulates(hoofedmammals)· Carnivorousmammals(flesheaters)· Rodents(gnawingmammals)· Insectivorous(insecteaters)· Pouchedmammals(marsupials)· Flyingmammals(chiroptera)· Egglayingmammals(monotremes)· Seamammals(cetaceans)
Primates(fingeredmammals)Thesearethemostadvancedgroupofmammals.Characteristics· Theyhavewelldevelopedbrain· Theyusefrontlimbsforholdingandhindlimbsforwalking.· Theyhavefivefingersoneachhandandfivetoesoneachfoot.· Theyareomnivorousi.e.theyfeedonbothfleshandvegetables.· Theyhavewelldevelopedsetofallthefourtypesofteethi.e.incisors,
canines,premolarsandmolars(32teeth)
ExamplesofprimatesMan,monkeys, gorillas,baboon,bushbaby,chimpanzee,etc.Theterm todescribegorillas,baboons,bushbabies,chimpanzeesisapes
Ungulates(hoofedmammals)Allmammalsinthisgroupareherbivorousi.e.theyfeedonvegetation.Ungulatesaredividedintotwosub-groups
i) Eventoedungulatesii) Oddtoedungulates
EventoedungulatesTheyinclude;Okapi,deer,pigs,cattle,giraffe,sheep,antelopes,hippopotamusEventoedungulatesarefurthersubdividedintotwo;
i) Ruminantsii) Nonruminants
RuminantsTheseareungulateswithfourstomachsandchewcuds.Mostofthem havehornswhichtheyuseforprotection.Examples· Cattle
· Goats· Sheep· Camel
Antelopeetc
Nonruminants· Theseareungulateswhichdonotchewcudbuthaveacompletedentition.· Theyhavewelldevelopedcanineswhichtheyuseforprotection
Examplesinclude;Pigs,hippopotamus,warthog.
OddtoedungulatesThenumberoftoesisalwaysoneorthreetoese.g.oneinhorse,donkey,ZebraandthreeinelephantandRhino.
CarnivorousmammalsCharacteristicsofcarnivorousanimals· Theyarestrongmammals· Theyhavewelldevelopedcanineteethfortearingfleshoftheirprey.· Theyhavesharpclawsforholding,killingandtearingtheirprey.· Theyhaveaverygoodspeed,goodsenseofsmell,keeneyesightandgood
hearing,sotheyevenhuntatnight· Theirfeethavesoftpadsthereforetheycanrunaftertheirpreywithout
makingnoise.
Carnivorousmammalsaredividedintotwofamilies;a)Dogfamily— Faceresemblesthatofadogb)Catfamily— faceresemblesthatofacat.
Examplesofthedogfamilyinclude;Domesticdog,hyena,jackal,foxetcExamplesofthecatfamilyinclude;lion,leopard,tiger,cheetah,mangoose,domesticcat.Somecarnivorousarescavengerse.g.hyena,jackal.Gnawingmammals(Rodents)· Thesearemammalswhichhavewelldevelopedincisorsusedforbitingand
chewingpowerfullyandrapidly.· Theydonthavecanines.· Mostrodentsareherbivores(vegetarians)
Examplesinclude;Rats,squirrels,mice,rabbits,hares,porcupines,guineapigsandmoles.Insecteatingmammals(insectivores)· Thesearemammalswhichfeedoninsects.· Theyhaveasensitivesnout forsmellingandstrongclawsfordigging.
· Theyarenocturnali.e.theymoveandhuntatnightandsleepduringday.· Examplesinclude;Hedgehog,elephantshrew,Aardvark,antbeare.t.c· Ahedgehogisananimalwithspinesonitsbody.Whenthreatened,itrolls
itselfupintoaball.
Flyingmammals(chiroptera)Batsaretheonlytrueflyingmammals.Theyhaveafoldskinattachedtotheforelimbwhichactaswings.Therearethreemaintypesofbats;
a)Insecteatingbats:Thesearehelpfultomanbecausetheyeatmanyharmfulinsectslikemosquitoes.
b)Fruiteatingbats:-Thesearedangerousbecausetheyeatourfruits.c)Bloodsuckingbats(vampires)theysuckbloodfrom largeanimalslike
horses,cows,buffaloesetc.batsarenocturnali.e.theymoveandhuntatnightandsleepduringday.Theycanfindtheirfoodatnightincompletedarknessbyusingechoesfrom thesoundtheyproduce.
Pouchedmammals(marsupials)Examplesoftheseinclude;Kangaroo,KoalabearandWallabiesMarsupialsarefoundinAustraliaandsouthAmerica.
Egglayingmammals(monotremes)· Thesearethemostprimitiveintheclassofmammalsbecause;· Theyresemblebirdsandreptilesinthattheylayeggsandalsohavebeaks
similartothoseofbirds.· Theyhavecharacteristicsofbirds,mammalsandreptiles.· Monotremesareregardedasmammalsbecausetheyfeedtheiryoungones
onmilkfrom themammaryglandsandforthecaretheygivetotheiryoungonesafterhatching.
· Examplesinclude;theduckbilledplatypusandthespinyanteater(echina)ofAustralia
Seamammals(cetaceans)· Thesearemammalswhichliveinthesea.· Theydonthavegillsbuttheybreathebymeansoflungs· Theyhavealayeroffatsundertheskincalledblubbertokeepthem warm.· Theyhaveahighlevelofintelligencenexttoprimates· Theyhavemammaryglands· Theygivebirthtolivingyoungonesandsucklethem onmilkfrom the
mammaryglands.· Mostseamammalshavefur.Examplesinclude;Bluewhale,Sperm whale,porpoisesseals,dolphinse.t.c
BIRDSCharacteristicsofbirds· Theirbodiesarestreamlinedi.e.pointedatthefrontandback.· Theirbodiesarecoveredwithfeatherswhichtheymoulteveryyear.· Theirbonesarehollowi.e.donothavebonemarrow.· Theyhavescalesontheirlegs· Theyarewarm blooded· Theybreathebymeansoflungs· Theirfrontlimbsaremodifiedaswings· Theyhavenoteethbuthavehornybeaks.· Theireyeshavethreelidsthelower,upperandnictatingmembrane.· Theylayshelledeggswhicharefertilizedinternally· Theycarefortheiryoungones.· Manyofthem canfly.
ExternalfeaturesofabirdFeatures,alimentarycanalofabird,reproductioninbirdReferstoP.5(term work)· Feedinghabitsinbirds· Birdshavenoteeth· Theyhaveahornybeak· Theshapeofthebeakvarieswiththetypeofthefoodeaten.
Classificationofbirds· Birdshaveanumberofspecialadaptationfeatures.· Theyaregroupedaccordingtothetypeabeakandfeet(claws)theyhave.· Somebirdsaregroupedaccordingtothetypeoffoodtheyeat.
Someofthegroupsare;· Birdsofprey· Perchingbirds· Scratchingbirds· Swimmingbirds· Wadingbirds· Flightless(walking)birds· Climbingbirds· Scavengerbirds1.Birdsofprey· Theyarecarnivorousbirdsthathuntandkilltheirprey.e.g.rats,fish,mice,
lizard,chickene.t.c· Theyhavestrongeyesighttospottheirpreyevenwhentheyareflying· Theyhavestrongsharp,hookedbeaksfortearingtheprey.· Theyhavestrongsharpcurvedtalons(claws)forgrippingandkillingtheprey.Examplesinclude;Hawks,eagles,secretarybirds,owls,kites,falcons,kingfisher
etc
StructureofthebeakandclawsPerchingbirdsThesearebirdswhichhavethreetoespointedforwardandonetoepointedbackward. Thenatureofthetoestheyhavearesuitableforperchingontreebranches
Typesofperchingbirdsi) Seedeaters
Thesehaveshortstrongconicalbeakssuitableforbreakingupseedse.g.pigeon,doves,weaverbirdsfinchesetc
Structureofthebeakandfoot
ii) InsecteatersTheyhavestoutnarrowbeaksforpickinguptheinsectsfrom thebarkoftrees.Examplesinclude;Sparrows,robbins,swallows,andswift,beeeatersetc.Swallowsandswiftshaveshortandwideopenbeakswhichhelpthem tocatchinsectsevenwhenflying.
iii) Honeysucker/nectareaterThosehavethinlongbeakswhichareslightlycurved.Example,Thesunbird.
Structureofthebeak
FruiteaterThosehavealongstoutbeakforcollectingfruitsExample,HornbillStructureofthebeak
Scratchingbirds· Thesebirdsfeedonseedsandinsectswhichtheyfindbyscratchingtheearth.· Theyhaveshort,strong,firm pointedbeaksforpickingupthingsfrom the
ground.· Theyhavestrongfeetwiththicktoesandbluntnails.· Theycanwalkeasily· Theirbodyisheavyandwingsareweak.Examplesinclude;domesticfowlsi.e.chicken,turkey,guineafowl.
Structureofthebeakandfoot
Swimmingbirds· Theyhavewebbedfeetwhichactlikepaddles· Theyhavebroadbreastbone.· Theirskinhasmanyoilglandswhichproduceoiltoprotecttheirbodyagainst
water.· Theyhavebeakswithsmallcrossplatesonthemarginswhichhelpthem to
sievefoodfrom themud.· Examplesinclude;Ducks,swans,geese,penguins,seagulls,pelicans
StructureofthefoodandbeakFlightlessbirds· Thesearebirdswhichareunabletoflybutcanrunveryfast.· Theyhaveweakandsmallwingscomparedtothebodysize.· Anostrichisthelargestandfastestflightlessbird.ItrunsfasterthanahorseExamplesinclude;Kiwi,penguins,ostriches,emu,rhea,andcassowary.Climbingbirds· Theyhavetwotoespointedforwardandothertwobackwards.· Thisarrangementhelpsthem inclimbingtolookforseedsandinsects.· Theyliveintreesandrunaboutonbranchesoftrees.· Examplesinclude;Aparrot,awoodpecker.
Thestructureofthebeakandfoot
Scavengerbirds· Thesebirdsfeedonrottenfleshkilledbyotheranimals,rottenmeatandfish.· Theyusuallyhavebeakssimilartothoseofbirdsprey.· Theyareusefulbecausetheyclearmostofthedeaddecayingmatterwhich
mayotherwisebeasourceofmanydiseases.Examplesinclude;vulture,crow,andmaraboustorketc
Thewaysinwhichbirdsareadaptedforflying· Theyarestreamlinedtoreducefrictionsothattheycanmovethroughair
easily.· Theyhavehollowboneswhichreduceweightandtheirbackbonesare
fused(joined)togivethem rigidity.· Theyhavestrongattachmentoftheirpowerfulandstrongfrontmuscles
whichareusedformovingwings· Theirforelimbsaremodifiedintowings· Theyhavenopinnatoabstracttheflowofair.· Theyhavegoodeyesighttoseewellfrom longdistancesandjudgethe
distanceaccurately· Theyhaveanictitatingmembranewhichcovertheeyeandprotectthem
againstmovingairduringflight.· Theirbodiesarecoveredwithflightfeathers.· Theyhaveaquickdigestivesystem
NB:somedomesticfowlsareunabletoflyhighbecausetheyhavealotofbonemarrowwhichmakethem heavy.
Advantagesofbirds· Theyaresourcesoffood· Thefeathersareusedfordecorationslike hats,suits,handbagsinstaffing
mattress· Bonesareusedformakingglue.· Somebirdskeptforcustomarypurposelikemakingsacrificesandpaying
dowry.· Theyaresourceofincometofarmers.· Theyattracttourist· Somebirdspollinateflowerslikethesunbirds,theypollinatewhencollecting
nectar.· Somehelptocleanourenvironmentlikethevultures,crowsandmarabou
storks.
Disadvantagesofbirds· Manybirdsdamageourcrops.· Somebirdscauseaccidenttorunwaysattheairport.· Theymakealotofnoiselikeweaverbirds
REPTILESMostreptilesareaviparousanimalsi.e.theylayeggs
Characteristicsofreptiles· Theyarecoldbloodedanimals· Theybreathebymeansoflungs· Theirskiniscoveredwithscales· Theirteetharesimilar· Theyhaveathreechambered hearti.e.twoaauriclesandoneventricle· Theyhavefourlimbswithclawsapartfrom asnake· Theyhaveexternalears.Thetympanicmembrane(eardrum)isusually
situatedbelowthesurfaceofthebody.· Theylayeggswhicharefertilizedinternally.Theshellsofeggsareeither
leatheryorquitehardmadeofcalcium carbonate.· Theyusuallydontlookaftertheiryoungones.
Classificationofreptiles
Reptilesaredividedintothefollowinggroupsi) Snakesii) Lizardsiii) Turtles,tortoises,andterrapinsiv) CrocodilesandAligators
Snakes· Theyhavenolimbs· Theyarecarnivorousanimals· Theireyesarewithouteyelidsbuteacheyeisprotectedbyaimmovable
transparentmembrane· Theyhaveaforkedtonguewhichactsasasenseorganforsmellandtaste.· Theyhavealargenumberofribsandvertebrates.· Theyshed(moult)theirskinafteracertainperiod.· Theirbackwardpointedteethpreventthepreyfrom escapingfrom the
mouth.· Somesnakehavepoisonfangswhichhaveadeepcanalthroughwhich
poisonpasses.· Theribsandlargescalesontheundersideoftheirbodyalsohelpthem to
move.· Theyhideormoveawaywhendisturbed.
ClassificationofsnakeSnakesaregroupedintothreemaingroupsnamely;
· Poisonoussnakes· Constrictors· Non-poisonoussnakes
PoisonoussnakesTheyhavetwolongteethcalledfangsnearthefrontofthemouthtoinjectvenom.ExampleofpoisonoussnakestheCobra(whichbite/spitpoison)
· Mamba(black/green)· Puffudder/nightudder· Viper
Nonpoisonoussnakes· Thesedonothavefangsandthesnakevenom poison.· Theyhavesoliduniform teeth.
ConstrictorsThesetypeofsnakeskilltheirpreybycrushingandsuffocatingthem usingmuscles.Constrictorslicktheirpreytomaketheirsmoothandslippery.
Examplesofconstrictors
· ThePython· Anaconda· Boaconstrictor
Firstaidforthesnakebite· Applyblackstoneontheinjuredparttosuckthepoisonaftermakingcuts· Stayquietandrestthebittenpartsothatthevenom doesnotspread.· Tieabandage/tourniquetbetweentheheartandthebittenparttolimitthe
flowofpoisonedbloodtotheheart.· Cutbetweenthefangmarksandsuckoutthevenom ifyoudonothave
woundsinthemouth.· Takethevictim tothenearesthealthunittoreceiveantivenom injection.Howtotellthatapersonhasbeenbittenbypoisonoussnake.Itleavestwofangmarksonthebittenareathroughwhichsomebloodoozesout.
LIZARDSTheyhavefourlimbsandtailwhichcangrowwhenitscut.Examplesoflizards· Sinks· Geckos· Chameleons· Agamalizards· Monitorlizards· Iguanalizards
Chameleonsareslowmovingreptileswhichprotectthemselvesbychangingcolour.(camouflaging)Theyusetheirlongstickytonguestocapturetheirprey.Theyhatchtheireggsinsidethebodyandlayyoungones
Tortoises,turtles,terrapins· Thesearereptilesthathavehardshellsontheirbacks· Turtlesandterrapinshavetheirfeetmodifiedintoflippersforswimmingin
water.· Tortoisesmovebywalkingusingtheirstronglegs.· Theyalllaytheireggsinsandonthebankofwater.
Diagram showingtortoiseandaturtleNB:tortoisehaveraisedshellswhileturtleshaveflatshells,
Crocodilesandalligators· Theyarethelargestofreptiles· Theyliveinwaterandcomeouttosleepinthesandoftheriverbanks.· Theyhavestrongtailsforswimmingandattackingtheirenemies/prey· Theyhaverowsofteethintheirlongjawsforgrippingtheirprey
· Theyproducebylayingeggswhichareburiedundersandatthebankoflakesorrivers.
DiagramImportanceofreptilestoman· Theyhavegoodskinswhichisformakingdrums,belts,andshoes.· Theirskinscanbesoldastrophiestogetincome/money.· Theyaresourcesoffoodtoman.· Somereptileslikegeckosandlizardshelptoeatinsectvectorslike
mosquitoesinthehouses.· Theyareusedforstudyandresearch· Somelikecrocodilesactastouristattraction.
FISHFishbelongstothegroupofvertebratescalledpisces
Characteristicsoffish· Theyliveinwater· Theybreathethroughgills· Theylayeggswhichhatchintofires· Theireggsarefertilizedbythemalefrom outsidethefemalesbody.Inwater
(externalfertilization)· Mosthavescalesontheirbodyexceptcattlefish.· Theyhavefinsforswimmingandprotection· Theyarecoldbloodedvertebrates· Theyfeedonplantsandanimalsinwater.
Thestructureofthefish
FunctionsofpartsofafishTypesoffishTherearethreetypesoffish
· Bonnyfish· Cartilaginousfish· Lungfish
BonnyfishExamplesofbonnyfishare;Nileperch,Tilapia,herrings,trout,salmons.· Theyhavenoeyelids.· Theyhaveswim bladderwhichhelpstokeepthem buoyantinwater.· Theirgillsareprotectedbygillcoveroroperculum· Theirbodiesarecoveredbyoverlappingscales.
Cartilaginousfish
· Theirskinistoughandshinny· Theyhavegillsslitsinsteadofgillcover.· Theyhavemostlycartilageinsteadofbonesintheirskeletons· Theydonothaveswim bladder.Examplesofcartilaginousfish· Dogfish· Skates· Rays
Lungfish· Theybreathethroughgillsinwaterandbyswim bladderwhengillscannot
supplyenoughoxygen.· Theyliveindirtypools,swampsorrivers.· Theyhavelongandthinpelvicandpectoralfins.· Theyhibernateindryseasons.
ExamplesoflungfishThecommonlungfish/mamba
· Epiceratodus· Diponi
Breathinginfish· Fishbreatheindissolvedoxygeninwater.· Watercontainingoxygenmovesthroughthemouthandpassesoutoverthe
gillswhichabsorbtheoxygeninthewater.· Gillrackerstrapsolidparticlesordirttopreventdamagetothegills.· Thegillbarsarespreadoutthegillstopreventinterlocking.· Gillfilamentsaremanyinordertogivelargesurfaceareatoabsorbalotof
oxygendissolvedinwaterforrespiration.
Diagram
Howisfishadaptedtolivinginwater?· Itsstreamlinedbodyhelpsittomoveeasilyinwater· Finshelpittomoveinwaterandstopitfrom rolling.· Theyhavegillsforbreathinginwater.· Theyhavelaterallinetodetectsoundwaves(hearing)ordanger.· Theirscalesandcolourprovideprotection.· Itsslipperyscaleprotectsitfrom predatorsandhelpsinreducingviscosity
(frictioninwater)· Somehaveelectricorganswhichgiveouthighvoltageofelectricshocktoits
enemy.· Somefishinjectpoisonintotheirenemies.
Usesoffishtoman
· Theyarekeptaspetsinaquarium fordecoration· Theirbonesareusedtomakeglue· Theyaresourcesofemploymente.g.fishmongers.· Theycanbeusedforresearchandlearning.· Someareusedasmedicinee.g.silverfish.
AMPHIBIANSThesearecoldbloodedvertebratesthatcanlivebothinwaterandonland
Characteristicsofamphibians· Theyarecoldbloodedvertebrates· Theyreproducebylayingeggs· Theyundergoexternalfertilizationi.e.themaleshedsspermsontheeggs
outsidethefemalesbodyastheyarebeinglaidinwater.· Theyhavenoexternalearlobes.· Theireggsareusuallylaidineggspawns.· Theyhavescalelessskin· Theirheartisthreechambered.
ExamplesofamphibiansFrogs,toads,Newts,salamander,axolotis,eftse.t.c
Differencesbetweenafrogandatoad· Frogsmostlyliveinwaterwhiletoadsmostlyliveonland.· Frogshavesmoothslipperyskinswhiletoadshavewartyroughskins.· Toadslayeggsinlongribbonspawnswhiletoadslayeggsinmassspawns.· Frogshavefullywebbedhindfeetwhiletoadshavepartlywebbedfeet.· Frogscanbreathethroughtheirlungsandmoistskinwhiletoadsbreathe
throughtheirlungs.· Tadpolesoffrogsarebrownwhileoftoadsareblack.
Feedinginfrogs· Theyfeedonsmallinsectsandworms· Theyusetheirlongstickytonguestotraptheirprey.
Reproductioninamphibians· Themaleandfemalemate.· Thefemalelayseggsandthemaleshedsspermsoverthem tofertilizethem
(externalfertilization).· Theeggsdevelopandafterabouttwoweekshatchintotadpoles.· Thetadpolesundergoseveralchangestofullydevelopintoanadult.· Thistakesaboutthreemonths.
Diagram toshowlifecycleofanamphibian
INVERTEBRATESTheseareanimalswithoutabackbone.Theyaremulticellular animals.Classesofinvertebrates· Coelenterates· Echinoderms· Sponges· Worms· Molluscs· Arthropods
a)Coelenterates· Theyhavecylindricalbodieswithonlyoneopeningwhichactsasthemouth
andtheanus.· Theyhavestingingcellsonthetentaclessurroundingtheopenings.· Theyliveinwater.
Examplesofcoelenterates· Corals· Jellyfish· Hydra· Seaanemone.
b)EchinodermsThehavespinyskinsandtubefeet.Theypumpliquidintotheirfeettomakethem expand.ExamplesofEchinoderms· Starfish· Seaurchins· Sealilies· Seacucumbers
c)Sponges· Spongesareacollectionofindividualcellsorganizedintoonebodyonthe
seafloor.· Theycannotmoveaboutbutremainstuckontheseafloor.· Theysuckinseawaterandfilterouttinypiecesoffood.· Theybreatheandfeedthroughtheholesintheirbodies.
d)Molluscs· Theseareinvertebrateswithsoftandunsegmentedbodiescoveredbya
protectiveshellormantle.
· Theyliveonlandandinfreshwaterorsaltywater.· Somemollusksdonothaveshellslikeoctopus· Mollusesreproducebylayingeggs.
Examplesofmollusks-Octopusandsquids(thelargestandmostintelligent).Theymovebyjetpropulsion- SnailsandSlugs- Oysters- Cuttlefish- Clams- Mussel
SnailsliveonlandandinwaterTheyfeedonplants,whileothersarecarnivorousSlugsaresimilartosnailsbutdonothaveshells.
Diagram showingsnailsandslugs
E)WORMS· Thesearethin,longandsoftbodiedinvertebrates.· Someliveinsoilorwaterwhileothersareparasiteslivinginsideother
animals· Theybreathethroughtheirmoistskins· Theylayeggs.
Groups/typesofworms· Theyaredividedintothreegroupsnamely;· Segmentedworms(annelids)· Roundworms(nematodes)· Flatworms(platyhelminthes)
a)SegmentedwormsThesearewormswhosebodiesaredividedintoringsorsegments.Theymostlyliveinsoilandwater.Examples· Leeches· Bristleworms· Earthworms· Theyliveinsoilandeatsoilordecayedvegetation.· Theyarehermaphroditei.e.hasbothmaleandfemalereproductiveorgans
· Theyhelptoaeratethesoilbymakingtunnelswhichalsohelptoimprovesoildrainage.
· Theyhelpintheformationofhumusinthesoil.
Diagram showingcommonsegmentedworms
b)FlatwormsTheyhaveflattenedandsegmentedbodies.Manyofthem areparasitesofmanandotheranimals.Examplesofflatworms
· Tapeworms· Pondflatworms· Liverflukes
TapewormsfeedondigestedfoodinthesmallintestinesLiverflukessuckbloodfrom animals.Diagram showingcommonflatworms
c)Roundworms· Thesearegroupsofwormswithcylindricalbodies.· Someareparasitesinmanandotheranimalsandplantswhileotherslivein
water.· Theyarepointedonbothends.
Commonexamplesofroundworms· Hookworms· Eelworms· Pinworms· Threadworms· Ascaris
· Hookwormsenterourbodiesbypenetratingthroughtheskinofbarefeet.· Theyfeedon blood.· Bathingordrinkingcontaminatedwater.F)ANTHROPODSTheseareinvertebrateswithsegmentedbodiesandjointedlegs.
Characteristicsofarthropods· Theyhavejointedlegs· Theyhavehardexternalskeletoncalledexo-skeleton(cuticle)· Theycanshedtheircuticlesthroughtheprocessofmoultingifgrowthisto
occur.· Theyhavesegmentedbodies.
Groupsorclassesofarthropods· Myriapods· Arachnids· Crustaceans· Insects
MyriapodsThesearearthropodswithmanyjointedlegs.Theirbodiesaresegmentedwitheachsegmenthavingatleastapairoflegs.Therearetwogroupsofmyriapods1.Centipedes(chilopoda)· Thesehaveonepairoflegsineachsegmentandapairofantennae· Thefrontlegsaremodifiedtoform poisonclaws.· Theyarecarnivorous.2.Millipedes(diplopoda)Thesehavetwopairsoflegsineachsegment.Theycurlorcoiltoprotectthemselvesorproducesbadsmell.
Diagram showingcommonmyriapods
b)Crustaceans· Thesearearthropodswhichhavehardandcrustlikeexo-skeleton.· Theyhavejointedlegs· Theirbodiesaredividedintotwomainpartsi.e.thecephalothoraxandthe
abdomen.· Theybreathethroughgillsortheirskin.
Examplescrustaceans· Crabs· Crayfish· Lobsters· Prawns· Sandhoppers
Usesofcrustaceans· Theyareeatenasfoodbyman.· Someareusedasbaitsinfishingindustry.
c)ArachnidsThesearearthropodswithtwomainbodypartsandfourpairsoflegs.ThetwomainbodypartsarecephalothoraxandabdomenExamplesofarachnidsSpidersTheyhavespecialorganattheendoftheirabdomencalledspinnerettesforspinningtheirwebs.TheybreathethroughlungbooksTheyusetheirwebsformovement,buildingtheirnets,trappingtheirpreyandfindingtheirwayback.Theyreproducebylayingeggs.
ii.TicksandmitesTheyliveontheskinofanimalsTheyfeedonbloodTheyspreadmanydiseasesindomesticanimalse.g.Eastcoastfever,redwater,heartwater,andtyphusfeverinhumans.NB:spiders,ticksandmitesundergoincompletemetamorphosisiii.ScorpionsTheyhavealargetailwithapoisonousstingTheirfrontlegsaremodifiedintopincersTheydonotlayeggsbutgivebirthtoyoungones.
InsectsThesearearthropodswith3(three)mainbodypartsorjointedlegs.
Characteristicsofinsects· Theyhavethreemainbodyparts(Head,thorax,abdomen)· Theheadcontains;compoundeyes,mouthpartsandfeelers.· Thethoraxcarriesthreepairsoflegs,thewings.· Theabdomencontainsthespiracles,ovipositorsandstingsinsomeinsects· Theyhavethreepairsofjointedlegs.· Theyhaveanexo-skeletoncalledCuticles· Theyhaveapairoffeelersorantennae· Theyhaveapairofcompoundeyes· Theyreproducebylayingeggs· Theybreathethroughspiracles.
Diagram showingpartsofaninsect
Functionsofpartsofaninsecti.Mouth partsProboscisisatubeforsuckingfoodininsectslikemosquitoes,houseflies,bees,tsetsefliesetc.Mandiblesareusedforchewingininsectslikegrasshoppers,locusts,cockroaches,beetles,etc
ii.Antennae/feelersTheseareusedassenseorganfortouch,smelldetectingsound(hearing)anddetectingchangesintemperature,humidityandfindingdirection.iii.Wingsforflyingiv.Compoundeyesforseeingv.Halteresinhouseflyforbalancingduringflight.vi.Spiraclesforbreathing
LifecycleofinsectsMetamorphosisThisisacompletechangeinthelifeofaninsectfrom aneggintoanadult.TherearetwotypesoflifecycleininsectsCompletemetamorphosisIncompletemetamorphosis
CompletemetamorphosisThisisalifecycleofsomeinsectswhichgothroughfourstagesofdevelopmentnamely;Eggs— Larva— Pupa— Adult
Examplesofinsectswhichundergocompletemetamorphosis· Houseflies· Mosquitoes· Butterflies· Bees· Moth· Wasps
LifeofahouseflyAdultslayeggsinbatchesof100-150eggsinmanureheap,rottingbodies,exposedfoodorfeaces.Reasonswhyhouseflieslayeggsinmanureheapsorrottingbodies· Toprovidewarmthtoeggssoastohatchintolarvae· Asourceoffoodtomaggots(larvae)afterhatchingTheeggshatchintolarvacalledmaggotsafteraday.
NB:Somefliessuchasbluebottleflyhatchtheeggsfrom insidethebodyandlaymaggots.
· Maggotsfeedondecayingmatter,growquicklyandturnintopupaafter4-6days.
· Thepupadoesnotfeedbutgrowsfrom insidethepupaacasecalledCocoon.· Theadultcrawlsoutofthepupaafterabout4-5days.
Diagram showingthelifecycleofahousefly
Dangers/economicimportanceofhouseflies· Theycarrygermsontheirbody,salivaormouthparts,whichcausethe
followingdiseases;diarrhea,dysentery,cholera,typhoid,trachoma,redeyes.· Theyhelptoreducethevolumeoffeacesinlatrineswhichgetfilledup
quickly.
MOSQUITOESTherearethreemaintypesofmosquitoesnamelyanopheles,mosquito,Culexmosquito,aedes/tigersmosquito.
i.AnophelesmosquitoesFemaleanophelesmosquitoesspreadaprotozoancalledplasmodiawhichcausesmalariainman.CulexmosquitoesspreadFilariawormswhichcauseselephantiasisAedes/tigermosquitoesspreadaviruscausesdenguefeverandyellowfeverinhumanbeings.
LifehistoryofmosquitoesAdultmosquitoeslayeggsinstagnantwater.After2-3daystheeggshatchintolarvacalledWrigglerswhichbreathethroughaspiracleonthetailendcalledSiphon.ThelarvadevelopintopupawhichbreathesthroughapairofspiraclescalledbreathingtrumpetsAfter2-3weeksfrom eggsafullygrownadultcomesoutofthepupa.
Diagram showinglifecycleofanophelesandculexmosquitoes
DifferencebetweenanophelesandculexmosquitoesAnopheles CulexLayseggswithanairfloat LayseggsinraftsThelarvaliesparalleltothewatersurfacewhenbreathing.
Thelarvaliesatanangletothewaterwhenbreathing.
Adultliesinasloppypositionwhenatrest/.
Adultlieshorizontallywhenatrest.
Waysofcontrollingmosquitoes· Drainstagnantwateraroundhomes.· Buryoldfins,brokenpots,orbottleswheremosquitoescanbreed.· Clearallbushesaroundhomeswheremosquitoescanhide· Sprayadultmosquitoeswithinsecticides· Sleepunderinsecticidetreatedmosquitonets.· Keepfishindamsorreservesofwatertoeatmosquitoes larvae· Closedoorsandwindowsearlyintheevening· Applyrepellantsonthebodytodriveawaymosquitoes· Burnmosquitocoilstochaseawaymosquitoes· Planttrees/flowersthatcanrepelmosquitoesinthecompound.
Butterfliesandmoth· Theyundergocompletemetamorphosis· Femalelayseggsmainlyontheundersideoftheleaves· Eggshatchintolarva/caterpillarswhichfeedonleaves· Thelarvaspinsacocoonarounditselfandchangesintopupa/chrysaliswhich
doesnotmoveoreati.e.itisdormantstage.· Whentheadultisfullygrown,itbreaksthepupacaseandcomesout.
Advantagesofbutterfliesandmoths· Theyhelpinpollinatingflowersoffarmerscrops.· Wegetsilkthreadsfrom thecocoonsofsomebutterflies· Caterpillarsareeateninsomesocietiesasfood.
Disadvantagesofbutterfliesandmoths· Theirlarvae/caterpillarsfeedonleavesofcrops/(croppests)· Caterpillarshavebristlehairswhichcanburnandcauseirritationitchingor
woundsotheskin.
NB:Mostcaterpillarsprotectthemselvesbyuseofpricklyhair.IncompletemetamorphosisThisisalifecyclewhichinvolvesthreestages ofdevelopment,i.e.Eggs— Nymph— Adult(imago)
Theadultfemalelayseggsinthesoilinaneggsac(pouch)
AfterafewdaystheeggshatchintoNymphsAfterseveralchanges/moulting,thenymphdevelopswingsandbecomesafullygrownadult.
Diagram showingincompletemetamorphosis
Examplesofinsectswhichundergoincompletemetamorphosisi.Cockroachesii.Grasshoppersiii.Damselflies ix. Dragonfliesiv Bedbugs x. Auntsv.Termites xi. Aphidsvi.Prayingmantis xii. Fleasvii.Walkingsticksviii.Kaytidis
Protoctistakingdom (singlecalledorganism)· Thesearegroupsofverysimplelivingorganism whicharesingle(celled
unicellular).· Theyhaveanucleusenclosedinamembrane· Theyareneitherplants,fungi,noranimals.· Theyliveinfluids(liquids)orinotherorganismsbecausetheydonothave
protectionagainstdrying.
ExamplesofprotoctistaAlgaeEuglena
a)Algae· Theyhavechlorophyllandmaketheirownfood· Theymostlyreproducebymeansofspores.· Theydonothaveroots,stemsandleaves.· Theyappearindifferentcolourse.g.blue,green,red.· Theygrowonandwithinthesoil,wood,moistrocks.
Examplesofalgae· Spirogyra· Seaweeds· Focus
Usesofalgae· Itisusedasfoodbymanandotheranimalssuchasfish.
· Theyaddoxygentowaterwhichisbreathedinbywateranimals.· Theyareusedinmakingfertilizers
Protozoa· Thesearegroupsofsinglecelledorganismswhichhaveanucleusandthe
cytoplasm.· Theydonothavechlorophyllbutcapturetheirfoodorengulfingusing
pseudopodia· Theyaremicroscopic· Theyarefoundinwaterandonlandindampplacesandinbodyofanimalsas
parasites.· Theyreproducebymeansofpseudopodiae.g.amoebawhileotherbyciliae.g.
paramecium
Examplesofprotozoa· Amoeba· Paramecium· Plasmodium· Trypanosome
Illustrationofamoebaandparamecium
c)Euglena· Thisisaunicellularorganism whichhasbothplantsandanimalfeatures.· Ithaschlorophyllandproducesitsownfood.· Itcanmovefrom oneplacetoanotherveryquicklyforprotectionlikean
animalusingitsflagellum.· Itismicroscopicandlivesinditchesandponds.
FUNGI KINGDOMThesearesimpleorganismsthatlackchlorophyllandexistasamassofthreadscalledhyphae ormycellium.
HOW DOFUNGIFEED?Theyfeedsaprophytically.
- Theyliveasparasitesonotherlivingthingsorondeadanddecayingbody.- Theygrowwherethereismoisture.- Theyreproducebymeansofsporesexceptyeastwhichreproduceby
budding.Commonexamplesoffungi
- Mushrooms- Toadstools- Yeast- Moulds
- PuffballsIllustrationtoshowthestructureofmushroom andfunctionsofeachpart.
Advantagesoffungi- Somefungicausedecayandhelpsinformationofsoil.- Somefungiareeatenasfoodbyman.Egmushroom- Someareusedinmakingmedicineegpenicillium mouldsformaking
penciline.- Yeasthelpinflavouringcheese,formationofbeerandspiritmakingbread
sourceofvitaminBandfermenting tobacco.
Disadvantagesoffungi- Somefungiarepoisonoustoman.- Fungicauseanumberofdiseaseinanimalsringworm ,eczema,athletics
foot,andfinger/toenailformation- Fungicausediseasesinplantseg: potatoblight.- Somefungicausefoodpoisoning
CAREFORANDPROTECTIONOFVERTEBRATESANDINVERTEBRATES- Animalslikehumans,birdsneedcareandprotection.Theycanbecared
throughthefollowingways.- Traintrainableanimals- Treatsickdomesticanimalsandcleanthehousetheystayin.- Gazetteareasforbothdomesticandwildanimalsasgameparksand
gamereservestopreventextinctionandendangeringanimalspecies.- Regularvaccinationofanimals- Enforcingstrictlawsthatgrownpollution,poachinganddestructionofbio
diversity
FORMSOFENERGYWhatisenergy?Energyistheabilityofthebodytodowork.
Energyexistsinthefollowingforms(types)i. Soundenergyii.Heatenergyiii.Lightenergyiv.Mechanicalenergyv.Nuclear(Atomicenergy)vi.Solarenergyvii.Chemicalenergy
viii.Electricalenergy
N.BKineticandphysicalenergyareformsofmechanicalenergy.
SOUNDSoundisaform ofenergythatstimulatesthesenseofhearing(thatenablesustohear)Useofsound
- Forcommunication- Entertainment- Forprotection- Forevidenceincourtsoflaw- Helpstopromoteculturei.e.traditionalfolksongsandfolktales.
TYPES OFSOUNDi. Loudsoundii.Softsoundiii.Highsoundiv.Lowsound.
Sourcesofsound
Naturalsources· Animals· Wind· Storm· Volcaniceruption· Waterfalls· Rainfall
Artificialsources· Musicalinstruments· Vehicles· Aeroplanes
Howissoundproduced?Soundisproducedbyvibration(whenanobjectvibrates)
Whatisavibration?Avibrationisatoandfromotionwhichiscontinuouslyrepeated.
Wayshowlivingthingsproducesound· Humanbeingsproducesoundbythevibrationoftheirvocalcords.Vocal
cordsarefoundinthevoicebox.Whenairpassesoverthem,theyvibrateandproducesound.
· Cricketsproducesoundbyrubbingtheirwingsagainstthehindlegs.· Birdssingbythehelpoftheirringsofcartilagethatvibrate· Beesandmosquitoesproducesoundbyvibrationofwingswhenflapped
rapidly.
TransmissionofsoundHowdoessoundtravel?Soundtravelsinsoundwaves.Ittravelsthroughthefollowingmedia:· Air(gases)· Water(liquids)· Solidmaterials
N.Bsounddoesnottravelthroughvaccum.
Reason:Thevaccum doesnotcontainmatter(molecules)· Thespeedofsoundinairis330m/sec· Thespeedofsoundinwateris500m/s.· Thespeedofsoundinmetals(solids)is4800m/sec
Thereforei. Soundtravelsfastingasesii. Soundtravelsfasterinliquids.iii. Soundtravelsfastestinsolids.
Factorsaffectingthespeedofsound· Temperatures· Wind· Altitude· Heat
EFFECTSOFTEMPERATUREANDWINDONSOUND- Soundtravelsmoreclearlyduringnightwavesmoveclosetotheground.- Atnighttemperaturesarelower (itiscool)- Whenitishot,soundwavesrisehigherabovetheground.- Windcarrysoundfurtherifitisblowingthesamedirection;butifitis
blowingagainstthesounditobstructsFrequencyThisisthenumberofvibrationspersecond. /numberofoscillationsmadebyaparticlepersecond.
PitchThisisthehighnessorlownessof sound./isthesharpnessormildnessofsound.
Anexperimentonpitch.
Whatdeterminesthepitchofsound?· Sizeofavibratingobject.· Lengthofavibratingobject.· Thicknessofthestringproducingsound.· Tension· Frequency
CALCULATIONSONSOUNDNB:Thespeedofsoundinairis330metres/secExamples1. Ifamanheardagunshotafterfourseconds.Howfarwashefrom thefiringpoint?Distance = speed xtimetakenDistance =speedxtimetaken
2= 330m/secx4sec
2330m/secx4sec
21330m x2
= 660metres
2. Ittook3secondstohearechoofamanchoppingwood.Howfarwasthemanfrom achoppingplace?D = S xT
2
D = (330x3)metres2
D = 990D =495m
NB: Wedivideby2becausetherearetwosetsofsoundwavesieorginalwavesandthereflectedwaves(Echo)3. Amootiwasstandingacrossthevalley,whichwas660m awayfrom thecliffifheshouts,howlongwillittaketoheartheecho.
T = D x 2S
2T = 660m x 2
330m/s1
T = (2 x2)second= 4 seconds
4. Okellowasstanding165m awayfrom hisfatherwhocalledhim byclapping.Howlongdidittakehim toheartheclapping?
T = DS
T = 165m330m/s T =
0.5sec
VolumeItistheloudnessorsoftnessofsound. /Isthemagnitudeorintensityofacertainsound.
EchoIsthereflectedsound(thebouncingbackofsoundwaves)Echoisformedwhensoundisreflectedbyanobject.
Usesofechoinnature.· Ithelpsbatstofindtheirwayandlocatefood.· Ithelpssailorstodetectthedepthoftheseaorocean.· Fishermanuseechotolocateshoalsoffishbeforelettingdowntheirnets.· Pilotsuseechosurroundingfrom thickclouds,mountainsetctoavoid
accidents.
DISADVANTAGESOFECHOESINNATUREEchoesaretroublesomeespeciallyinemptyhallsTheycauseirritating soundsand noisetotheearsSoft,poroussurfacesabsorbsound.HowdowepreventechoesIncinemahalls,broadcastingstudiosandconferenceortheatrehallsthewallsarecovered usingsoftboards,thickandheavycurtainsthatabsorbsound.
MUSICALINSTRUMENTSTheyareclassifiedintothree:Stringinstruments
WindinstrumentsPercussioninstruments
Stringinstruments (chordophones)Theseproducesoundbyvibrationoftheirstringswhenplucked.ThepitchofsoundinstringinstrumentscanbeincreasedbylooseningortighteningthestringsExamples
i. Celloii.Violaiii.Violiniv.Bowharp(Adungu)v.Guitarvi.Lyrevii.Tubefiddleviii.Harp
Windinstruments (Aerophones)Theseproducesoundbyvibrationofairblowninsidethem.Theirpitchisdetermined(increased)byreducingthesizethesmallertheinstrumentthehigherthepitch.Examples· Records Diagrams· Whistles· Trumpet· Panpipes· Fluteetc
PERCUSSIONINSTRUMENTSTheseareinstrumentsthatproducesoundwhenbitten/hit.Theirpitchcanbeincreasedbyreducingthesizeoftheareastruckorincreasingthetightness
Examples Diagrams· Drums· Thumbpiano· Shakers· Xylophone· Cymbals· Shakers· Rattlesetc
Methodsofstoringsoundenergy.Soundcanstored:-a)bywritingmusic (Solfanotation)Thisisaform ofwritingmusicusingsyllablesonstavesb)Recordingsoundcanbestoredonrecordplayersdiscs,compactdiscs,computersetc
Anillustration
Devicesusedtostoresound- Memorycards- VCDs- DVDs- Magnetictapes- Projectors- Taperecorders- Mobilephones- Flashcards- Computerdiscs- Ipods- Film stripsetc
Devicesusedtoreproducesound· recordplayers· radiocassettes· taperecorders· videodecks· Film projectors.· DVDplayers· Computers· Mobilephones· Grammarphone
Waysofreproducingstoredsound.· Re-playing· Singing· Reading
THEMAMMALIANEARThestructureofthemammalianear.
Theearisdividedintothreeregionsnamely:a)Outerearb)Middleearc)Innerear
TheouterearItconsistsof:
i. Pinnaii.auditorycanal
ThepinnerItcollectssoundwaves
AuditorycanalItdirectssoundwavestotheeardrum
ThemiddleearItconsistsofthe:-
i. eardrumii.ossiclesiii.Eustachiantube
EardrumItvibratesandtransmitssoundwavestotheossicles
OssiclesThesearethreesmallbonesfoundintheearnamely;hammerincusandstapes
The workofossicles· Theytransmitsoundvibrationtothecochlea.· Theyamplifysoundwavesintheear
EustachiantubeItequalizesairpressureintheear.
TheinnerearItconsistsof:-· Semicircularcanal· TheCochleas· Auditorynerves
Cochlea:Thisisafluid—filledorganfoundintheear.
Function:itconverts(changes)soundwavestosoundsignals
Semi-circularcanal:Ithelpsinbodybalanceandposture.
AuditorynervesTheysendsoundsignals(messages)tothebrainforinterpretation
Commondiseasesoftheeari. Otitisexternusii.Otitisinternusiii.Earcancer
Commondisordersoftheear· Deafness· Earaches· Earitching.
Usesofwaxfoundintheear- Ittrapsdustandsomeforeignbodiesintheear- Itcleanstheearcanal- Itprotectstheearagainstinfections,waxcontainschemicalsthatkill
germs
Note:Toomuchearwaxcan leadtopartial(temporary)deafnessCAREFORTHEEAR.
i.Usesoftmaterialtocleantheear. Sharpobjectsbreakanddamagetheeardrum.
ii.Haveregularhealthexaminationiii.Removeexcesswaxfrom theexternalearthatcancausetemporary
deafness.iv.Cleanyourearwithclearwaterandsoapregularly.
NB.Partialdeafnesscanbecorrectedbyearsyringing(syringefilledwithwarmwater)
COMPARINGTHEHUMANEARWITHORGANSOFHEARING INOTHERANIMALS
HEARINGINFISHFishuselaterallinetodetectandpickupsoundvibrationsinwater
HEARINGINSNAKES
Snakesdonothaveactualears,buttheyhaveinnerearsystemssuchascochleainmammals.Insnakesthecochleaisconnectedtojawbones,thismakesitsensitivetogroundvibrationsbythehelpofjawbonesconnectedtocochlea.
HEARINGINBIRDSBirdshavearuffoffeatherscalledauricularswhichtheyusetodetectsoundintheenvironment.
Hearingininsects- Someinsectslikemosquitoescollectsoundvibrationsusingtheir
antennae.(feelers)- Otherslikecaterpillars,butterfliesandmothsusesmallhairscalledsetae
foundontheirbodysurfacestopicksoundvibrationsNB: Adultbutterfliesalsodetectsoundvibrationsthroughveinsontheirwings
HearinginamphibiansTherearethreeordersofthelivingamphibians.Theseare
- Theapoda— theleglessandworm liketypesuchascaecilians- Theurodella— thetailedformssuchasmudpuppies,Newtsand
salamanders- TheAnura— thetaillessform suchasfrogsandtoads.
NB: AllamphibianshaveearsThehearingorganforamphibiansiscalledtheamphibianspapilla
THECIRCULATORYSYSTEMTheterm bloodcirculationrefertothemovementofbloodfrom thehearttoallbodypartsBloodcirculationisveryimportantinthefollowingways
- Itsuppliesfoodandoxygentoallpartsofthebody- Itremoveswasteproductssuchascarbondioxideoutofthebodytothe
excretoryorgans,
TYPESOFBLOODCIRCULATIONSINGLEBLOODCIRCULATION
- Itisthetypesofcirculationwhenbloodmovesthroughheartonceeg.infishes.
DOUBLEBLOODCIRCULATION- Itsatypeofcirculationwhenbloodgoestothehearttwicebeforeitgoes
toallbodypartseginmammals.
BLOODBloodisatissuefluidwithsuspendedcellsthatmovesinandaroundthebody.Compositionsofblood
- Redbloodcells(erythrocytes)- Whitebloodcells(leucocytes)
- Platelets(thrombocytes)- Plasma
1.REDBLOODCELL- Thereareabout30millionredbloodcellsinthehumanbody.- Theycontainaredpigmentcalledhaemoglobinthatcontainsiron.- Theyaremadeinredbonemarrowofshortboneslikestemum,scapula,
ribs,vertebraandpelvis.- Theydonthaveanucleus.- Theirfunctionistotransportoxygeninthebody.
ADAPTATIONSOFREDBLOODCELLSTOTHEIRFUNCTION- Theyhavehaemoglobinwhichenablesthem carrymoreoxygenmolecules.- Theyareproduced inlargenumber.- Theyhavenonucleusthatprovidesalargesurfaceareatocarrymore
oxygen.NB:Whenoxygencombineswithheamoglobinitformsoxyhaemoglobin
Thestructureofaredbloodcell.
Note:Theredbloodcellsaredestroyedbytheplasmodiagermsthatcausesmalaria.Sicklecellalsodeformsthenormalshapeoftheredbloodcellshencemakingthem unabletocarrytheirfunction.
WHITEBLOODCELLS- Thesearelargerthanredbloodcells.- Theyhaveanucleusandnohaemoglobin- Theyaremadeinthebonemarrowoflongbones,lymphnodesandthe
spleen.- Theirmainfunctionistofightagainstdiseasegerms
Howdowhitebloodcellsdefendthebodyagainstdiseasegerms?- Byengulfinganddigestinggerms- Producingantibodiesagainstthegerms.
AdaptationofwhitebloodcellstotheirfunctionsIthasanucleuswhichcontrolscellactivitiesIthascytoplasm thathelpsittoengulfgerms.NOTE: TheHIV/AIDSdestroysthewhitebloodcells.
Thestructureofawhitebloodcells
PLATELETS- Aremadeintheredbonemarrow.Theirfunctionistohelp inclottingof
blood.- BloodclottingoccursinpresenceofvitaminKandCalcium
Structureofplatelets
PLASMAThisistheliquidpartofbloodconsistingofthefollowing
- Water- Bloodprotein- Dissolvedfood- Mineralsalts- Urea- Carbondioxide- Hormones
FUNCTIONSOFBLOOD- Itcarriesdigestedfoodandoxygentoallbodyparts- Itcarrieswastewasteproductsfrom thebodypartstoexcretoryorgans.- Ittransportscarbondioxidefrom thebodytissuestothelungs- Itdistributesheattothebody.- Itcarrieshormonestodifferentbodyparts.- Defendsthebodyagainstinfections.
BLOODGROUPSTherearefourbloodgroup.ABABONB : ABisauniversalrecipientwhileOisauniversaldonor
BLOODTRANSFUSIONIsthetransferoftestedandscreenedbloodfrom onepersontoanother.ThescientistwhodiscoveredbloodgroupswasSirKarlLandsteiner.
THEHEARTThestructureoftheheartandfunctionsoftheeachpart
- Theheartisdividedintofourchambers- Theupperchambersarecalledatria(atrium)andthelowerchambers
calledventricles.- Theheartismadeupspecialmusclescalledcardiacmuscles- Themainfunctionoftheheartispumpbloodtoallbodyparts.
OTHERORGANSRELATEDTOTHECIRCULATIONOFBLOOD- Thelungs— itswherediffusionofgasestakesplace.- Thekidneys -filtersbloodtoremoveexcretoryproducts.- Theliver— regulatesbloodsugar
THEDIAGRAM TOSHOW CIRCULATIONOFBLOOD
BLOODVESSELSThisisanetworkoftubestransportingbloodinthebody.Therearethreebloodvessels
- Arteries- Veins- Capillaries
ARTERIES- Arteriesarebloodvesselsthatcarrybloodawayfrom thehearttothe
body.- Theyhavethickwalls- Theyhaveanarrowlumen- Theycarrybloodwithahighpressure- Theydonthavevalves
Diagram showingthewallsoftheartery
VEINS- Thesearebloodvesselsthatcarryblood towardstheheart.- Theyhavethinwalls- Theyhaveawiderlumen.- Theyhavevalvestopreventthebackflowofblood.
STRUCTUREOFAVEIN
CAPILLARIES- Thesearethesmallestbloodvessels- Theyconnectarteriesandveins- Exchangeofbodymaterialstakeplace inthecapillaries.- Theyhave sothinwalls
STRUCTUREOFTHECAPILLARY
DIFFERENCESBETWEENARTERIES,VEINSANDCAPILLARIESArteries Veins CapillariesTheycarryoxygenatedbloodexceptthepulmonaryartery
Theycarryde— oxygenatedbloodexceptthepulmonaryvein
Exchangeofmaterialsbetweenbloodandbodyandbodycellstakesplaces
Theyhavethickandmuscularwalls Theyhavethinandlessmuscularwalls Theyhaveaverythinwallwhichhastinyholesorponesinit.
Theycarrybloodawayfrom theheart Theycarrybloodtowardstheheart TheylinkarteriesandveinsBloodflowsunderhighpressure Blowsflowsunderlowpressure BloodflowsunderverylowpressureTheyhaveanarrowlumen Theyhaveawidelumen TheyhaveanarrowerlumenTheyhavenovalves Theyhavevalves Theyhavenovalves
Increasingthevolumeofbloodincirculation
- Eatingabalanceddiet- Bloodtransfusion- Takingalotoffluidsandtakingironsupplementtablets
DiseasesanddisordersofthecirculatorysystemTheyareclassifiedintothreegroupsnamely.
- Diseasesofblood- Diseasesoftheheart- Hereditarydiseases
Diseasesofblood Diseasesoftheheart Hereditarydisease- Leukemia(bloodcancer)- Hypertension(highblood
pressure)- Malaria- AIDS- Anaemia- Sicklecellanemia- Lowbloodpressure
- Coronaryheartdisease- Heartattack(cardiacarrest)- Heartstroke(cerebrovascular
Accident,CVA)- Heartfailure
- Haemopholia- Sicklecellanaemia
OtherdisordersA)ARTIOSCLEROSOSThisisthehardeningandthickeningofthewallsofthearteries
PREVENTIONANDCONTROLOFTHECIRCULATORYDISEASES- Properfeedingieeatingfoodthatmakeabalanceddiet.- Eatingmealsoflow fatcontent- Performingregularphysicalexercises- Goingformedicalcheckup.- Avoidtakingalcohol.
IMPORTANCEOFHAVINGREGULARBODYEXERCISES- Helpthehearttopumpmorebloodtothebody.- Theyreducetheleveloffatsinthebody.- Helptostrengthenthemusclesoftheheart.- Theyreducetheriskofgettingheartdiseases- Jointsbecomesmoreflexible.- Digestionoffoodiscarriedoutquicklyandeasily.- Promotesproperfunctioningofbodysystem- Itmakesthebodyphysicallyfit.
HIV/AIDSANDBLOOD- AIDSiscausedbyHIV- TheVirusdestroysthewhitebloodcellsinthebody.- ThebodybecomesweakandcannotfightdiseasegermsHIVstandforHumanImmuno— deficiency
VirusAIDSstandsforA -Acquired - meansgetfromI - Immune— meansprotectedagainstD -Deficiency— LackofS -Syndrome -Itmeansacombinationofsignsandsymptoms.
HOW HIV/AIDSISSPREAD- Throughunprotectedsexualintercoursewithaninfectedperson.- Throughsharingunsterilizedsharpobjectswithaninfectedperson.- From mothertochild (MCT)a) atbirthb)throughbreastfeedingc)from mothertounbornchild-Through unscreenedbloodtransfusion
SignsandsymptomsofHIV/AIDS- Prolongeddrycough(chroniccough)- Widespreaditchingandskinrash- Prolongeddiarrhoea(chronicdiarrhoea)- Oralthrush -Itisawhitecoatingdevelopsinthemouth- Persistentfever.- Generalbodyweakness- Lossofappetite- Excessivesweatingatnight- Herpezoster(kisipi)
EFFECTSOFHIV/AIDSINDIVIDUAL
a)Lossofimmunityasthevirusdestroysthewhitebloodcells,theindividualisattackedbyseveraldiseases.Thediseasegermstakeadvantageoftheweakenedbody.Thesediseaseswhichattackaweakenedbodyarecalledsecondaryor
opportunisticinfectionsb)Lossofincomec)AIDSleadstodepression,frustrationandworriestoanindividual.d)Anindividualcanbeabandonedbythefriendsduetofearofthe
diseasee)Theinfectionscausesdeath.
FAMILY- SomechildreninthefamilymaybeinfectedwithHIV/AIDS- Reductiononthelabourforceinthefamily- Childrenbecomeorphanswhenparentsdie.
- Lossoffamilyproperty- Familymembersareseparatedwhendifferentrelativestakecareofthem.- ThefamilymayexperienceshortageofbasicneedsincasetheAID
victimsareparents
COMMUNITY- Lossofskilledmanpower- Causeschildheadedfamilies- Breakdownofsocialorder/families.- Shortageofproductivepopulation- Itleadstoloweconomicdevelopment
PREVENTIONANDCONTROLOFHIV/AIDS- Abstinencefrom sexuntilmarriage- HavinganHIVtestbeforepeoplegetmarried- Havingonlyonelongsexualpartner- Properuseofcondoms- Bloodscreeningbefore transfusion- Healthwordsshouldwearprotectiveglovestoavoidcontactwithblood- Carryingoutsexeducation inschoolsandhomes
ALCOHOL,SMOKING,ANDDRUGSINTHESOCIETY
ALCOHOLINSOCIETYWhatisalcohol?Alcoholisacolourlessliquidsubstancethatmakespeopledrunkwhentheydrinktoomuchofit.Itiscontainedinmanydrinkslikebeers,winesandspirits.
TypesofalcoholTherearetwotypesofalcoholnamely· Methanol· Ethanol
Methanolisfoundmostlyinhomedistilledalcohol.· Itisverydangerousandpoisonousandmanycauseblindnessordeath.· Itismainlyusedasafuelorforsterilizingmedicalinstruments.· Ethanoliscontainedinallalcoholicdrinksthatareconsumed.· Itcanalsobeusedasfuel.
ProductionofalcoholCommonalcoholicdrinksaremadefrom juicesofbananas,pineapples,sugarcane,maize,millet,sorghum,rice,barley,cassava,potatoes.
Yeastisaddedtothemixtureofwaterandthesefoodsubstancestospeedupfermentation.
Methodsofproducingalcoholi. Fermentationii.Distillation
Fermentationistheprocessbywhichsugarinjuiceisturnedintoalcoholwiththehelpofyeast.- Fermentedfruitjuicesmakewine.- Fermentedstarchmixturefrom grainsorcerealsmakebeer.
Examplesofdrinksproducedlocallybyfermentation- Mwengebigere - from bananas- Malwa(ajon) - from millet/sorghum- Kwete - from cassava/maize- Munanansi - from pineapples- Omurambi - from sorghum-Beer - from oats,barleyand sorghum
Distillation- Thisistheprocessbywhichwegetalcoholfrom fermentation.- Thealcoholinthefermentedjuiceisheatedanditevaporates.- Thealcoholvapouristhencondensedandcollected.
Howdistillationofalcoholisdone.- Crudealcoholisboiledtoproducealcoholvapour.- Thevapouriscondensed togetliquidalcoholwiththehelpofcoldwateras
acondenser.- Theliquidalcoholnowcalleddistillateispassedthroughacoileddelivery
tubeintoacleancontaineri.e.bottlesorjerrycans.- Thedeliverytubeisusuallycoiledtoincreasethesurfaceareafor
condensationofalcoholinthecondenser.(coldwater)
Illustrationonhowdistillationisdone;
Usesofalcohol·Fordrinking· Makingmedicines· Fordisinfectingwounds· Forsaletogetmoney· Usedduringculturalfunctions· Usedinmakingcosmeticsandperfumes· Usedtosterilizemedical instrumentsinhospitals· Usedasafuel· Usedinmakingnailvanishsolutions
Alcoholism isaconditionwhereanindividualdependsonalcoholfornormalfunctioningofthebody.
Alcoholicisapersonwhoisaddictedtoalcohol.
Addictionisaconditioninwhichapersonhasaverystrongdesiretotakealcoholeveryday.
Effectsofalcoholonthecommunity· Mayleadtojobneglectcausinglowproductivity.· Maycausetrafficaccidentsathome,suicidalbehavior.· Highcrimerateinthesocietye.grape,defilement,robberyetc.· Canleadtoincreaseofcertaindiseasesinthecommunitye.gAIDS.· Alcoholicsbecomepublicnuisance.· Nationmayloseveryimportantpeople· Lossofincometaxbaseduetolessproduction.
Reasonswhypeopledrinkalcohol· Idleness· Frustration· Peerpressure· Thedesiretopasstime,withfriends.· Familybackgroundandsocialenvironment· Toshowthattheyarerich.· Peoplescultureinceremonies/celebrations· MisleadingadvertsonT.V,radio,magazines· Toforgettheirproblems.· Influencebypeopleoneadmirese.g.parents,teachersetc.
.
Effectsofalcoholonpeople(immediateeffects)· Slowsdowntheaction(function)ofthebrain.· Peoplewhoarenotusedtodrinkingalotofalcoholvomitwhentheydrinka
lotofit.· Peoplegeteasilyannoyedafterdrinkingalotofalcohol.· Peoplewhoaredrunkbecomeforgetful· Peoplewhoaredrunkloserespectforlaws.· Peoplewhoaredrunklosebalance.
Longterm effects· Lossofappetite· Pepticulcers· Liverdiseases· Leadstoselfneglect· Lossofjobs· Thepancreasmayswell.
· Toomuchandconstantdrinkingmaycausehandtremors
Effectsofalcoholtoafamily· Leadstofamilyneglect· Leadstopovertyinafamily.· Itcausesspouseandchildabuse.· Leadstobadbehavioramongchildren· Itcausesviolenceinhomes.Howtoavoidalcoholism· Avoidbadpeergroups· Neverbelieveinadvertisementswhichpraisealcoholasagooddrink.· Neverdrinkalcoholtoovercomeaproblem.· Joingroupswhosemembersdonottakealcohol.· Engageinactivitieswhichhelpyoutoappendfreetimeproperly.· Takeyourparentsandotherpeopleswarningaboutthedangersofalcohol
seriously.
Ugandalawsonalcohol· Peopleunder18yearsofagearenotallowedtodrinkalcoholinpublicplaces.· Nooneisallowedtodriveavehiclewhenheisdrunk.· Homedistillationofalcoholisforbidden· Nooneisallowedtotransportorsellhomedistilledalcohol.· Publicplacesthatusealcoholicdrinksareallowedtooperateuptoalimited
time.
SMOKINGSmokingisthedrawinginsmokefrom burningtobaccothroughthemouth.
Asmokerisapersonwhosmokestobaccofrequently.Chemicalscontainedintobacco
· Nicotine· Tar
SmokingiseitheractiveorpassiveActivesmokingisthatoneinwhichthesmokertakesinsmokedirectlyfromcigaretteorsmokingpipe.
Passivesmokingisthetypeofsmokinginwhichanonsmokerbreathesinaircontainingtobaccosmoke.
Reasonswhypeoplesmoke.· Topasstime· Toconcentrateonwhattheyaredoing· Tofeelwarm
· Tofitinapeergroup(peerinfluence)· Tofeelconfident
Effectsofsmokingonthehumanbody· Leadstorespiratorydiseasessuchas;· Lungcancer· Emphysema· Heartattack(coronaryheartdisease)· Pepticulcers· Cancerofthemouthandthroat.
Howtoavoidsmoking·Donotbelieveinadvertisementsaboutcigarettesmoking.·Knowthatthereisnogoodreasonforsmoking·Avoidjoininggroups of smokers.·Keepyourselfbusyforexamplebyreadinganovel,ordoinganyother
meaningfulactivitiessuchasplayinggamesetc.
Lifeskillstosafeguardagainstsmoking.· Keepawayfrom peoplewhosmoke· Neverallowanybodytoconvinceyoutosmoke.· Gathermoreinformationondangersofsmokingfrom healthworkers.· Reportyourfriendswhosmoketotheteachersortheirparentsforadvise.· Likegamesandsportsduringyourfreetime.· Neveruseyourmoneytobuycigarettes.
DRUGSAdrugisachemicalsubstancewhichaffectsthewayonesmindandhowthe
bodyworks.· Itcaneitherhelporharm thebodysystem.· Drugsareeitherinmanufacturedform orrawform· Rawdrugsareeitherintheform ofplantsandanimalpartsorextractsfrom
animalorplants.· Ifdrugsaremanufacturedandtestedinlaboratoriestheyarecalled
laboratorymanufactureddrugs.
Characteristicsoflaboratorymanufactureddrugs· Theyarecarefullymadeandtested.· Theirstrength,stabilityandpurityisknown.· Theyarethesameforeachquantity.· Theireffectonhumanhealthisknown,· Theyarepackagedandproperlyprotected· Theyarewelllabeled· Theyhaveexpiryandmanufactureddates.
Examplesoflaboratorymanufactureddrugs· Aspirin· Chloroquine· Quinine· Fansidar· Panadol· Coartem· Mabendazole
Characteristicsoftraditionaldrugs.· Theyaremadeofrawplantsandanimals· Theirstrength,purityandstabilitychanges.· Theyareofdifferentquantities· Theireffectsonhumanhealthisnotknown.· Theyarenotwelllabeled· Theyarenotwellpackaged.
Examplesoftraditionaldrugs· Mululunza· Kigagi· Bombo· Eusuk· Asimiri
EssentialdrugsEssentialdrugsaredrugsneededtocareandpreventcommondiseasesaffectingthemajorityofpeopleinanareaorcountry.
Qualitiesofessentialdrugs· Theyshouldbeaffordabletomakethecostoftreatmentmanageable.· Theyshouldbeaccessibleandavailablewheneverneeded.· Theyshouldbeeffectivetocure,preventandcontroldiseases.· Theyshouldbesafewhenthecorrectdosageisused.· Theyshouldhaveasatisfactoryvalueformoney.
Examplesofessentialdrugs· Coughmixture· Chloroquine· Paracetamol· Piriton· Penicillin· ORS
· Tetracyline
DrugprescriptionThisreferstohealthworkerswritteninformationonhowadrugshouldbeused.
Ifadrugistakenwithoutaprescription,thepatientwilleithertakeunderoroverdose.
OverdoseThisisthetakinginofmoremedicinethanisrequired.
Anoverdoseisdangeroustothebodybecauseitcanleadtopoisoningordeath.UnderdoseThisiswhenonetakesfewerdrugsthantherequiredThemajordisadvantageofanunderdoseisthatitcausesdrugresistance.
Advantagesofdrugprescriptions.· Ithelpsthepatienttoknowthecorrectdrug.· Itsdosagerelationtoage,weightanddurationoftreatment· Preventoverdoewhichisharmfulandpoisonoustothebody· Preventsandcontrolsmisuseofdrugs
DrugsofdependenceThesearedrugswhichcauseaddictionafterprolongeduse.Anadditiontoadrugisastrongdiseasethatonefeelsuncomfortablewhenhe/shedoesnotusethedrug.
DrugsofdependencyThisisthecontinuoususeofdrugsonaregularbasisafterthebodyoftheuser.Itcanalsobetheillegaluseofthedrug.Commondrugsofdependency· Marijuana· Khartormiraa· Cocaine· Glue· Aviationfuel· Heroin· Alcohol· Tobacco· Paintthinner.
Drugmis-useThisistheuseofadrugwithoutoragainstthehealthworkersinstruction.
WaysofMis-usingdrugs
· Sharingdrugs· Takingunprescribeddrugs
DrugabuseThisistheuseofadruginawaywhichisharm (dangerous)tothebody.
Whypeopleabusedrugs· Somepeopleabusedrugstoovercomefear· Duetopeerinfluence· Tokeepawakeorsleep· Duetogoodadvertisement· Topasstime· Tofeelwarm· Togetenergy· Toconcentrateonwhattheyaredoing· Togainmoreappetite.
Commonpeoplewhoabusedrugs·
Effectsofdrugsofdependencetoanindividual·Braindamage· Lossofappetite· Insomnia(inabilitytosleep)· Jobneglect· Selfneglect
·Lowimmunitytodisease
Effects tothefamily·Familyneglect· Familyaggressionandviolence· Criminalactslikedefilementandrape· Poverty· Itsetsabadexampletothechildren
Effectstothecommunity· Itleadstoincreasedaccidents· Criminalbehavior· Poorjobperformance
Lifeskillstosafeguardagainstalcohol,smokinganddrugdependency
Whatisalifeskill?Itispersonalandsocialskillthatenablesapersontofunctionconfidentlyandcompetentlyinordertofitinacommunity.
Selfawareness- Knowyourself- Careforyourselftoavoiddrugabuse- Makechoiceswhichyouthinkareconsistentandofvalue.- Avoidassociatingwithwronggroups- SayNotopeopleinfluencingyoutousedrugs
Copingwithstress- Inthissituation,trytobefirm toaproblem andbereadytocontainit.- Trytoacceptpositivepiecesof adviceswithpatience- Dontdrink/smokeasmeansofreducingstress
Selfesteem- Acceptyourselfasyouandbelieveinyourself- Havegooddiscipline- Appreciateyourself- Peerresistance- Avoidbadcompany
Assertiveness- Beopenandgivereasonsforallyourdecisions- Insistonthefactthatwrong thingsarewrong.- Bestraightforwardandhonestwithyourself.
Decisionmaking- Makeachoicewithgoodresults- Baddecisionmayaffectyourlifeinfuture
Leisuretime- Involvingyourselfinmeaningfulactivitiesduringfreetime.
Lifeskillsthatcanhelpyoutoavoiddrugs· Desistfrom badpeergroups· Throughcounselingandguidance· Followgoodmoralsfrom elders.· Spendingleisuretimeconstructivelybyengaginginproductiveactivities.· Readinggoodmaterialwhichisusefultolife.
TERM IICLASSIFICATIONOFFLOWERINGANDNONFLOWERINGPLANTS
PLANTKINGDOMPlantsaredividedintotwogroupsviz:
i. Nonfloweringplantsii.Floweringplants
NON — FLOWERINGPLANTSTheseareplantswhichdontbearflowers.Groupsofnonfloweringplants
· Sporebearingplants· Coniferousplants
SporebearingplantsTheseareplantsthatreproducebymeansofspores.Theyinclude:· Ferns· Mosses· Liverworts· Horsetails
Asporeisasinglecellwhichisabletodevelopintoanewplant.Asporeisprotectedbyasporecase.
FERNS· Havechlorophyllandcanmaketheirownfood.· Haveproperroots,stemsandleaves.· Reproducebymeansofspores,sporesareproduced atthelowersideof
theleaves insporecases.· Theygrowinshadymoistplaces.Diagram
MOSSES· Thesearesmallgreenplantsgrowonhouseroofs,verandah,treetrunks,logs,
rocks,andsoilindampshadyplaces.· Reproducebymeansofspores.· Containchlorophyllandmakesitsownfood.Diagram
LIVERWORTS· Growinwetmoistplaces.· Havechlorophyllandmaketheirownfood.
· Reproducebymeansofspores.
CONIFERS· Thesebearseedsinstructurescalledcones.· Havesmallneedleshapedgreenleaves.· Donthaveflowersbutproducepollenandovulesincones.Examplesinclude;· Pine· Cedar· Fir· Cypress· Cycades· Podo· Ginkgo
Economicvalueofconifers· Giveussoftwoodtimber.· Actaswindbreaks.· Producesoftwoodformakingpapers,matchsticks,ceilingboards.· Earnsforeignexchange.
FLOWERINGPLANTSTheseareplantsthatbearflowersandreproducebymeansofseeds.
Groupsoffloweringplants· Monocotyledonousplants· Dicotyledonousplants.
MonocotyledonousplantsTheseareplantsthatbearseedswithonecotyledon.ExamplesMillet maizeSorghum riceBarley wheatOats
Characteristicsofmonocotyledonousplant· Produceseedswithonecotyledon· Theyundergohypogealgermination.· Havefibrousroots.· Haveleaveswithparallelleafvenation.
DicotyledonousplantsTheseareplantswhichbearseedswithtwocotyledons.Examples:Legumese.g.beans,peas,groundnuts,bambaranutse.t.c.
Characteristicsofdicotyledonousplants· Produceseedswithtwocotyledons· Undergoepigealgermination· Haveanetworkleafvenation· Haveataprootsystem.
Afloweringplantconsistsoftwosystemsi. Rootsystemsii. Shootsystem.
Partsofafloweringplant.Diagram.Functionsofpartsofafloweringplant.Terminalbud— Growingtipoftheplant.Auxiliarybud— growsintobranch,floweretc.Node— Pointonastem wherealeafgrows.Internode:-TheregionbetweentwonodesRootcap:-Protectsthetipofthetaproot.(mainroot)
ROOTSApartofaplantthatgrowsinthesoil.Itdevelopsfrom theradicle.
Functionsofroots· Absorbwaterandmineralsaltsfrom thesoil.· Holdtheplantfirmlyinthesoil.· Somerootsstorefoodfortheplant.· Somerootshelptheplanttobreathe.
Usesofrootstoman· Somearesoldtogetincome.· Somerootsaresourcesoffood.· Somerootsareusedasherbalmedicine.· Someprovidewoodfuel.
ROOTSYSTEMSThesearetwomainrootsystems
i. Fibrousrootsystem.ii.Taprootsystem.
Diagrams
Typesofrootsi. Proproots
Thesegiveextrasupporttoaplantsuchplantsinclude;-maize,sorghum,etc.Diagram
ii.Buttressrootsiii.Claspingrootsiv.Stiltrootsv.Breathingrootsvi.Storagerootse.g.carrots,cassava,sweetpotatoesetc
Withdiagrams
OSMOSISThisisaplantprocesswherefluids(plantnutrientsmovefrom aregionoflowconcentrationthroughasemi-permeablemembrane.Osmosismainlytakesplaceintheroothairsofplants.
Anexperimenttoillustrateosmosis.
STEMSFunctionsofthestem toplants.· Theyholdleavesandbranchesinpositiontogetsunlight.· Holdtheflowerforpollination· Helpintranspiration· Somestemsmakefoodfortheplant.
Functionstoman.· Somearesourcesoffood.· Somearesourcesofincome.· Someprovideherbalmedicine.
· Someareusedforpropagation.· Someprovidetimber.
Typesofstems· Uprightstems.· Creepingstems· Undergroundstems.
Withdiagrams
Reasonswhyplantsclimbothers.· Togetsupport· Toobtainsunlight.
Wayshowplantsclimbothers· Useoftendrils· Useofhooks· Bytwiningorclasping
UndergroundstemsExamplesare:
· Bulbs· Rhizomes· Stem tubers· Corms
BulbsExamplesare;Onions,garlicetcdiagram ofonion
RhizomesExamplesare:turmeric,gingeretc
Stem tubersExamplesare;Irishpotato,whiteyamsetc
CormsExampleiscocoyam
Plantstem propagationThisisthewayplantscanbegrownusingstems.
Examples· Bulbs· Rhizomes· Corns· Stem tubers· Suckers
Withdiagrams
LEAVESThestructureofaleaf,partsandtheirfunctions.Typesofleaves.· Simpleleaves· Simpleserrated· Simpledivided· Simplelobed.
Withdiagrams
Compoundleaves· Bipinnate· Pinnate· Digitate· Trifoliate
WithdiagramsFunctionsofleavestobothplantsandman(animals)
PHOTOSYNTHESISTheprocessbywhichgreenplantsmaketheirownfood.Photo— meanslight.Synthesis— meanstobuildup.
Rawmaterialsforphotosynthesis· Water· Carbondioxide.Conditionsnecessaryforphotosynthesis· Chlorophyll· Water· Sunlight· Carbondioxide.
ImportanceofPhotosynthesis· Ithelpsinfoodproduction· Ithelpstopurifytheenvironmentbyusingatmosphericcarbondioxide
Adaptationsofleavesforphotosynthesis· Haveabroadflatshapetoincreasesurfaceareaforsunlight.· Havethinwallstoallowcarbondioxide· Havestomataforgaseousexchange.· Haveveinsfortranslocation.
TRANSPIRATIONTheprocessbywhichplantslosewateraswatervapourtotheatmospherethoughleaves.Anexperimenttoshowtranspiration.Importanceoftranspiration· Tocooltheplant.· Helpsplantstoabsorbswaterandmineralsalts.· Helpsinrainformation
Factorsaffectingrateoftranspiration· Temperature· Lightintensity· Wind· Natureoftheleaf· Humidity· StomataWaysofreducingtranspiration· Plantsshed theirleaves· Formingalayerofwaxontheleafsurface.· Reducingthesizeofleavestothorns.
REPRODUCTIONINFLOWERINGPLANTSTherearetwotypesofreproductioninplants.Asexualreproduction(Vegetativepropagation)Sexualreproduction.
THEFLOWERThestructureofaflower(Itspartsandfunctions)
POLLINATIONThetransferofpollengrainsfrom antherstothestigma.
Typesofpollination· Crosspollination· Selfpollination
SELFPOLLINATIONThetransferofpollengrainsfrom antherstothestigmaofthesameflower.
NB:Apawpawundergoesselfpollination.Diagram
Crosspollination:Thetransferofpollengrainsfrom theantherof oneflowertothestigmaofanotherflowerofthesame kind..
NB:AmaizeplantundergoescrosspollinationDiagram
Agentsofpollination· Animals· Wind· Flowingwater
Characteristicsofinsectandwindpollinatedflowers
Wind InsectsHavenonectar HavenectarDullcolouredpetals Bright petalsAlotofpollengrains FewpollengrainsHavenoscent Havescent
Importancesofpollination- Itallowsfertilizationtotakeplaceincrops- Leadstohighyieldsinfarmersharvest.
Usesofflowers- Fordecoration onvariousfunctions- Makingofinsecticide- Perfumemaking- Usedtogetdyes- Sourcesofincomebygrowing/selling- Signoflove.- Signofrespectforthedead.
FERTILISATION
Theunionofamaleandfemalegamatestoform azygote.Afterpollination,pollentubesdevelopreachingdowntheovules.Afterfertlisationintheovary,ovulesbecomeseedsandanovarydevelopsintoafruit.
Diagram
SEEDSAseedisafertilisedovulethatdevelopsintoanewplant.
Classesofseeds· Monocotyledonousseeds· Dicotyledonousseeds
MonocotyledonousseedsThesehaveonecoytledon.
ExamplesDicotyledonousseedsTheseareseedswithtwocotyledons.Examples
Structureofabeanseed
GERMINATIONThedevelopmentofaseedintoaseedling.
Typesofgermination· Epigealgermination· Hypogealgermination
EPIGEALGERMINATIONThetypeofgerminationwherethecotyledonscomeabovethegroundlevel. Itoccursinalllegumes.E.g.beans,peas,G.nuts,etc.
HYPOGEALGERMINATIONThisisthetypeopfgerminationwherethecootyedonsremainbelowthegroundlevel.Itoccursinallmonocotyledonousplantse.gwheat,maize,sorghum etc.
Diagrams
Conditionsnecessaryforgermination· Air(oxygen)· Water(moisture)
· WarmthDifferencebetweendicotsandmonotplants
MONOCOT DICOTHaveonecotyledon HavetwocotyledonsHavefibrousrootsystem HavetaprootsystemsHaveparallelleafvenation HavenetworkleafvenationUndergoeshypogealgermination
UndergoesepigealgerminationFormstruewood.
FRUITSAfruitisadevelopedovarycontainingseeds.Fruitshavetwoscars.Stylestalkandstalkscar.Fruitsprotectseedsandassistindispersal.
Typesoffruits· Succuentfruits· Dryfruits
SUCCULENTFRUITS/JUICYFRUITSThesearefruitswhosepericarpandmesocarpbecomejuicyandfleshyandcanbeeaten.Theyaredividedintothreegroups.·Berries·Drupes·Pomes.
BerriesThesearefruitswithmanyseeds.Thesoftpericarpisdividedintothreelayers.·Epicarp· Mesocarp· Endocarp
Examples· Oranges· Tomatoes· Pawpaw
Diagram ofanorangefruit.
DrupesThesearefruitswihoneseedinsideahardendocarp.Drupeshavethreelayers;· Epicarp· Mesocarp
· Endocarp
Examples· Mangoes· Avacadoes· Coconuts· Palm oil· Cashewnuts.etc
Diagrams
PomesThesearefruitsinwhichthereceptaclebecomesjuicyandmodifiedasafruitwhiletheinnercoreisthepericarp.Examples·Apples· Figs· PearsetcDiagram
FRUITANDSEEDDISPERSALThisisthescatteringofseedsandfruitsfrom parentplantstoanewenvironment.
Importanceofseeddispersal· Preventsovercrowding· Reducescompetitionforlightandnutrients.· Enablesplantstocolonisenewareas.· Thefarmergetsnewspeciesofcrops.
Agentsofseeddispersal· Water· Animals· Wind· Explosivemechanism
Explainthecharacteristicsofeachandtheirdiagrams.
TROPISMTropism isgrowthmovementofplantsinresponsetoastimulus
Astimulusisanychangeintheenvironmentwhichtheplantissensitiveto
KindsoftropismPhototropismThisisgrowthmovementofplantstowardslightegwhenaplantisplacedinthedarkboxwithasmallopeningtowardstheplanttendstogrow
Diagram
GeotropismThisisagrowthmovementofaplanttowardsthedirectofforceofgravityplantrootgrowwardsduetoforceofgravity.
Diagram forillustration
HydrotropismThisisagrowthmovementofsomepartsofcertainplantinresponsetotouchoneside.Thisstimulushelpstwinningplantssuchasbeans,passionfruitsandyamsclimbsbyuseoftendrils,hooks
ChemotropismThisisthegrowthmovementofplantpartstowardsthesourceofchemicalegpollentubesgrowthestyletoreachtheovules
PLANTPROPAGATIONPlant propagation refersmethodsusedingrowingcropsTherearetwobasicmethodsofpropagation
i)Seedpropagationii)Vegetativepropagation
SEEDPROPAGATIONmostfloweringplantsarepropagatedbymeansofseedsegbeans,maize,coffee,mangoetcvegetativepropagation
inthismethodapartofaparentplantisplantedtogiverisetoanewplant.
Partsifplantsusedinvegetativepropagationare:-- Stems- Leaves- Buds
Typesofvegetativepropagation- Naturalvegetativepropagation- Artificialvegetativepropagation
NaturalvegetativepropagationPlants Methodsof
propagationYams(whiteyams) Stem tubersIrishpotatoes Stem tubersGinger RhizomesBanana,pineapple,sisal SuckersPineapples Crowns,slipsisal BulbilsOnions BulbsStrawberry RunnersPyrethrum Split
ArtificialvegetativepropagationThisinvolvesuseofspecialskillandtechniquestoproducehighqualityandhighyieldingcropswhichareresistanttodiseases
Exampleofartificialvegetative propagationa) Stem cutting
Description & Diagram
b) LayeringDescription & Diagram
c) GraftingDescription & Diagram
d) BuddingDescription & Diagram
e) MarcottingDescription & Diagram
ECONOMICVALUESOFPLANTSTOMAN- Plantsprovidefoodtoman.- Plantshelpincontrollingsoilerosion- Plantsareneeded inconstructionandbuildingindustry.- Theyproviderawmaterialsforagrobasedindustries- Agriculturalindustryisasourceofrevenueforgovernment
ANIMALHUSBANDRYAnimalhusbandryisthecareandmanagementoflivestock(farm animals)Examplesoffarm animalsinclude;goats,rabbits,pigs,sheep,cattle,poultry.
KEEPINGCATTLEThisistherearingofcows,bulls,oxen,heifersandbullocks.
Whyfarmersrearcattle· Formeatandmilkproduction· Togetincome· Forprovisionoflabour· Forpaymentofdowryandbrideprice
Importanceofkeepingcattle· Theyprovideuswithmeatandmilk· Theyareasourceofemploymenttofarmers· Bullsandoxenareusedforploughingandtransport· Cowdungisasourceofmanure· Hidesfrom cattleareusedtomakeleather· Bones,hornsandhoovesareusedtomakeglueandanimalfeeds.· Cattleareusedtopaydowryorbrideprice.
Externalpartsofacow
TypesofcattleAtypeofcattlemeansaclassofcattlekeptforaspecificpurpose.
ThemajortypesofcattlekeptinUgandainclude;· BeefCattle· DairyCattle· DualpurposeCattle
TypesofbreedsofcattleAbreedisafamilyofcattlehavingspecificcharacteristics. The typeofbreedofcattlearedeterminedby;colour,size,milkyield,bodyconformationlikeshapeetc.Therearethreetypesofbreedsofcattle,namely;· Localbreeds/indigenousbreeds· Exoticbreeds· Crossbreeds
LocalorindigenousbreedsThesearebreedsthathaveexistedinEastAfricaforlong.TheyarealsocalledNativeBreeds.Examples
· Ankolecow· Boran· Zebu
Advantagesoflocalbreedsofcattle· Theyareresistanttosomediseases.· Theycansurviveonpoorpastureandlittlewater· Theyrequirelesscareandmanagement· Theyproducehighqualitymeatandmilk· Disadvantagesoflocalbreedsofcattle· Theymatureslowly· Theyproducelessproducts(i.e.Milkandmeat)
Advantagesofexoticbreedsofcattle· Theygrowandmaturefaster· Theyproducemoremeatandmilk
Disadvantagesofexoticbreedsofcattle· Theyareeasilyattackedbydiseases· Theyneedgoodpastureandwaterallthetime.· Theyneedalotofcareandattention.
TypesofcattleTherearethreetypesofcattlenamely;· Beefcattle· Dairycattle· Dualpurposecattle
· Worktype(draughtcattle)
BeefcattleThesearecattlemainlykeptforbeef(meat)production.
Characteristicsofbeefcattle· Theygrowfast· Theyhaveablock(rectangular)shape· Theyhavesmallheads· Theyhaveshortlegswithlongbroadbacks.
Examplesofbeefcattle· Shorthorn· Galloway· Hereford· Aberdeenangus· AmericanBraham· Charolais· SantaGertrudis
Diagram ofabeefcattleasseenfrom aboveandaside.
Seenfrom aside Seenfrom above
DairycattleThesearecattlekeptmainlyformilkproduction
Characteristicsofdairycattle· Theyaretriangularinshape· Theyproducealotofmilk· Theyhavewellsetlegstosupporttheirweight.· Theyhaveplentyofspacebetweentheirhindlegs.· Theyareusuallydocile(calm)· Theyhavesmallnecksandwidehindquarters.
Examplesofdairycattle
a)Friesian b)BrownSwissc)Guernsey d)Ayrshire
Diagram ofadairycowasseenfrom aboveandaside
Seenfrom above Seenfrom aside
DualpurposecattleThesearecattlekeptforbothmeatandmilkproduction.
Examples1.RedPoll 2.MilkingShorthorn3.Sahiwal
Work(draught)cattleThesearecattlemainlykeptforprovidinglabouronafarm (ploughing,transport).Theyareusedtoploughsoil,pullcarts,etc.
DifferencesbetweenlocalandexoticbreedsofcattleLocalBreeds ExoticBreedsTheyhavedifferentcolours Theyhavespecificcolours.Theymatureslowly. Theymaturequickly.Theyproducelessmeatandmilk. Theyproducemoremeatandmilk.Theyneedlesscare. Theyneedalotofcare.Theyaremoreresistanttodiseases. Thearelessresistanttodiseases.Theycansurviveonpoorpastureandwater.
Theyneedgoodpastureandwaterallthetime.
BreedingofcattleBreedingisthekeeping(maintaining)ofinheritedcharacteristicsincattle.Suchcharacteristicsinclude;colour,growth,diseaseresistance,milking,longevity,(abilitytolovelong).
Typesofbreeding
1.InBreeding 2.Linebreeding3.OutBreeding 4.Crossbreeding5.Upgrading 6.Selectivebreeding
InBreedingThisisthematingofverycloselyrelatedanimals(suchasbrothersandsisters).
AdvantagesofinbreedingItmakesgoodcharacteristicsinthefamilyofanimalsstrong.
DisadvantagesItleadstoproductionofpoorquality.Itcanleadtoinheritanceofbadtraits.
LineBreedingThisisthematingofcloselyrelatedanimals(suchascousins).Linebreedingcanleadtoinheritanceofbadtraits.
OutBreedingThisisthematingofdistantlyrelatedanimals.Outbreeding bringsgoodqualitiesthatmaybedisappearinginabreed.
CrossBreedingThisisthematingofunrelatedanimalsofdifferentpurebreeds.(e.g.Matingexoticbreedswithlocalbreeds).Theoffspringsaftercrossbreedingarecalledcrossbreeds.Crossbreedshavebetterperformancethantheirparentsorrelatives.
UpGradingThisistheimprovementofqualityofonebreedbyusingabreedofsuperiorqualityseveraltimes.
SelectiveBreedingThisisthematingofselectedgoodbreedsinaherd.Badorpoorbreedsinaherdaresoldoffforslaughter.
Typesofservice/inseminationTherearetwotypesofinsemination;
a)NaturalInseminationb)ArtificialInsemination
NatureInseminationThisisthedepositingofspermsintothefemalereproductivesystem byamaleanimal.
Typesofnaturalinseminationa)Handmatingb)Pasturemating
HandmatingThismeansbringingabulltomatewithacowonheat.
PastureMatingThismeansallowingabulltomovewithcowssothatitmateseasilywiththoseonheat.
Advantagesofnaturalinsemination· Afarmerdoesnotbothertolookforanexpertinseminator.· Itischeapforafarmersincesemenisnotbought.· Thebullnoticesthecowsonheateasily.· Animalsonheatenjoythefeelingofsex.
Disadvantagesofnaturalinsemination· Controllingveneraldiseasesisdifficult.· Smallcowscanbeinjuredbybigbulls.· Transportingabullifnonisaroundisexpensive.· Inbreedingiseasilypracticed.ReproductionincattleReproductionistheabilitytoproduceoffspringsandincreaseinnumber.Theremustbeamaleandafemaletomateandproduceyoungones.
MatingMatingisthesexualunionofthemaleandfemaleanimals.Duringmating,serving(insemination)takesplace.Aheiferisreadyformatingattheageof18months.Whenacoworheiferisreadyformating,itshowssignsofheat.
Heatperiod oroestrusperiodThisisthetimewhenafemaleanimalisreadytomatewithamaleanimal.
OestruscycleThisisaperiodwhenafemaleanimalcanconceiveifitmates.Signsofheat· Thecowmountsothercows.· Thecowallowsothercowstomountit.· Thecowlosesappetitetograze.· Mucusdischargefrom thevulva.· Slightriseinthebodytemperatureofacow.· Thevulvaswellsandchangesfrom pinktored.· Thecowurinatesfrequently.· Thecowbecomesrestlessandmoosallthetime.
· Milkproductioninlactatingcowdrops.· Threeweeksaftertheperiodofservice,ifthecowshowsnomoresignsof
heat,wesayithasconceived.
ArtificialinseminationThismeansdepositingspermsintothefemalereproductivesystem ofacowusingssyringeoraninseminatinggun.
Advantagesofartificialinsemination· Itcontrolsveneraldiseases.· Itischeapertobuyspermsthanbuyingabull.· Itpreventsinjurytosmallcows.· Semenfrom agooddeadbullcanbeusedtoimprovebreeds.· Inbreedingiscontrolled.· Wastagesofsemenisminimized
Disadvantagesofartificialinsemination· Itrequiresanexperttocarryitout.· Storingsemenisdifficult.· Itmaynotgivegoodresults.· Afarmermaynoteasilynoticethecowonheat.
Thereproductivesystem ofacow.Diagram
UsesofeachpartVulvaItreceivesandguidesthepenistothevagina.Itprotectsandcoversthevagina.VaginaItreceivesspermsandpassesthem totheuterus.Itisabirthcanal.
CervixItprotectsthefoetusduringpregnancybyclosingthecervix.
OvaryItproducesmatureova(eggs)
Itproduceshormoneswhichcontrolsthesexualcycle.
OvaThesearefemalereproductivecells.Theyfusewithspermstoform azygote.
UterusItiswhereimplantationtakesplace.Itprovidesasuitableenvironmentforimplantationtotakeplace.Oviduct(fallopiantube)Itiswherefertilizationtakesplace.Itpassesafertilizedeggtotheuterus.
Thereproductivesystem ofabullUsesofeachpart· Testes· Theyproducesperms.· Theyproduceahormoneresponsibleforpubertyandsexualdesire.This
hormoneiscalledtestosterone.
UrethraItpassesurinetothepenisItpassesspermstothepenis.
Sperm ductsTheycarryspermstotheurethra.
PenisItdepositsspermstothevagina
TestesTheyhelptomanufacturesperms
EpididymisItstoressperms.
ProstateglandsandseminalvesiclesTheyproducesementhroughwhichspermsswim.
ScrotumThisistheoutercoveringofthetesticles.Itprotectsthetesticles.Itregulatesthetemperatureofthetesticles.FertilizationinacowFertilizationistheunionofmaleandfemalegametestoform azygote.Agameteisareproductivecell.
ThefemalegameteiscalledOvumThemalegameteiscalledaSperm.
Diagram ofasperm andanOvum
Sperm Ovum
Afterfertilization,thezygotedevelopsintoanembryo.Theembryodevelopsintoafoetusandfinallyintoacalf.
Zygote Embryo Foetus Calf
Theembryoisattachedtotheuteruswallthroughtheplacenta.
ImplantationThisistheattachmentofthefoetustothewallsoftheuterus.Therefore,Implantationtakesplaceintheuterus.
GestationperiodThisisthetimebetweenconceptionandgivingbirth.Thegestationperiodofanin-calfis270-280daysorninemonths.Anin-calfisacowthatispregnant.
SignsofpregnancyAcowdoesnotgoonheat21daysafterservice.· Theuterusenlargesinthesecondandthirdmonthafterconception.· Theudderenlargesandfillswithmilk.· Thecervixclosesduringpregnancy.· Themovementoffoetuscanbeseenorfeltafter7months.
DryperiodThisisthetimewhenalactatingcowisleftwithoutmilkingitinpreparationtogivingbirth.Acowisdriedsixtosevenweeksbeforecalving.Duringthedryperiod,thein-calfisfedonfoodsrichinprotein.
SteamingupThisisthefeedingofanin-calfonfoodsrichinprotein.Itisnormallydoneduringthelasttwomonths.
Whysteamingup/advantagesofsteamingup· Itencouragesthefoetustogrowhealthy.· Itbuildsacowsbodyinpreparation forcalving(parturition)· Itincreasesthemanufactureofcolostrum.· Itpreventslowbirthweight.· Itprolongsmilkletdown.
CalvingorparturitionThisistheactofgivingbirthincattle(cows).
Signsofcalving· Thevulvaswellsandbecomesred.· Thecowliesdownmostofthetime.· Theudderandteatsbecomeswollen.· Theamnion(orwatersac)comesoutanditbursts.
ColostrumThisisthefirstyellowishmilkgotfrom acowwhichhasjustgivenbirth.
Usesofcolostrum· Ithasallfoodvalues.· Itopensupthedigestivesystem ofacalf.· Itbooststheimmunityofacalfsinceitisrichinantibodies.· ItimprovesacalfssightsinceitisrichinvitaminA.
CattlemanagementonafarmTherearevariouswaysofcattlemanagementonafarm.Theseinclude;1.Numbering 2.Dehorning/Disbudding3.Hooftrimming 4.Castration5.Dehorning 6.Spraying7.Dipping 8.DustingNumberingThismeansputtingamarkorlabelonthebodyofanimals.Numberingenablesfarmerstoidentifyanimalseasily.
Waysofnumberinga)Branding b)EarNotchingc)Eartagging d)Numberlacinge)Eartattooing f)TailBobbingg)Grueling
EarnotchingThisisthecuttingoftheedgeoftheearsofanimalswithmarks.
Diagram
EarTaggingThismeansfixingtagswithnumbersontheearofanimals.
Diagram
NumberinglacingThisistheputtingofawoodenoironpieceofplatearoundtheneckofanimals.
Diagram
EartattooingThismeansputtingpermanentmarkontheearsofanimalsusingplierscarryingnumbersonthem.
Diagram
TailbobbingThismeanstrimminglonghairontheanimalstail(switch).
N:BCowsarenotusuallydockedi.e.tailsarenotshortened.
GruelingThismeanstrimminglonghairaroundtheanusandgenitalparts.
Dehorning/disbuddingThisistheremovalofhornbudsfrom thecalfshead.
Materialsusedfordehorningi) Dehorningironii) Chemicalssuchascausticsticks.
Advantagesofdehorning· Itmakesanimalseasytohandle.· Itreducestherisksofinjuriesamonganimalsandpeople.· ItincreasesspaceintheKraal/Manyanimalscanbekeptinasmallspace.· Hooftrimming· Thismeanscuttingoffovergrownhoovesofanimals.
Advantages
Itreducestheriskofinjuriesamongcattle.Itreducestheriskoftransmissionofdiseases.
CastrationThisistheremovalof testiclesfrom amaleanimal.
MethodsofcastrationTherearethreemethodsofcastration;
i) OpenOperation(opencastrationorSurgery)ii) Closedoperation(closedcastration)iii) Useofaloop(Rubberring)
OpenoperationThisistheremovaloftesticlefrom amaleanimalbyusingasharpknifeorbladetoslitthescrotum.
Diagram
ClosedoperationThisisthecrushingofsperm ductsbyusingaburdizzowhichhasbluntpincers.
Diagram ofaburndizzo
Usesofaloop· Thismeanssqueezingsperm ductsusinganelasticrubberband.· Whenthesperm ducts,(spermaticcords)andbloodvesselsarebroken,the
testesshrinkanddie.
DiagramAdvantagesofcastration· ItpreventsthespreadofSTDsamongcattle.· Castratedanimalsbecomehumble(docile)andeasytohandle.· Castratedanimalsfattensformorebeef.· Castratedanimalsgrazewithfemaleswithoutdisturbingthem.· Itpreventsinbreeding
· Itpreventspoorbreedssincebullswithpoorbreedsarecastrated..
DisadvantagesofcastrationCastratedanimalsmaylosealotofbloodanddie.Woundsmaybecomesepticandcausepainanddeath.Animalsaredeniedtherightofmating.
DewormingThismeansgivingdrugstodomesticanimalsandbirds.
Whydeworm?Toremoveendoparasitesfrom thebody.Methodsofdeworming
1.Drenching2.Dozing
DrenchingThismeansgivingliquidmedicinetoanimals.Drenchingcanbedoneusingadrenchinggunorabottle.
Diagram ofadrenchinggun
DozingThismeansgivingsolidmedicinetocattle(animals)Thesolidmedicineisinform oftabletsorcapsules.
SprayingThisistheremovalofectoparasitesonthebodyofananimalbysprinklingacaricidesusingaknapsacksprayerorsprayrace.
DustingThismeansapplying thebodyofanimalswithpowderedchemicalstokillectoparasites.
DetickingThisisthepickingofticksfrom theskinofanimalsusinghands.
DippingThismeansmakinganimalstoswim throughwatermixedwithacaricides inadiptank/pool.
Diagram ofadiptank
RemovalofextrateatsThismeanscuttingextrateatsfrom theudderofacow.Thereshouldbeonlyfourteats.
MILKINGThisistheremovalofmilkfrom theudderofacowthroughteats.
MilkletdownMilkletdownistheflowofmilkfrom theudderofacow.
TypesofmilkingTherearetwotypesofmilkingnamely;
a)handmilkingb)MachineMilking
HandmilkingHandmilkingisthedrawingofmilkfrom theudderofacowbysqueezingteatsusinghands.Handmilkingisalsocalledfullhandmilking.
MachinemilkingThisistheuseofamachinetodrawmilkfrom theudderofacow.Thepartsofamilkingmachinemustbewashedtoavoidmilkcontamination.
Diagram illustratingmachinemilking
Preparationformilking· Assemblethemilkingequipment.· Cleanallthemilkingequipmenttomakethem ingoodworkingorder.· Putthecowinamilkingplaceandtiethehindlegswitharope.· Givethecowsomefeedstokeepitbusyandrelaxedduringmilking.· Washtheudderandteatstoencouragemilkletdown.
· Washyourhandsclean.· From eachteat,drawoneortwostreamsofmilkthroughastripcuptodetect
thepresenceofmastitisinmilk.· Ifthecowhasmastitis,bloodstainswillbeseeninmilkdrawnthroughastrip
cup.· Acowwithmastitisshouldbemilkedlast.· Aftermilking,washthemilkingplaceandequipmentusingdisinfectants.
STRIPCUPThisisaninstrumentusedtodetectthepresenceofmastitisinmilk.
Diagram ofastripcupLACTOMETERThisisanequipmentusedto;
a)detectthepresenceofwaterifadded inmilkb)detectthepresenceoffatsinmilk.
Alactometerisaclosedweighedtubegraduatedtomakethelevelofnormalmilk.
Howalactometerworks· Alactometerisdippedinacontainerhavingmilk.· Ifwaterhasbeenaddedtomilkorfatshavebeenremoved,itwillnotget
enoughsupporttofloatandthereforeitwillsinkdeeper.Diagram ofalactometer.
PreservingmilkMilkisagoodenvironmentforbacteriatomultiply.Itshouldthereforebepreservedforfutureuseotherwiseitwillgobad.
Methodsofpreservingmilk1.Sterilization 2.Refrigeration3.Boiling 4.
Sterilization/pasteurization· Thismeanskillinggermsinmilkbymaximum boilingfollowedbycoolingand
boiling.· Itisalsocalledpasteurization.· Theheatingkillsgermsandquickcoolingpreventsbacteriafrom entering
milkandmultiplyinginit.· ThismethodwasnamedafterLouisPasteur,aFrenchScientistwho
discoveredthatmilkgoesbadbecauseofbacteria.
RefrigerationThismeansputtingmilkinarefrigeratorwheregermscanteasilyandquicklymultiplybecauseofverylowtemperature.
BoilingThismeanskillinggermsbyboilingmilkfrom timetotime.
HomogenizingThisisawayoftreatingmilksothatfatsarebrokenandthencream ismixedwiththerest.Homogenizingisnotawayofpreservingmilk.
Productsfrom milkButter Cheese creamGhee Yoghurt
CASEINANDWHEYThisisthepartleftafterbutterhasbeenremovedfrom milk.Caseincanbeusedasarawmaterialformakingshinnypaper.
WheyThisistheliquidpartleftaftersourmilkhasformedcurd.Wheycanbeusedasasourcetoaccompanyfood.
ExamplesofprocessedmilkWholemilk SkimmedMilkPasteurizedMilk FortifiedMilkCondensedMilk
HOUSINGONAFARMUsesofhousingonafarm· Houseskeepfarm produce· Houseskeepfarm records.· Housesstoreanimalfeeds,utensilsandfarm toolsfarm (equipment)· Housesareusedasmilkingshadesforanimals.· Housesareusedastreatingplacesforanimals.
TypesofhousesonafarmTherearetwotypesofhousesonafarm.Theseare;
a)Semi-Permanenthousesb)Permanenthouses
Semi-PermanenthousesThesearehousesmadefrom simplelocalmaterials,(mud,reeds,cowdung,grass,poles,nails)Examplesinclude;Kraalsandbyres.
PermanentHousesThesearemadefrom strongdurablematerialssuchastimber,bricks,concrete,
ironsheets.
RoofinghousesonafarmRoofingfarm housesdependsonavailablematerials.Thecheapestform ofroofingisusinggrass,bananafibres,bambooorstraws.
Advantagesofthatching· Itprotectsanimalsfrom badweather.· Itpreventswaterfrom enteringthehouse.· Itischeapinconstruction.
Disadvantagesofthatchingusinggrass· Thatchingmaterialscaneasilycatchfireandburnanimals.· Materialscaneasilyrot.· Thatchcaneasilyleakifnotwelldone.
FENCINGAfenceisabarrierofliveordeadmaterialsusedtodividelandintoplotsorpaddocks.Fencingmeansputtingabarrierofliveordeadmaterialsonlandtodivideorseparateitintosizeablepieces.
Typesoffences· Naturalfences(liveFences)· Artificialfences(deadfences)
NaturalFencesTheseareplantedplantsalongboarders(margins)oflandtobefenced.Examplesofplantsusedtomakenaturalfencesinclude;bamboo,sisal,cypress,conifers,hedges,thornyplants,tatropa,cedar(x-mastree)
ArtificialfencesThesearefencesmadeoutofdeadmaterialsExamplesofmaterialsusedinclude;chainlinks,barbedwire,wirenets,concrete,bricks,treatedpoles,nails.
Importanceoffencing· Naturalfencesactaswindbreaks.· Naturalfencesmaintainsoilfertilitybyaddinghumus.· Fencingcontrolsthespreadofdiseasesbycontrollinganimalmovements.· Fencingallowsproperuseofpasture.· Fenceskeepoffintruderssuchasthievesandwildanimals.· Fencespreventthestrayingofanimals.· Fencesmakecullingeasy.· Fencesmakeseparationofanimalsaccordingtoage,sex,type,sizeand
healtheasy.
PASTUREPastureisanopengrasslandonwhichanimalsgraze.
TypesofpastureTherearemainlytwotypesofpasture,namely;
a)Naturalpastureb)PreparedPasture
NaturalpastureThisispasturethatgrowsbyitself.Itiseatenbyanimalsinitsrawform.
Examplesofnaturalpasture.a)Kikuyugrass b)Guineagrassc)Nandigrass d)Elephantgrasse)Guatamalagrass f)Alfaalfa
PreparedpastureThisispasturemadeoutoffoddercrops.Foddercropsarecropsgrownforfeedinganimals.
Examplesofpreparedpasture· Silage· Hay· Cloves· Milletcrops· Desmodium
Importanceofpasture· Pastureisusedforfeedinganimals· Pastureaddshumustothesoil.· Itprovidesbeddingmaterialsforanimals· Itprovidesthatchingmaterialsforhouses· Leguminouspasturesfixnitrogeninthesoil.
Thedigestivesystem ofacowUsesofeachpartMouthForchewingfoodbytheactionoftheteeth.Itpassesfoodtothegullet.
GulletItpassesfoodtotherumen
Rumen(pouch)Tostorefoodtemporarilybeforeitisreturnedtothemouthforchewing.ItiswherefoodisfermentedItisthelargestofthefourstomachsReticulum (honeycomb)Bacterialactioncontinueshere.Foreignbodiesareretainedhere.OmasumItchurnsandgrindsfoodintofineparticlesWaterisabsorbedherealso.Abomasum (truestomach)Digestionbyenzymestakesplacehere.NB;from abomasum totherectum,digestionisthesameasinnonruminants.
TypesoffoodstuffsRoughagesConcentratesAdditives
RoughagesTheyincludehay(driedgrass),silages(preservedgreenpasture),greengrass,pasture,legumes,straws,maizestalks.
ConcentratesTheseincludecereals,oilyseedsandlegumes.
SupplementsTheseincludeproteinsandvitaminsaddedtofeeds.
AdditivesThesearedrugs,flavoursandhormonesaddedtofeeds.
Note:MaintenancerationsThesearefeedsgiventoanimalstosustaintheirusualfeeds.
ProductionrationsTheseareextrafeedsgiventoanimalsforproductionofeitherbeeformilk.
SaltsupplyAnimalsaregivensaltinorderto;
a)stimulatemilkproductionb)controlsomediseasessuchasmilkfever.
IntakeThisistheamountoffoodeatenbyananimal.CATTLEPRODUCTS· Meat· Fats· Hides· Bones· Cattledungandurine· Milk· HornsandhoovesGRAZINGGrazingistheproperuseofgrasslandbyanimals· Systemsofgrazing· Herding/freerange/opengrazing· Rotationalgrazing· Zerograzing
HERDINGThismeanslookingafteranimalsastheygrazebyaherdsman.Theherdsmanguidesanimalstogoodpastureandwater.
Advantagesofherding· Animalseatavarietyoffeeds.· Manureisevenlydistributedonthefarm.· Animalsarenoteasilystolenbecausetheyareeasilyandcloselywatchedby
aherdsman.
Disadvantages· Animalscaneasilygetdiseasesandparasites· Animalsmaystrayanddestroycrops.· Animalsarelikelytostarveifthelandissmall.· Animalsarelikelytoovergrazethepasture.
ROTATIONALGRAZINGThisisamethodofgrazinginwhichanimalsgrazeononeportionofpastureatatime.Therearethreemethodsofrotationalgrazing;
i) Paddockingii) Stripgrazingiii) Tethering
Paddockgrazing· Thismeansgrazinganimalsonsmallfencedplots.· Thesmallfencedplotsarecalledpaddocks.· Theanimalsareallowedtograzeinonepaddockforafewweeksbefore
theyaremovedtoanotherpaddock.
Illustrationofpaddockgrazing
Drinkingwaterforanimalsisfoundinpaddocks.
Advantagesofpaddockgrazing· Paddockgrazingallowsproperuseofpasture.· Itgivesthefarmertimetodootheractivities.· Manureisevenlydistributedonthefarm.· Paddocksbreakthelifecycleofticks.· Itgivesgrasstimetogrowback.· Itcontrolsovergrazing.
DisadvantagesFencingpaddocksisexpensivePaddockingrequiresabigpieceofland.
STRIPGRAZINGThismeansgrazinganimalsonsmallplotsseparatedbyatemporarywire.Thewiresometimescarriessmall(low)current(electricity)thatcontrolsthemovementofanimalsinselectedpastureareas(strips).Animalsgrazeinonestripatatimeuntiltheyhavegonethroughthepastureandbacktothefirststrip.
Illustrationofstripgrazing
Advantagesofstripgrazing· Pastureiswellused.· Parasitesanddiseasesareeasilycontrolled· Itrequireslesslabour
DisadvantagesMaintainingstripsisexpensive(costly)Itisonlysuitableforfewanimals.
TETHERINGThisisthetyingofanimalstoapegortreeusingarope.
Theanimalstetheredcanbemovedtoanewplacewhennecessary.
Advantagesoftethering· Itischeaptomaintain· Itdoesnotrequiremuchattention· Animalsdonoteasilydestroycorps· Animalsdonotgetastray.Disadvantages· Animalslackbodyexercises· Animalsmayberestrictedononetypeofgrass.· Ropesmayeasilystrangleanimals· Replacingropesduringtherainyseasoniscostly.· Itissuitableforfewanimals.· Animalsmaybeeasilystolen· Animalsmaybeeasilykilledbywildanimals.
ZEROGRAZINGThismeanskeepinganimalsinaspecialbuiltstructure.Waterandfoodareprovidedtoanimals.
Requirementsforzerograzing· Awellconstructedshade· Astore· Afeedingtrough· Awatertrough· Workers· Gardenwherefoddersisgrown· Chaffcutterforcuttingfoddercrops.
Illustrationshowingzerograzing
Advantagesofzerograzing· Feedsarewellused.· Collectingmanureiseasy· Sickanimalsareeasilyidentifiedandculled· Manyanimalsarekeptinasmallarea.· Animalshavelesschancesofgettingdiseases.· Animalsgrowfatandproducemoremeatandmilk.Disadvantagesofzerograzing· Constructingthestructureiscostly.· Feedshavetobegrownorbought.· Cleaningthebuiltstructuredailyistiresome.· Spreadofdiseasesiseasyincaseofoutbreak.
CATTLEDISEASESANDPARASITESCattlediseasesareclassifiedaccordingtotheircausativeagents(germ)andmethodofspread.Therearethreemaincausativeagents(germs)namely;· Bacteria· Viruses· Protozoa
Signsofsicknessinanimals(cattle)· Theanimalisdullandhasroughhaironthebody.· Theanimalcoughsandsneezes· Thereisdiarrhoea.· Theanimalhasdifficultyinpassingouturineanddung(faeces)· Thereisriseinbodytemperatureandpulserate.· Theanimallosesappetiteforfood(pasture)
Causesofsicknessofdiseasesinanimals· Diseasesinanimalscanbecausedbylackofsomenutrientsintheanimals
diet.· Dirtyenvironmentanddirtyfood.· Physicalinjurieslikecutsandwounds· Infectiousbygerms.
Signsofgoodshealthinanimals(cattle)· Theanimalfeedswelli.e.havegoodappetite.· Theeyesarecleanandbright.· Theanimalwalkssteadily· Thenoseiscoldandwet.· Thehairissmoothandshining· Theanimalsearsarewarm andalert.· Urineanddung(feaces)ispassedoutwithoutdifficulty.
Waysroutesofdiseaseinfectioninanimals· Directcontactwithsickanimals· Directcontactthroughfoodandwater.
Typesofcattlediseases· Bacterialdiseases· Thesesarediseasescausedbybacteria
ANTHRAX· Thisiscausedbybacillusanthracisbacterium.· Itisanacuteinfectiousdiseasewhichattackscattle,sheep,goats,pigsand
humans.
Signsandsymptoms· Oozingoutofdarkbloodfrom naturalopening· Deathwithin24hours· BlownupstomachwhenanimaldiesPreventionandcontrol· Treatearlycaseswithantibiotics· Carcassoftheanimalshouldbecompletelyburntorburied.· Donotopenthecarcassofanimalsthataresuspectedtohavediedof
anthrax.· Nevereatmeatofanimalssuspectedtohavediedofanthrax.· Vaccinateanimalseveryyear.· Reportsuspectedcasesofanthrax.
MASTITISItisaninfectiousbacterialdiseasethataffectsthemammaryglands(teatsandudder)ofcattle,sheep,goats,bitchesandhumans.
Signsandsymptoms· Milkturnswateryorthickclotswithbloodandpusinit.· Theudderandteatsswell.· Thecowrejectsmilkingandsuckingbythecalf.· Theaffecteduddergetsdeadandgivesnomilk.· Deathoftheanimalmayresult.
Preventionandcontrol· Treatearlycaseswithantibiotics· Milkoutteatsandmassagewithwarm water.· Ensuregoodhygienewhenmilking· Usedisinfectantswhenmilking· Usetherightmilkingtechniques
CalfscourItisaninfectiousdiseasecausedbybacteria.Attackspiglets,calves,kids,andhumans.
Signsandsymptoms· Profusesharpsmellingdiarrhoea· Dullnessandlossofappetite.· Slightriseintemperature· Suddendeathincalvesandpigletswithblownupandhardstomachs
Preventionandcontrol· Strictcleanlinessmustbeobservedincalfpens,kraals,pigstysetc.· Avoiddampwetconditions
· Treatinfectedcaseswithantibodies.
BlackquarterItisanacuteinfectiousdiseasecausedbybacteria.Itattacksruminantssuchascattle,goats,andsheep.
Signsandsymptoms· Highfever· Shivering· Lossofappetite· Lameness· Musclesareswollenandpainful
Preventionandcontrol· Vaccinateanimalsearly· Neveropencarcassofanimalthatshowssignsofblackquarter· Burnorburydeadanimals
PNEUMONIAItisaninfectiousdiseaseofthelungsItiscausedbyvarioustypesofbacteriaandviruses.
Signsandsymptoms· Difficultbreathingandcoughingduetocongestionofbronchioles· Nasaldischarge· Lossofbodyweight· Theanimalisreluctanttomovedullandsleepy.· Lossofappetite· Theanimalstemperaturemaybehighorlow.
Preventionandcontrol· Treatearlycasesofpneumoniawithantibiotics· Keepbuildingwellventilated,warm,andclean· Providesoftfeedsandwater.
Footrot· Itiscausedbybacteriaoffusiformisgroup.· Itattackshoovesofallhoofedanimals.Thisdiseaseisusuallycommon
duringwetweather.
SignsandsymptomsHoovesofanimalsswellmakingthem lame.Partsofhoovesmaycontainpusandsmell.
Preventionandcontrol· Treatearlycasesoffootrotwithantibiotics.· Trim affectedhoovesproperlyandisolatetheanimal· Provideanimalswithfootbatheveryweek.· Routinetrimmingandexaminationofthefeet.
BRUCELLOSIS· Itisaninfectiousdiseasecausedbybrucellaabortusbacteria.Itaffects
cattle,goats,sheep,andman.· Itisspreadthroughfoodcontaminatedwithdischargefrom infected
animals.
SignsandsymptomsAbortioninanimalsfollowedbybrownishdischargefrom thevaginaThetesticlesswellThereisstillbirthsincowsTheplacentaremainsintheuterus(womb)
Preventionandcontrol· Cullandslaughtertheinfectedanimal.· Vaccinateallyoungfemalesespeciallycattle.· Donttouchabortedfoetuswithbarehands.· Milkfrom infectedanimalsshouldbeboiledfirst.
Contagiousbovinepleuro-pneumoniaItiscausedbybacteriadischargefrom thenosesofinfectedanimals
PreventionandcontrolCullandslaughterallinfectedanimalsImposequarantineincaseofanoutbreak.Earlyvaccinationoftheherd.Thediseasehasnotreatmentyet.
TUBERCULOSIS· Itisachronicinfectiousdiseasecausedbymicro-bacterium Tuberculosis.· Itisspreadthroughinhalationofthebacteria.
Signsandsymptomsoftuberculosis· Lossofappetiteatadvancedstages· Coughinganddecreaseinmilkproduction
PreventionandcontrolPracticinggoodhygieneCullandslaughterinfectedanimals.
VIRALDISEASESThesearediseasescausedviruses,mostviraldiseasesare;
Rinderpest(Capitalletters)· Itisahighlyinfectiousdiseasecausedbyvirus.· Itattacksthemembranesofthealimentarycanal.· Itcankilllargenumberofanimals.
Signsandsymptoms· Highfever· Severedullnessandlossofappetite· Seriousdiarrheawithbloodstainedcowdung.· Themuzzles,noseandmusclebecomehotwithfastbreathing.· Rapiddehydrationresultinginemaciationwithsunkeneyes.
FOOTANDMOUTHDISEASEThisisanacutecontagiousdiseaseofruminantssuchascattle,sheep,goatsetc.itattacksthemembranesofmouthandcoronet.
Signsandsymptoms· Fever,dullnessandlossofappetiteforpasture.· Serioussalivationinthemouth· Lamenessduetowoundsonthecornet.· Painfulblistersaroundthemouth,udderandbetweenthehooves.· Emaciation· Reducedmilkyield.
Preventionandcontrol· Vaccinateanimals· Affectedanimalsshouldbeslaughtered· Applicationofquarantine.
NairobisheepdiseaseThisisanactiveviraldiseaseofsheepandgoats.Itistransmittedbythebrownearandbontticks.
Signsandsymptoms· Hightemperature.· Diarrhea· Nasaldischarge· Rapidbreathing· Abortioninewes.
Preventionandcontrol· Notreatment· Controltickstopreventthedisease.
PROTOZOANDISEASESThesearediseaseswhicharemostlyassociatedwithbloodsuckinginsectsandticksexamples;Nagana(trypanosomiasis),Eastcoastfever,Redwater,Heartwater.
REDWATERItiscausedbyaprotozoatransmittedbybrowneartick. Itattackscattle,goatsandsheep.
Preventionandcontrol· Isolatesickanimals· cullandslaughterthesickanimals· Addcoccidiostatinfeedsandwater.
Signsandsymptoms· Hightemperature· Constipationanddullness· Animalbecomesanaemic· Animallickssoil· Presenceofredbloodpigmentsintheurine.· Swollenlymphnodes.
Preventionandcontrol· Tickcontrolbysprayinganddipping· Injectanimalswithant-babesiadrugs.· Somerespondwithtetracyclineantibiotics.
EASTCOASTFEVERItisaseriousprotozoandiseasespreadbyboththered-leggedandbrownearticks.Itattackscattleonlyespeciallythecalvesarevulnerable.
Signsandsymptoms· Thereisrapidriseintemperature· Swollenlymphnodesespeciallyalongthedelap.· Thereisgeneralbodyweakness.· Difficultyinbreathing.
Preventionandcontrol· Burningareasaffectedwithticks.· Fencingfarmstopreventstrayanimals.
· Sprayinganddippinganimalsregularly.· Controlledgrazing· Smearinganimalswithacarcides· Detickingbyhands· Antibioticsandsulphurdrugsareusedtocontrolsecondaryinfections.
ANAPLASMOSIS(GALLSICKNESS)· Itiscausedbyaprotozoan· Itistransmittedbytheblueticks.
Signsandsymptoms· Theanimalgetsconstipation.· Bloodinurineanddung(feaces)· Theanimalbecomesanaemic· Thetemperaturemayfall.
NAGANA(TRYPANOSOMIASIS)· Itisaninfectiousprotozoandiseaseofanimalssuchascattle,goats,dogs
andhorses.· Inman,thediseaseiscalledsleepingsickness.Itistransmittedbyatsetsefly
andcausedbyagerm calledTrypanosoma(e.g.t.Virax,t.congolese,t.bruscei)
Signsandsymptoms· Fever,dullnessandlossofappetite· Anaemiaandemaciation· LickingofsoilbyAnimals· Swollenlymphnodes· Runningeyeswhichleadstoblindness.· Deathmayoccurafterseveralweeks.
Preventionandcontrol· Clearbushestocontroltsetseflies· Spraywithinsecticidestokilltsetseflies· Usingtsetseflytrapstokilladulttsetseflies· Treatusingdrugssuchasethidium.
NB;Tsetsefliesbreedinswampyandfrostedareas.Theydonotlayeggsbuthatchtheyoungonesinthebodyanddepositthem.
HEARTWATERItisaprotozoandiseasespreadbyticks(itisatickbornedisease)itattackscattle,sheepandgoats.
Signsandsymptoms
·Highfeverandlossofappetite·Animalmovesincircles·Animalsbecomerestlessandplacestheheadagainsthardobjects.·Whenitfalls,thelegskeeppeddlingintheair.
REDWATER
Cattleparasites· Aparasiteisalivingorganism thatlivesonanotherlivingorganism and
obtainsitsfoodfrom it.Or· Aparasiteisalivingorganism thatdependsonanotherlivingorganism for
food.· Theorganism onwhichaparasitedependsforfoodiscalledahost.· Aparasiteeatsfoodmadeforthegrowthanddevelopmentofthehost.
TypesofparasitesParasitesaregroupedintotwonamely;
i) ExternalParasites/Ectoparasitesii) InternalParasites/Endoparasites
ExternalParasitesExternalparasitesareparasitesthatliveoutsidebodyofthehost.Examplesare;ticks,tsetseflies,mites,lice,jiggersetc.
InternalParasitesInternalparasitesareparasitesthatliveinsidethebodyofthehost.Theyliveinmuscles,intestines,liveretcexamplesofinternalparasitesare;tapeworms,roundwormsandliverflukes.
Effectsofparasitesofcattle· Pestsliketicks,tsetseflies,mitesandfleassuckbloodfrom thehostleading
toemaciation.· Somepestsspreaddiseasestoanimalse.g.Nagana,Eastcoastfever,red
water.Etc.· Somepestscausedamagetotheskinofthehostmakingitoflowquality.· Somepestscausediscomfortandirritationtothehost· Someparasitessuckfoodandbloodfrom hostmakingitmalnourishedand
unhealthy.
Preventionandcontrolofcattleparasites.· Someofthem canbecontrolledbydippingandsprayingcattlewith
acqricides· Clearbushesandusetsetseflytrapstocontroltsetseflies.
· Draingrazingareastocontrolliverflukes.· De-worm animalswithde-wormingdrugs.· Keepanimalsawayfrom pastureswhicharefrequentlycoveredbyfloods.· Usedoublefencingofgrazingareasandkraalstocontrolticks.· Burnalltheoldpasture.· Practicerotationalgrazing
RequirementsforstartingalivestockfarmTostartafarm,afarmerrequiresthefollowing;a)LandThisistheplacewherethefarm islocated.itisusedforgrowingpasture,buildinghousesetc,thelandmaybebought,inheritedfrom parents,rentedorhired.b)CapitalThisreferstothemoneyandallthebuildingsequipmentsandmaterialsandtostartafarm.Capitalmaybeadonation,borrowedfrom abankinheritedfromsalesofpropertyormonthlyearnings.c)LabourReferstoallthepeoplewhoperform thedifferenttasksontheafarm.Thefarmerdoesnothavealltheskillsandtimeforeverythingonthefarm.Hemayemployworkers,hirelabourers,orusefamilymembers.d)ManagementThisreferstoorganizing,planningandguidingtherestoftheworkerstocarryouttheirdutiesinamoreorganizingwayandmakethefarm profitable.Thefarmermaymanagehim/herselforemployothers.e)MarketBeforestartingafarm,oneshouldensurethatthereismarketforthefarmproductssuchasmeat,milk,eggs,hidesetc.
f) FarmThesearewrittenaccount/documentsoftheactivitiesofthefarm.
IMPORTANCEOFKEEPINGFARM RECORDS· Tohelpthefarmerknowwhetherheismakingprofitsorlosses.· Forfairassessmentoftaxes· Toenablethefarmertomakedecisions· Incaseafarmerdieswithoutwritingwill,ithelpsthefamilymembersto
sharepropertyequally.· Toenablethefarmerknowthehistoryofthefarmer.· Helpsthefarmertoplanandbudgetforthefarm.
TYPESOFFARM RECORDS· Breedingrecords:Theseincludereproduction,birthordeathrates.· Productionrecords:Theseshowyieldsofvariousfarm producee.g.eggs,
milk,meatetc.Healthrecords:Theseincludewhenandwhichanimalsweresick,whattreatmenttheygotorwhichonestocull.
· Labourrecords:Theseincludethenumberoffarm labourers,typeofworktheydoandtheirwages.
· Fieldoperationsrecords:Thesearerecordsofalldifferentactivitiescarriedoutonthefarm ploughing,harrowing,plantingetc.
· Marketingrecords:Theseincludewhere,when andwhatpricesvariousproductsweresold.
· Inventoryrecords:Thisisarecordofallthethingsafarmerownsandthecashvaluesofeachitem.
· Incomeandexpenditures:Thesearerecordsofallthesalesandpurchasesofthefarm business.
· Feedingrecords:Theseshowtheamountoffeedsbought,consumedandmethodsoffeeding.
PRACTICESWHICHHARM CATTLEANDOTHERDOMESTICANIMALSATHOME
- Beatinganimals- Overworkinganimals- Nottreatingsickanimals- Dehorning- Castration- Branding
INTHEFIELD- Over beatinganimals- Overworkinganimals- Notgivinganimalsadequatefeeds- Improperdisposalofpolythenebags
IN TRANSIT- Overloadinganimals- Transportinganimalswhensomelegsarehangingoutofvehicles- Overtyinganimalsduringtransportation.
INTHEABATTOIR- Slaughteranimalsbrutally- Killinganimalsbybangingtheirheadswithhammer,axeorironbars- Handlinganimalsrudelywhengoingtoslaughter
RESOURCESINTHEENVIRONMENTAresourceissomethingorobjectwhichisusedforcertainpurpose.Someresourcesaregotfrom non-livingthingswhileothersaregotfrom livingthings.
Typesofresources
1.NonrenewableresourcesTheseareresourceswhichcantbereplacednaturallyoncetheyareusedup.
Examplesare:i)Mineralsoresii)Crudeoil(petroleum)iii)Coal
2.RenewableresourcesTheseareresourceswhichcanbereplacednaturallybeforetheygetexhausted(usedup)
Examplesare:i)Soilii)Wateriii)Thesuniv) Air(wind)v) Plantsvi) Animals
Resourcesfrom nonlivingthingsAnonlivingthingisonewithoutlife.
Example· Soil· Water· Airandwind· Rocksandminerals
a)SoilSoilisanaturallayerwhichcoverstheearthssurface.Soilisarenewableresource.
Howissoilusedasaresource?ItisusedforgrowingcropsSoilisusedforbuildinghouses inoursocieties
b)WaterWaterisarenewableresourcewhenusedcarefully.
Howwaterisusedasaresource?· Waterhelpsplantstogrow· Waterisusedtoturnturbinesforhydro-electricpowergeneration.· Waterhelpstodissolvefoodforeasyabsorptioninthebodyofanimals.
c)AirandWindBotharerenewableresourcesAirisamixtureofgasesWindismovingair.
Howwindisuseful· Windturnswindmillstoproduceelectricity· Winddriveswindmillstodrawwaterfrom theunderground· Windhelpsinwinnowingofharvestedcrops.
d)SunItisarenewableresource
Howthesunisusedasaresource· Thesunprovidessunlightenergytogreenplantstomakestarch.· Thesunprovidessolarenergythatgivesoutheatandlightenergytoman.· ThesunhelpsourbodiestomakevitaminD· Thesunhelpsingenerationofsolarelectricity.
RocksandmineralsAmineralisanythingthatoccursnaturallylikearockintheearth.Theyarenon-renewableresources.
Examplesofminerals· Crudeoil(petroleum)· Chalk· Clay· Copper· Gold· Tinetc
Mineralsarenon-renewableresources.N.B:Mineralsfrom whichmetalsaregotarecalledores.RocksArockisasubstancemadeupofmineralstightlypackedtogethertoform asolid.
Typesofrocksi) Igneousrocksii) Metamorphicrocksiii) Sedimentaryrocks
IgneousRocksThesearerocksformedwhenmagmapoursoutsidetheearthaslavaand
solidifiesTheyaregenerallyhardandimpervious.Examples· Basalt· Granite· Quartz
SedimentaryRocksThesearerocksformedfrom brokenparticlesofsandclayandmudsettingindifferentlayers.(strata)atthebedsofwaterbodieslikeseas,lakes,riversetc.Sedimentaryrocksaresoftandporous.Examples· Sandyrocks· Limestoneetc
FOSSILS· Fossilsareremainsofplantsandanimalsburiedunderground many
thousandsofyearsago.· Theyarefounddeepinsidetheearthinsedimentaryrocks.· Theseremainsareusuallyofbonesorteethofanimalsandroots,leavesor
stemsofplants.· Sometimestheremainsareofmouldofawholebodye.g.ofafish.
Usesoffossils· Fossilshelpgeologiststodeterminetheageofaplaceorrock.· Fossilshelpgeologiststoknowhowdifferentplantsandanimalshave
existedandchanged.· Fossilshelptotellhowlandlookedbefore.· Fossilsshowushowandwherethedifferentsedimentaryrockswereformed.· Fossilshelptotellwhattheanimalorplantlookedlike,whatitate,whereit
livedetc.
Importanceofrocks· Rocksform soil,whichisimportanttooursurvival· Rocksmakegoodmaterialsforbuildingandroads.· Theytellusabouttheearthshistory.· TheycontainmanyvaluablemineralsALLOYSAnalloyisamixtureoftwoormoremetalsAlloy Combination UsesBrass CopperandZinc - Decoratingornaments
- Makingwires,tubingcasesforbullets.
DentistAmalgam GoldandCopper,gold,copperandmercury
- Makingcoins.
Solder LeadandTin - JoiningmetalsBronze CopperandTin - Usedforornaments,bells,statuesSTEELSteelconsistsofCarbondissolvediniron.Differentalloysaremadefrom steel
Examplesofalloysmadefrom steeli) Manganesesteel
ItisamixtureofsteelandmanganeseThisisaverytoughalloy.Itisusedwherefrictionmaycauseweare.g.inrailwaypoints.
ii) NickelsteelItisamixtureofnickelandsteelThisalloydoesnotrust.Itisusedformakingcookingandkitchenutensilsandcutlery.
iii) StainlesssteelItisamixtureofcobaltandsteelThisalloyisusedtomakepermanentmagnetsbecausetheyretaintheirmagnetism overalongperiod.
Whyarealloysmade?· Tomakethemetalharder· Tolowerthemeltingpointofthemetal.· Tomakethemetalmoreresistanttocorrosioni.e.wearandtear· Toincreasetheelectricalresistivityofmetals.
FUELSAfuelisanythingthatburnstoproduceheatandlightenergy.
Examplesoffuels· Firewood· Charcoal· CrudeOil(Petroleum)· Coal
· Firewoodandcharcoalarerenewableresourceswhilecrudeoilandcoalarenon-renewableresources.
· Coalwasformedfrom marshyvegetablesandplantswhichlivedlongagoandwereburiedundergroundbutduetoheatandpressuretheychangedtocoal.
· Coalisburnttogetthermalelectricity.· CrudeOil(petroleum)isrefinedthroughtheprocessoffractionaldistillation.· Theproductsafterrefiningcrudeoil(petroleum)are;Petrol,dieseland
kerosene.· Theseproductsareburnttoproduceheatandlight.
· Petrolanddieselareusedtorunengines.· Oilwasformedfrom animalsremainswhichburiedundergroundlongago
andwerechangedtocrudeoilduetoheatandpressure
Resourcesfrom livingthings.· Alivingthingisonewhichhaslife.· Livingthingsincludeplantsandanimals.· Mostoftheresourcesfrom livingthingsarerenewableresourcesoncethey
arelookedafterproperly.
Howareplantsusedasresources?· Someplantsgiveusnaturalplantfibreslikecotton,sisal,juteandlinen.· Cottonandlinenareusedtomakeclotheswhilesisalandjuteareusedto
makeropes.· Someplantsareusedasherbalmedicinetocurecertaindiseases.· Someplantsareeatenasfoodbymanandotheranimals.
Howareanimalsusedasresources?· Someanimalslikemerinosheepprovidewool,usedtomakeclothes,suits,
blankets,carpets,curtains,bedsheetsetc.· Silkwormsprovidesilkusedtomakedifferenttypesofcloths.· Somedomesticanimalsprovideskinsandhidesusedtomakebags,shoes,
belts,etc· Cattleprovidehornsandhoovesusedtomakeglue.· Beeshelptopollinatefarmerscrops,providehoneyandbeewax.· Someanimalslikeoxenanddonkeysprovidelabour.
Conservationofresources· Conservationistheprotectionandpropermanagementofresourcesinour
environment.· Bothrenewableandnon-renewableresourcesneedtobeconserved.· Resourceslikeforests,wildlife,water,soil,rocks,mineralsneedtobe
conserved.· Conservationofresourcesisdonetokeepthem doerfutureuse.
Conservingrenewableresourcesi) Conservingrenewableresources
· Wildlifereferstoanimalsandplantsinourenvironment.· Manykindsofanimalshavedisappearedfrom earthandtheyareextinct.· Otheranimalsareabouttodisappearandwesaytheyareendangered.· Animalsmaybecomeendangeredorextinctbecausetheyarekilledfortheir
skins,horns,tusks.· Someplantshavealsobecomeendangeredorextinctduetotheincreasing
demandforwoodandlocalmedicine.
Advantages(importance)ofconservingwildlife· Somemammals,plantsandbirdsareasourceoffoodforman.· Someanimalsandbirdsarevaluedasculturalheritagebysomecountries
andclans.· Plantsarehomesofmanyanimals,birdsandinsects.· Treesorforestshelpintheformationofrainfall.· Mammals,birdsandtreesspeciesearnforeignexchangeforthe
governmentthroughtourists.· Plantsimprovetheatmospherebybalancingtheamountofcarbondioxide
andnitrogen.· Plantsprovideshadetomanandotheranimals.
Howtoconserveandprotectwildlife.· AnimalsareprotectedbylawintheirhabitatthroughtheUgandaWildlife
Authority(UWA).· Ahabitatisanaturalenvironmentorhomeofaplantoranimal.· UgandawildlifeAuthorityisadepartmentwhichisresponsibleforwildlifein
Uganda.· Theanimalsarebeingtakencareofinnationalgameparksandgame
reserves.· Banningthesellingandbuyingofwildlifetrophieshelpstoreducetheir
beingkilled.· Fishescanbeconservedbycontrolledfishing.· Somerareanimalsshouldbecaughtandlettobreedinwildlifeeducational
centre.
Conservingnonrenewableresources· Soilerosionshouldbecontrolled.· Soilshouldbekeptfertilebyusingmanureandfertilizers.· PlasticwasteslikebrokenJerrycans,polythenepapersshouldberecycled.· Vehiclesindangerousmechanicalconditionsshouldberepairedtoconserve
fuel.· Petroleum productsshouldbeusedwiselytopreventfurtherexploitationof
oil.
Conservingthenaturalvegetation· Overgrazingshouldbediscouragedbecauseitcausessoilerosion.· Bushburningshouldberestrictedtocertainareas.· Overstockingisdangerousbecauseitleadstoovergrazing.· Thegovernmentshouldlimitpopulationgrowthbecausemorepeoplemeans
morelandtobedestroyedforhousingandagriculture.· Cattlefarmersshouldpracticerotationalgrazingwhichlatercausessoil
erosion.· Afforestationshouldbepracticed.· Swampsandwetlandsshouldbedeclaredrestrictedareas.
HARVESTINGRESOURCESThisisthecollectionofmaterialsfrom theenvironmentforthepurposeofusingthem
a)Harvestingnon— livingresources- Obtaining sandfrom dryriverbeds:scoopingitwithspades and
machinery- Miningsandfrom theground
Harvestingminerals- Bymining- Fossilfuelinglikeoil- Bydrilling
Harvestingenergyfrom thesunEnergyfrom thesunisknownassolarenergy
- Itcanbeharvestedinthefollowingways- Usesofsolarpanels- Useofsolarcookers- Useofsolardriers- Useofsolarheaters
NB:Solarpanelstrapsunlightandconvertitintosolarelectricity
Solarheaters + cookerstrapraysfrom thesunandchangesintoheatenergyHarvestingwaterWaysofharvestingwater
- Itcanbecollectedfrom roofsusingtanksandbigdrums- Rainwaterflowingonthegroundisdirectedintodams.- Watercanbedrawn from wellsandbroughttothesurfaceusingwind
lossandelectricpumps.
Harvestingenergyfrom air- Windcanbetrappedandusedtodrivewindmills- Itcanbetappedusingsailtodrivesailboat+dhows
HarvestinglivingresourcesPlantsresource
- Handpickingripecoffeeberries,cottonballs- Pluckingtealeavesfrom teaplants- Readymaizecobsareharvestedbyhands- Bycuttingsisalleaves
Harvestingwood- Bypollarding- Bycoppicing
- Bylopping- Byselectivefelling
PollardingItisthecuttingoffofthetoppartofatreeforuse.
Diagram
CoppicingItisthecuttingoffofthemainpartofthemainpartofthetreestem leavingthestumptogiverisetonewshoot.
Diagram
LoppingThisisthecuttingofthesidebranchforuseDiagram
Harvestinganimalresourcesa)MeatAnimalsareslaughtered,skinnedandmeatcutofffrom thecarcass.b)SkinsandhidesAnimalsareslaughteredandskinscarefullyremovedfrom thecarcass.c)HornsThe hornsarecutorsawn offwiththe sawfrom theheadoftheslaughteredanimalsd)Milkitisobtainedbymilkingusingeitherhandsormachinesd)Honey:itisextractedfrom honeycombs.
THEENVIRONMENTWhatis environment?Environmentreferstoallthingsthatsurroundman.Thesethingscanbeairwater
,plantstemperature,fuel,peoplebuildingetc.COMPONENTSOFENVIRONMENTTheenvironmentiscomposedofthefollowing
- Water- Land(soil)- Air(wind)- Plants
- Animals- Temperature- Mountains(hills)- Minerals- Sun
TYPESOFENVIRONMENTEnvironmentisdividedintotwotypes:-
Biologicalenvironment (Abiotic/nonphysicalenvironment)Thisisthetypeofenvironmentwhichconsistsiflivingthingsegplantsandanimals
Physicalenvironment (abiotic environment)Thisisthetypeofenvironmentwhichconsistsofnon— livingthingsegmountains,lakes,rivers,temperature,wind (air)vapour.
FOODCHAINAfoodchain isthewayhoworganismsinanenvironmentgettheirfood.Intheenvironment,plantsmaketheirownfoodandarecalledproducers.Theorganismswhichdependonfoodmadebyplants(producers) arecalledconsumersareconsumersConsumersaredividedintothefollowinggroups
PrimaryconsumersTheseareorganismswhichfeeddirectlyonproducerseggoats,cattle,rabbits,sheepetc
SecondaryconsumersTheseareorganism whichfeedonprimaryconsumersegfoxes,dogs,lions
TertiaryconsumersTertiaryconsumerswhichfeedonsecondaryconsumerseg.leopards, manbirdsofpreyetc.NB:Inafoodchain,organism likefungiandbacteriahelpinreducingfoodtoitscomponentparts(decay/rot)arecalleddecomposersThesunisthemainsourceofsunlightenergyinafoodchainfrom whichenergyflows tootherorganism intheenvironment
IllustrationofafoodchainProducer— primaryconsumer— secondaryconsumers— Tertiaryconsumers— plantsgrasshoopers— lizard— Hawks
AFOODWEB
Afoodwebisamorecomplicatedinterrelationshipofhoworganism inanenvironmentobtaintheirfood.Afoodwebinvolvesmanyorganism inanecosystem howtheygetfoodfrommanyotherlivingthingsIllustrationofafoodweb
EcosystemAnecosystem isthecommunityoflivingthings(organisms)inahabitatplusthenonlivingpartintheenvironment.
AhabitatAhabitatisahomeofalivingorganism intheenvironment
DEGRADATIONDegradationisthewayoflowering(spoiling)thequality,stabilityandusefulnessof aresource.
EnvironmentdegradationIstheloweringthequality,stabilityandusefulnessof resourcesintheenvironment
Typesofenvironmentdegradation- Soil/landdegradation- Degradation/deforestation- Wetlanddrainage- Air/atmosphericpollution- Waterpollution- Wildlifedestruction(degradation)
CausesofenvironmentaldegradationTherearetwomaincausesofenvironmentaldegradationa) Humanactivitiesb)Naturalcauses
HUMANACTIVITIESTHATCAUSESENVIRONMENTALDEGRADATIONa)Mining/quarryingb)Constructionandroadworkc) Poorwastedisposald)Badagriculturalpracticesegbushburning,overgrazingetc
NATURALCAUSESENVIRONMENTALDEGRADATION- Soil erosion/leaching- Silting- Hurricanes- Tornados
- Whirlwind/whilpools- Earthquakes- Hailstones- Landslides- Floods- Tsunamis- Volcaniceruptions- Globalwarning
a)Soil/landdegradationThisisthedestruction/loweringthequalityorusefulnessoflandbyhumanactivitiesornaturalcauses.
LeachingIsaprocessthroughwhichmineralsaltsornutrientssinkdeeperintothesoillayerswheretheycannotbereachedbyplantsItiscausedbytoomuch rain.
Soilerosion:Isthewashing/blowing awayoftopsoilbyagentsoferosion.
SiltingIstheprocessbywhichfinesand,mudorotherthingsarecarriedintothewaterbody.
Causesofsilting- Soilerosion- Cultivationnearwatersources- Allowinganimalstodrinkfrom waterbodies- Swampdrainage- Burning/destroyingvegetationintheswamp
Effectofsilting- Itdestroyshabitatforanimalsthatlive liveinwater- Lowerwaterleveland sodriesoutwaterbodies- Destroyssourceoffoodforfishandotheraquaticanimals- Killsfishofotheranimalsandplantsinwater- Destroyseggsoffishandotheraquaticanimals.
DeforestationDeforestationisalsocalleddevegetaioniecuttingdownlargenumberoftrees/plantwithoutreplacingthem.
Causesofdeforestation- Populationgrowthleadingtoneedforlandforsettlement,farmingand
recreation
- Industrialization(developmentof industriesinanarea)- Wildfires/bushburning- Clearingforestsforfirewood,charcoal,buildingpolestimberetc
Effectsofdeforestation- Itleadstoreductionofrainfallcausing drought/desertification- Lossofhabitatfordifferentplantsandanimalspecies- Soilerosionleavinginfertilesoils- Siltingofwaterbodies.
WetlandAwetlandisanyareawhichhaswaterandgrowingvegetationthroughouttheyear
Examplesofwetlands- Swamps- Marshes- Bogs- Lakesandrivers
Importanceofwetlands- Theyarehabitatstomanyplantandanimalsspeces- Theycontrolfloodsbysuckingthewater- Theyfiltermuddywaterbytrappingtheimpurities- Theyregulatetheclimatebyinfluencingthetemperatureandhumidity- Theyprovidewater- Theyprovidewaterfordomesticandindustrialuse.- Theyaresourcesoffoode.g.fish- Theyproviderawmaterialsforarlandcraftse.g.clay,papyrusetc- Theyaresourcesofbuildingmaterials
POLLUTIONPollutionistheadditionof harmful(dangerous)chemicalsintotheenvironmentPollutiontakesplacenaturallyorthroughhumanactivities.
CAUSESOFPOLLUTION- Wastegasesfrom industries- Industrialwaste/chemical- Exhaustfumesfrom vehicles- Oilspillsfrom shipsintheocean- Chemicalsprays- Nonbio-degradablewastesegpolythene,glassplasticsetc
- Smokefrom burningtyres,oilorbushes- Dust
TYPESOFPOLLUTIONa) Airpollution - causedbysmokeandfumes/poisonousgases.b)Soilpollution— causedbyagricultural sprays,industrialwaste,refuseetcc) Waterpollution -Bysilt,oilspills,refuse,humanwasteandindustrialwaste washedintoit.d)Noisepollution— Duetotoomanyvehiclesorindustriesintheenvironmentloudmusicetc
EFFECTSPOLLUTION- Poisoningofsoilandwaterbychemicalwastesdumpedonthem.- Deathanddisappearanceofbiodiversity(varietyofplantsandanimals
livingthings)- Outbreakofdiseaseintheenvironment- Lossofsoilfertilityleadingtopooryields- Formationofacidrainsduetogasesfrom industriesandvehiclesasthey
dissolveinrain.- Destructionofhabitatsformanyplantsandanimals- Lessproductionofplantssuchasfibers,timbersfruitsandother
constructionmaterialsCONTROLANDPREVENTIONOFPOLLUTIONINTHEENVIRONMENT
- Usesofalternativeenergysourceeg.biogas,naturalgas,solarenergy,windpower,hydroelectricity
- Ensureproperdisposalofdomesticsandindustrialwastes- Educatingpeopleaboutthedangersofpollution- Usinggoodmethodoffarming
RESPIRATORYSYSTEMWhatisrespiration?Respirationistheprocessbywhichthebodyusesfoodandoxygentoproduceenergy,carbondioxideandwatervapour.Respirationtakesplaceinbodycells.Theby-productsofrespirationare;
i) Carbondioxideii) Watervapour
BREATHINGBreathingisthetakinginandoutofair.Oritmeanstheconstantexchangeofgasesbetweenanorganism andthesurroundings.Therespiratoryorgansinmanarethelungs.
Therespiratorysystem
· Thisdealswiththeuseofoxygeninthebody.· Lungsaretherespiratoryorganssituatedineithersidesofthechestcavity.· Lungsarecoveredinamembranecalledpleuralmembrane.· Fluidthatlubricatesthelungsandribsandsoreducefriction.· LungsareprotectedbythepartofthebraincalledRibcage.· Theribsareheldinpositionbytheintercostalmuscles.· Inthelowersideofthelungsisadiaphragm thatseparatesthechestcavity
from theabdomen;
Thestructureofthelungs,partsandtheirfunctions.
Typesofbreathingi) Expiration(breathingout)exhalation.ii) Inspiration(breathingin)inhalation.
Functionsofpartsofthebreathingsystemi. Thenose
Itcontainsmucuswhich/thatwarmsandmoistensairbeforereachingthelungs.ItcontainshairlikestructurescalledCiliathattrapgermsanddirtthatmayenterthenose.
Whathappenstotheairinthenose?Airisfiltered(cleaned)warmedandmoistened.
Whathappenstotheairinthemouth?Nomucustomoistenandwarm air.Nociliatofilterairbytrappinggermsanddirt.
ii. Thetrachea(windpipe)Ithasanepiglottisthatprotectstheopeningofthetracheawhenswallowingfood.Epiglottispreventschoking.Airentersintolungswhichcontainsthevoicebox.Insidevoiceboxarevocalcordswhichhelpinproducingsound.Tracheacontainsringsofcartilagethatpreventsitfrom closingandpreventssuffocation.Theexchangeofgasestakeplaceintheairsacs.
iii. TheairsacsThisiswheretheexchangeofgasestakesplacebydiffusion.
AdaptationsofairsacstotheirfunctionTheyhavewallstoalldiffusiontakeplace.Theyaresurroundedbyanetworkofcapillarieswhichbringcarbondioxideandtakeoxygen.
Theyaremanyinnumber.
Thestructureofthevillus
Compositionofairbreathedinandout.Typeofair Inspiredair ExpiredairOxygen(O2) 21% 16%Carbondioxide(CO2) 0.03% 4%Nitrogen(N2) 79% 79%Watervapour Less More
Whathappensduringinspiration(inhalation)· Thevolumeofthechestandlungsincreases.· Diaphragm andintercostalsmusclescontracts.· Ribsmoveupwardsandoutwards.· Thelungsincreaseinvolume
Whathappensduringexpiration/exhalation?· Thevolumeofthechestandlungsdecreases.· Thediaphragm andintercostalsmusclesrelax.· Ribsmovedownwardsandinwards.· Thelungsdecreasesinvolume.
Diseasesthatattackthebreathing/respiratorysystem.Tuberculosis BronchitisInfluenza AsthmaDiphtheria PneumoniaEmphysema WhoopingCough
Habitsthatimprovetheworkingoftherespiratorysystem· Avoidingsmoking· Havingregularphysicalexercises.· Goodfeeding/nutrition· Eatfoodwithlowandfat· Keepawayfrom dustyplacesetc.
DisordersoftherespiratorysystemChokingHiccupSneezingetc
RESPIRATIONINRELATIONTOFOODANDOXYGEN- Respirationisthechemicalburningoffoodinthepresenceofoxygenin
ordertorelease(produce)energy- Waterandcarbondioxidearereleasedasbyproducts.- Respirationtakesplaceinthebodycells- Food + oxygen carbondioxide
+ water + energy (ATP)(Starch)
Types ofrespirationAerobicrespirationIsrespirationwhichusesoxygen.AnaerobicrespirationItisatypeofrespirationwhichtakesplaceinabsenceofoxygenandinwhichfoodsubstancesareonlypartlybrokendown.Itproduceslacticacidinanimalsandalcoholinparts.Itoccursinmusclesduringexercise.
SCIENCEPRIMARYSIXTERM III-2016
SCIENCEATHOMEANDCOMMUNITY
WATERWaterisacolourlessliquidsubstancemadeupofhydrogenandoxygengases.Thesegasesareintheratioof2:1(H2O)
Sourcesofwater· Rainwater· Artesianwells· Hotsprings· Streams,lakes,rivers,swamps,ponds,oceans,andseas.
Propertiesofpurewater· Itiscolourless· Itiswithoutsuspendedmatterlikegerms.· Ithasnosmell· Purewateristasteless· Purewaterboilsat100oC(212oF)andfreezesat0oC(32oF)atsealevel.· Purewaterformslather(foam)veryeasily)withsoap.
Usesofwatertothebody· Watermakesuppartofbloodasplasma· Helpstodissolvethedigestedfoodforeasyabsorptioninthebody.· Maintainstheshapeofbodycells.· Coolsthebodyinform ofsweatwhenitevaporates.· Helpsinformationofbodyfluidssuchastears,saliva,urine,sweatetc.
Otherusesofwater· Fordomesticusee.g.cooking,washingetc· Fordrinkingbyman,mammals,andbirds· Forirrigationinagriculture· Usedinindustriesforcooling,washingmachinesandrawmaterials.· Usedtogeneratehydro-electricity· Usedbyplantsforphotosynthesis
Preparationofsafewaterfordrinkingi. BoilingWhenwaterisheated,itboils,toatemperatureof100oC(212oF)thistemperaturekillsgerms.
ii. FilteringThisistheprocessbywhichacleanorsterilizedpieceofclothorlocalwaterfilter.
Examplesofsolidimpuritiesfilteredaredirt,soil,stones,leaves,animalswastesetc.
NB:Filteredwaterisnotsafefordrinkingbecauseitmaybecontainingsomegerms.
iii. TreatmentofwaterTreatmentofwateriswhenchemicalsareaddedtokillgermsinit.Examplesofchemicalsusedtotreatwaterare;chlorine,waterguardandaquasafe.
AdvantagesofchemicalsusedinwatertreatmentThechemicalskillgermsinwater
Disadvantagesofusingchemicals· Theyareexpensive· Theydonotmakewaterclear· Theyaddsomesmellandtastetowater.
DECANTINGDecantingisamethodofremovinglargeparticlesofobjectsfrom water.
Decantingisdonebypouringwaterslowlyfrom onecontainertoanothersothatheavilyparticlesareleftbehind.Inthismethod,thethreepotsystem isusedtopurifythewater.
WATERIMPURITIESImpuritiesarecontaminantsorforeignobjectsinwater.Waterimpuritiesmakeitunsafeforuse.Impuritiesmaybesolubleorinsolubleorganic.
InorganicimpuritiesItconsistsofdissolvedmineralsaltswhichmakewaterunsafetouse.
OrganicimpuritiesTheseincludebacteria,fungiandprotozoaothersmaybedeadplantmaterialssuchasleavesandgrass.Examplesofwaterimpurities
- Humanwastes- Animalwasteslikeurine,dung- Herbicides- Insecticides- Siltfrom erosion
CLEANINGCLOTHESATHOMEOnemainuseofwaterathomeistowashclothes.ThisalsocalledlaundryStepusedincleaningclothesathomeSorting
- Itinvolvesselectingandputtingclothestogetheraccordingtocolour,intensityofdirt,natureofthefabric,useofclothesetc.
SoakingItistheputtingclothesinsoapywaterforsometime.Importanceofsoakingclothes
- Ithelpstoloosendirtanddissolvestains- Itsavestimeduringwashingasitalittleefforttoremoveit.- Itsavesagainsttearandwearduetoconstantrubbingwhilewashings.
WashingItistheremovalofdirtusingwateranddetergentRinsingClothesareputincleanwater.Ithelpstoremoveallsoapywaterfrom theclothes.WringingItinvolvessqueezingexcesswateroutoftheclothesNOTE:Woolenclothesshouldbedriedwithoutwringingbecauseitmayloosenthefabricandmakesthem tolosetheirshape.
DryingSomeclothescanbedriedoutcompletelyunderthesun.IroningIthelpstoremovecreasesfrom thewashedclothesandbringthem totheir
originalform
ACCIDENTSANDFIRSTAIDWhatisanaccident?Anaccidentisasuddenhappeningthatcauseharm tothebody.Accidentscantakeplaceanywhere.Theymayhappenathome,school,placeofwork,wherewegoforprayers,onthepitchetc.
FirstaidThisisthefirsthelpgiventoacasualitybeforehe/sheistakentohospital.acasualityisapersonwhohasgotanaccident.
BurnsThesearebodyinjuriescausedbyheat.
Typesofburns1.Burns2.Scalds
BurnsandscaldsBurnsareinjuriescausedbydryheat.
Causesofburnsa.Hotmetalsb.Hotflatironc.Acidsd.Glowingcharcoale.Hotcharcoalstovef. Fire
DegreeofburnsBurnsandscaldsaredescribedusingtheworddegreetotellhowseveretheyare;Therearethreetypesofdegreesofburns.Theseare;
a)Firstdegreeburnsb)Seconddegreeburnsc)Thirddegreeburns
FirstdegreeburnsTheseareminorburnswhichdonotform blisters.Ablisterisaraisedskinwithaliquidunderneath.TheskinistenderforseveraldaysTheskinisunbroken.
FirstaidPuttheburntareaincoolwaterimmediatelyaftertheaccident.
Why?Toreducethetemperatureoftheburntpart.N.B;Firstdegreeburnsneednodressing.
SeconddegreeburnsTheseareburnswhichform blisters.Theyareseverethanfirstdegreeburns.
Signsof seconddegreeburnsa)Blisterareformedb)Unbrokenblisters
FIRSTAIDIftheblisterisbroken,washtheareawithcleanwaterandsoap.Covertheskinwithabandageorcleancloth.
NB;Itisnotgoodtobreaktheblisterbecauseitmayleadtoinfectionofthewoundbygerms.Fats,oil,coffee,herbsordungshouldneverbeputontheburnbecausetheycancauseinfection.
Sugarshouldnotbeputontheburnbecauseitattractshouseflieswhichbringgermstothewound.Thevictim oftheseconddegreeburnsshouldbegivenplentyoffluidstodrink.
ThirddegreeburnsThereareburnswhichcausedeepburningoftheskin.Theskinisburntdeeplyanditappearsshinnywhite.a)Theskinisburntdeeply
FIRSTAIDPuttheburnareasincoolwater.Encouragethecasualitytodrinkalotoffluids.NB:Patientsofsecondandthirddegreeburnsshouldbegivenalotoffluidstodrink.
Why?Theylosealotoffluidsthroughtheburntskinbyevaporation
Preventionofburnsandscalds· Useheatinsulatorstohandlehotobjects.· Cookingfrom raisedplaces· Keeppetroleum productsoutofreachofchildren.· Donotallowyoungchildrentocook.· Refilllanternsorlampsafterputtingthem off.· Teachchildrenthedangersofburns· Tellchildrentoplayawayfrom fireplaces.
FeverandconvulsionsFeveristheconditionofthebodywhenitstemperaturegoesbeyondthenormal.Thenormalbodytemperatureis37oCor98.4oF.Feverisnotanillnessbutasymptom ofmanyillnessessuchasmalaria,typhoid,measles,etc
EffectoffeverItcanleadtoconvulsions
ConvulsionsTheseareuncontrollablejerkymovementsofthebody.Convulsionscanbestoppedifthediseasecausingthem istreated.
Firstaidforconvulsions· Removealltightclothesfrom thebodyofthevictim.· Putanobjectinthemouthofthevictim tostophim from bitingthetongue.· Givethevictim plentyofcolddrinksafterrecovery.· Takethepatienttohospital
FirstaidforfeverCarryouttepidsponging(coldcompress).Awetclothisputontheforeheadorchestofavictim.CautionDonotuseverycoldwaterbecauseitleadstoconvulsions.
FaintingItisthelossofconsciousnessforashorttime
MaincauseoffaintingReducedsupplyofbloodrichinoxygenandfoodtothebrain.
Conditionsthatcanleadtofainting· Anxiety· Heavybodyexercises· Extremesorrow(sadnews)
fear
· Prolongedhunger
FIRSTAID· Putthevictim inopenair.· Removetightclothingsaroundtheneckandchesttoenablethevictim get
enoughoxygen.· Raisethelegsofthevictim higherthanthehead.
Why?Toallowbloodflowfastertothebrain.Dontallowthevictim tobeovercrowded
DROWNINGThismeansdyingasaresultofhavinglungsfilledwater.Drowninghasnofirstaidsincethevictim dies.
NeardrowningItistemporarylossofbreathduetohavingoneslungsfilledwithwater.Apersonwhohasnearlydrownedhasonlyfourminutestolivethereforeafirstaidermustbeveryfasttosavehislife.
FirstAidRemovethevictim quicklyfrom waterShoutforhelpLiethepersononhisback.Carryoutmouthtomouthbreathing(kissoflife)
Howtocarryoutmouthtomouthrespiration· Makethevictim tolieonhisback· Tilttheheadbackwardsandkeephismouthopened· Removeanyobjectstuckinthemouth· Pressthevictimsnostrilswithyourfingerstoclosethem· Putyourmouthdirectlyintothemouthsothatthechestrises.· Stopabittolettheairoutandblowagain· Repeatthismanytimes(about15timesinaminute)· Continuethestepsuntilthevictim canbreatheagainbyhimself.· Placetheheelsofyourhandsbetweenthenavelandtheribsofthevictim· Makeaquickstrongpushforwardintotheribcage.
Howtopreventneardrowning· Acquireswimmingskills· Alwaysemptybathtubs· Coveringallseptictanks· Puttingonalifejacketwhentravelingonwater.· Fencingpitsthatbuildersusedtotrapwater
· Donotallowchildrentogonearwatersourceswithoutadults· Donotallowbabiestoplayinbasinsfullofwater.
Commondrowningplaces· Swimmingpool· Ponds· Streams· Lakes· Wells· Seasandoceans· Bathtubs
NosebleedingThisistheflowofbloodfrom thenose.
Causes· Overinhalationofdryair· Overblowingoronesnosewithcold· Takingfoodsonesbodyisallergicto.· Takingmedicationsforalongtime(aspirin,garlic,ginger)· Overinhalationofdryairdriesthebloodvesselsinthenostrilsandtheybreak.· Overblowingthenoseoverstrainsthebloodvesselsinthenostrilsandthey
break.· Takingaspirin,garlic,andgingerpreventsnormalbloodclottingandinstead
thintheblood.
FirstAid· Letthecausalitysitandbendforward.· Squeeze theuppersideofthenostrils.· Encouragethecausalitytobreathethroughthemouthtopreventover
strainingthebloodvessels.· Keeptheheadofthevictim higherthantheleveloftheheart.· Puttheicewrappedinatowelonthenoseandcheck
Why?Tomaketheliningofbloodvesselsinthenostrilsmoist.NB:donotmakethecausalitytoleanbackbecauseitallowsbloodtoflowbacktothethroatwhichmaycausevomitingorirritation.
Prevention· Keepingthenostrilsmoist· Takingcitrusfruitssuchasorangesandlemonstostrengthentheliningof
bloodvessels.· Takingfoodsoneisnotallergicto.
ForeignbodiesAforeignbodyisanyunwantedmatterthatentersthebody.Aforeignbodymayenterthebodythroughthe;
· Nose· Mouth· Anus· Eye· Ears· Vagina
ExamplesofforeignbodiesInsectsSmallstonesSeeds(coffee,berries,beans,g.nuts)DirtyordustSoil
ForeignbodyintheeyeObjectsthatenterintheeyeinclude;dust,smallinsects,soil.
FirstAidWashtheeyewithplentyofcleanwater.Usethecornerofasoftpieceofclothtoremovetheforeignbody.Takethevictim totheoculist.
ForeignbodyintheearExamplesSmallinsectsSmallseedsSmallstones
FirstAid· Makethevictim sitandbendtheheadtooneside.· Ifitisaninsect,pourcleanwaterintheearfortheinsecttofloatandcome
out.· Flashlightattheentranceoftheeariftheforeignbodyisaninsect.· Takethevictim tothehospital
ForeignbodyinthenoseForeignbodiesinthenoseinclude;
· Smallinsects· Smallseeds· Smallstones
FirstAidTellthevictim toblowhisnosehardandfast.
Takethecasualitytothehealthworker.
ForeignbodyinthethroatForeignbodyinthethroataremainlylargepiecesoffoodorsmallbone.Foreignbodyinthethroatleadtochokinganddeath.
Firstaid· Givethevictim anumberofsharpblowsintheback· Wrapyourarmsaroundhiswaistandpressthebellyupwardsstrongly.· Ifthevictim isunconscious,liehim onhisbackandmakeseveralsudden
pushesonthebellyusingheelsofyourhands.· Itthepersondoesnotbreathe,trymouthtomouthbreathing.· Takethevictim tohospital· Ifthevictim issmallerthanyou,turnhim overyourfoldedlegandgivesharp
blowsattheback.
Preventingaccidentscausedbyforeignbodies· Chewfoodproperly· Donottalkorlaughwheneating· Keepbeads,button,coins,andseedsoutofreachofchildren· Puttingonglasseswhilemovingonmotorcyclesandbicycles· Teachchildrennottoputseeds,coins,stones,andsoilintheireyes,nose,
ears,andmouth.
PoisoningPoisonisanysubstanceoncetakenintothebodydamagesbodyorgansorcausesdeath.
Wayspoisoncanbeintroducedintothebody· Throughfood· Throughair· Throughanimalbites(snakes,rapiddogs)· Throughinjections· Throughswallowing(orally)
CommonhouseholdpoisonsParaffin herbicidesRootpoison JikPetrol InsecticidesWormcides DieselAcaricides Drugs(Aspirin/chloriqune)
Signsofpoisoning· Rapidbreathing· Feverandsweating
· Feelingthirsty· Mentalconfusion· Comma· Vomiting· Lossofbalance
FirstAidGivethecasualityalotoffluids(freshmilk).
Why?TodilutepoisoninthestomachMakethepersonvomitincaseitsnon-corrosivepoison.
Howtomakethepersontovomit· Placingthefingerinthemouthorthroat.· Givethevictim watermixedwithsoap· Rushthevictim tothehospital
NB:Ifthecausalityhastakenparaffin,petrol,orbleach(Jik),donotmakehimvomit.
Why?Itcausesmoredamagetothestomachandgullet.
Preventingpoisoning· Keeppetrol,paraffinoutofreachofchildren· Keepdrugsoutofreachofchildren· Followthedoctorsprescription· Buydrugsfrom recommendedpharmacies· Disposeexpireddrugs.· Avoiddrugsmisuse
TheABCtechniquefollowedbeforegivingfirstAIDA-AirwayB-BreathingC-Circulation
TOPICALQUESTIONS1.Mentionthemainreasonforgivingfirstaid2.Distinguishburnsandscald.3.Howisthecauseofburnssimilartothatofscalds?4.Whyshouldaburnthandofavictim bedippedincoolrunningwater?5.Whyisitnotadvisabletobreakblistersontheskin?6.Howdoheatinsulatorspreventburnsandscalds?
7.Definefever.8.Listdownthemaineffectoffever.9.Explainthefirstaidyoucangiveapersonwhohasfever.10.Howwouldyouhelpapersonwhohasconvulsion?11.Whatisfainting?12.Statethemaincauseoffainting?13.Howdoesdrowningdifferfrom neardrowning?14.Whyshouldpatientsofsecondandthirddegreeburnsbegivenalotofdrinks?
15.Giveonedifferencebetweenfirstdegreeburnsandthirddegreeburns.16.Whyisitnotgoodtomakethevictim whoisnosebleedingtofaceup.17.Howdoesaforeignbodyinthethroatcausechoking?18.Whywouldyougiveplentyofdrinkstoapersonwhohastakenpoison?19.Whyisitdangeroustomakeapersonwhohasdrunkparaffintovomit?20.Mentiononewayofpreventingpoisoningathome.
SANITATIONDefinition:Sanitationisthegeneralcleanlinessofaplacewherewelive.
Waysofmaintainingsanitation· Constructionoflatrinesortoiletsforproperdisposalofwastes.· Diggingrubbishpitsandprovidingdustbinsforproperdisposalofhousehold
refuse.· Slashingbushesaroundthehomes.· Drainingawayallstagnantwatertodenymosquitoesbreedingandprotecting
watersources.
ConstructingalatrineortoiletAlatrineispitduginthegroundwherehumanexcretaisdeposited.
UsesoflatrinesTheykeepfaecesandurinewherevectorscannotbringthem toourfood.
Typesoflatrinesi) Pitlatrineii) Toiletsiii) Potties
PitLatrinesQualitiesofawellbuiltlatrine· Itshouldbe5to7metresdeep· Thefloorshouldbestrongenoughtostandonandsmoothtosweepand
clean.· Itshouldhaveaholebigenoughtoallowfaecesandurinetopassandsmall
enoughtopreventchildrenfrom fallinginside.
· Itshouldhavespiralwallsanddoorstoprovideprivacytotheuser.· Itshouldhavealidtocoverthehole.NB:Coveringcontrolsbadsmelland themovementoffliesiscontrolled.· Itshouldbeconstructed10metresawayfrom themainhouseand30metres
from thewatersource.· Itshouldbebuiltbelowthewatertableorsourcetoavoidcontamination.
Siteofapitlatrine· Itshouldbeatleast10metresfrom alivinghousetopreventfliesfrom
carryinggermsontofood.· Itshouldbeatleast30metresawayfrom awatersource(watertable)to
preventfeacesandurineseepingintowatersourceandcontaminateit.· Itsinkingrainyseasons· Shouldnotbebuiltabovethewatertabletopreventthefeacesandurine
goingintoandcontaminate.
TypesofPitlatrinei) Ordinarypitlatrineii) VIPlatrines
OrdinarypitlatrineItiscommoninvillagesItshouldhavealidtocoverthehole.
TheVIPlatrineItisaspecialtypeofalatrinewithaventpipetotakeoutsmellandascreenontoptotrapflies.
ImportantfeaturesofaVIPlatrine· Ventpipe:itletsoutbadsmell.· Screenontop:trapsflies· Spiralshapedwallsnodoorsforfreecirculationofair.· Ithasnolidtoletinair
HowtoconstructaVIPlatrine· Itshouldbeatleast10metresawayfrom anyschool,house,kitchen,and
otherbuildings· Itshouldbe30metresawayfrom anywatersource.· Itshouldbebuiltonsolidgroundandnotinvalleysorswamps.· Digapitofabout5-10metresdeepCoverthepitinanyofthefollowingways;i.Usestrongpolesofhardtimbersii.Metalbarsiii.Buildahouseontopofthepitfixanetorscreenontopoftheventpipe.
Placethepipeinitshole.
HowtomaintainaVIPlatrine· Thefloorshouldbesweptorwashedifitscemented.· Washorremoveanyfeaces,insects,cobwebsanddustfrom wallsand
cornersoftheroof· Trim grassandbushesaroundthelatrine· Whileusingalatrine,makesurethatthefeacesgodirectlyintothehole.· Cleanwithanysofttissueorleaves· Washyourhandswithsoapafterusingthelatrine.
Toilets(waterclosetsystem)Thisisabowlshapeddeviceusedfordisposinghumanwaste,whichisflushedawaythebowlbywaterfrom atank(cistern).
ComponentsofaflushtoiletsystemPartsinclude;i. Atankthatstoreswaterforflushingii.Aseatwithacoverforsitting.iii.Apipethattakeswaterfrom thetanktothebowlandanotherthattakesitto
septictank.iv.Aseptictank,anundergroundstorageholeforhumanwasteandwastewater
from kitchenandbathroom (i.e.Sewage)Thewastematerialsintheseptictanksarecalledsewage.Sewagefrom septictanksmaybecarriedawaybypipes(sewers)for
treatmenttomakeitlessharmful.Wherethereisnopipesystem,itiscarriedusingvehiclescalledcesspool
emptiers.InUganda,collectionandtreatmentofsewagefrom homesandinstitutionsis
donebyNationalwaterandsewagecorporation(NSWSC).v.Theleveriseitherpulledorpushedtopreleasewaterduringflushing.Flushtoiletsarecommonlyusedincities,townsandotherplaceswherethereis
pipedwater.
Advantages· Canbeputinsidethehouseandvehicles· Theyareeasytoclean· Theyareuserfriendly,evenyoungchildrencanusethem.
Disadvantages· Theyareveryexpensive· Theyrequirealotofwatertofunction· Theyareonlyusedwherethereispipedwater.· Theycaneasilygetblockedifhardobjectsareputinit.
Howtomaintainflushtoilets
· Keeptheseatclean,donotsteporurinateinthem.· Flushtoiletsafteruse.· Useonlysofttissueortoiletpaperaftercleaningyourself.· Donotusethetoiletwhenitisblocked.
THEREPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMGrowthisanincreaseinsizee.g.changesfrom larvatoadult.Developmentreferstogrowinggraduallyandbecomingmoremature.
ReproductionThisistheprocessbywhichalllivingthingsmultiplyandincreaseinnumber(becomemany)i.e.giverisetonewoff-springs(youngones)tocontinueagenerationofthespecies.
TypesofreproductionTherearetwotypesofreproduction
i) Asexualreproductionii) Sexualreproduction
ASexualreproductionThisisthetypeofreproductionwherenoreproductivecells(gametes)areusedtoproduceyoungones.
ExamplesofasexualreproductionVegetationpropagationinplantse.g.budding,grafting,layering,marcoting,stemcutting,sulkers,bulbscrown,slips,leaves,androotcutting,celldivision,binaryfissioninsinglecelledanimalse.g.Amoeba,bacteria,paramecium.
SexualreproductionThisisthetypeofreproductionwhichinvolvesjoining(fusing)ortworeproductivecells,maleandfemalegametes.Theunion/fissionofamalefemalegametesiscalledfertilization.Thenucleiofthetwocellsuniteandform aZygotedevelopsintoanewindividualorfoetus.Inanimals,themalereproductivecells(gametes)arecalledspermsandareproducedbythereproductiveorganscalledtestes.ThefemalereproductivecellsarecalledOvaandareproducedbytheovaries.
HermaphroditesTheseareanimalsthatcontain(have)bothmaleandfemalereproductiveorgans(TestesandOvaries)onthemselves.E.g.earthwormsandsnails.
TypesoffertilizationTherearetwotypesoffertilization
i) Externalfertilization
ii) Internalfertilization
ExternalfertilizationThisiswherethefemalelayseggsandthemalepoursspermsonthem outsidethemothersbodytofertilizethem e.g.fishandamphibians.
InternalfertilizationThisiswheneggsarefertilizedinsidethemothersbodyaftermating.
HumansexualreproductionDiagram showingthecrosssectionofthefemalereproductiveorgans(system)
ThefemalereproductiveorgansandtheirfunctionsTheOvary:therearetwoovaries.Oneontheleftandanotherontheright.Ovariesproduceova(ovum)thefemalereproductivecells.Oviduct(fallopiantube):itisthetubedowntheuterus(womb)from theovary.Itisthepassageforanovum totheuterus.Thisiswherefertilizationtakesplace.Uterus(womb):itisabaglikestructureinsidewhichthefoetusorZygotegrowsfrom.Cervix:Thisisaringofmusclewhichhelpstoclosethelowerendoftheuterustothevaginatherebyprotectingit/foetusfrom externaldamage.
Thestructureofgametesi) Femalegamete(anOvum)ii) Malegamete(sperm)
Thestructureofmalereproductiveorgan
FunctionsofpartsofthemalereproductiveorganScrotum:itisasacorbagthatenclosesandprotectsthetestes.Testes:theseareglandsthatproducethemaleseminalfluidscontainingsperms;Theylieoutsidetheabdominalcavitytomakethem havelowertemperaturethanthenormalbodytemperatureformaximum productionofsperm;Theystartproducingsperm cellsduringadolescencefrom age11-16yearsEpididymis:itisalongcoiledtubewhichstoresandthencarriessperms.Sperm duct:Itisanextensionoftheepididymisanddeliversthespermstotheurethrawherethey passandgoout.Prostrategland:produceafluid(seminalfluid)whichhelpstoneutralize(make
harmless/theacidinurineintheurethra.Italsokillgermswhichareinsperms.Seminalvesicles:itstoresexcesssperms.Erectiletissue(penis):itisaspongytissuewhichwhenfilledwithblooditerects(stands)toejaculatesperms.
OvulationThisiswhenmatureovaarereleasedfrom theovary.Anovaryreleasesanovum everymonthi.e.thereleaseofovaisdonealternately.
MenstruationThisistheperiodicreleaseofbloodfrom uterusasaresultofraptureoftheuteruswallswhenfertilizationhastakenplaceThishelpstowashandcleantheuterusinpreparationtoreceiveafoetus.NB:Thefirstmenstruationcalledmenarebestartsingirlsbetweentheageof9-15years.Thelastmenstruationperiodendataround45yearsandiscalledmenopauseNormalmenstruationtakes3-4days.Ittakesplaceafterevery28daysifallconditionsarenormal.Itmaybeinterruptedbyconception,strongfever,oranyabnormalitiesinthebody.
Careduringmenstruation· Topreventinfectionandavoidgerms,diseases,onemustbeclean.· Usesanitarymaterialssuchastampax, tampons,always,cotton.· Visithealthworkersincaseabnormalitiesarenoted.
Fertilization· Fertilizationtakesplaceintheoviduct/fallopiantube.· Immediatelyafterfertilization,thezygotemovestotheuterus.· Thezygoteattachesitselfontotheplacentawiththehelpofanumbilical
cord,thisprocessiscalledimplantation.· Theplacentasuppliestheembryowithfoodnutrientsandoxygenatthesame
timeitremoveswasteproducts.· Theumbilicalcordtransportsfoodtothefoetusandwasteproductsfrom the
foetustotheplacentatobecarriedawaybyblood.· Theperiodofpregnancyfrom conceptiontobirthiscalledgestationperiod
andlastsfor9monthsinhumans.· Developmentofthefoetustakesplaceintheuterus.· Theammoticfluidactasshockabsorberandprotectthefoetus.· Theamnion/amnioticmembraneprotectsthebodyandhadthefluids.
Thestagesofdevelopmentare;Fertilization - Zygote - Foetus -babyDiagram showingdevelopmentofthefoetusinuterusSexdetermination
Sexofachildisdeterminedbychromosomesfoundonthegametes/sexcells,thereareXandYchromosomesXXchromosomesareforgirlsandXYforboys.SpermscarryXXandXYchromosomes
Signsofpregnancy(goodandBad)· Morningsickness· Vomitingandnausea· Swollenlegs· Generalbodyweakness· Swollenbelly· Frequenturination· Fasterbreathing
Requirementsofanexpectantmother(pregnantmother)· Gooddiet(balanceddiet)forpropergrowthofthebaby.· Shouldavoidtakingdrugsliketobaccoandalcohol.· Shouldvisitantenatalclinicformedicalcheckupandadvice.· Shouldrakevaccineagainsttetanus(texonustoxed)· Enoughrestandsleep.· Wearmaternitydressestohavecomfort· Perform lightphysicalexercises
BIRTHANDLABOURAfterninemonthsofpregnancy,themotherwillgointolabourandproduceachild.Thisiscalledgivingbirthorparturition(childbirth).Labourreferstotheeffortofchildbirthshownbycontractionsoftheuterus.
Whatmakesababyafterbirthcry?Itisduetosuddenchangeintemperature(environmentchange).Cryinghelpstostartthenormalfunctioningofthelungsi.e.breathingstartsatbirth.NB:incaseababyfailstocry/breatheartificialbreathingshouldbedoneimmediately.Singlechildbirth:thisiswhenonechildisnormallyborntomother.Multiplebirth:thisiswhentwoormorebabiesarebornatthesametime.Twin:whentwobabiesarebornatthesametimebythemother.
TwinsIdenticaltwinsThisiswhenonefertilizedovum dividesnormallyandgrowsintotwoseparatebabies.IdenticaltwinsareusuallysamesexAlltheirphysicalaspectsarethesame.
Siamesetwins
Thesearetwinswhosebodyremainedjoined/fusedatonepoint.
FraternaltwinsThisiswhentwoovaarereleasedandfertilizedandthendevelopintotwinsfraternaltwinsarenotalwaysthesamesex.
MultiplebirthIftherearethreeormoreovareleasedandfertilizeditresultsintomultiplebirth.
ExamplesofmultiplebirthsTriplets:ThreechildrenarebornQuadruplets:Fourchildrenareborn.
BirthControlContraceptionThisisamethodofavoidinggettingmanychildrenyoucannotcareforproperlyi.e.havingthenumberofchildrenyouwantandwhenyouwantthem.
FamilyplanningThisistheuseofbirthcontrolmethodstogetthenumberofchildrenyouwantandwhentohavethem infamily.
ChildspacingThisistheprovisionofenoughtimebetweenthebirthofthedifferentchildreninfamily.
Functionsoffamilyplanningassociation· Iteducatespeopleaboutchildspacing· Educatespeopleaboutqualityoflifewhenchildrenarefew· Providespeoplewithfamilyplanningcontraceptives.
Reasonswhypeoplehavemanychildren· Ignoranceoffamilyplanningmethods.· Highinfantmortalityrare· Traditionalpracticesandvalues(customs)· Prestigeorfameandsecurity.
ProblemsofhavingmanychildrenIfafamilyhastoomanychildren,therewillbe;
· Inadequatefinancialresources.· Lackofenoughfoodforthechildren· Pooreducationforchildren· Lackofpropermedicalcare· Highinfantmortalityrare
· Motherssicknessasaresultofhavingtoomanychildrene.g.miscarriage,maternalanemia,fatigue,lowbirthetc.
Howtoavoidinfantmortalityrate(death)· Immunizationagainstinfantkillerdiseases.· Participatinginhealthcareservicese.g.healtheducation· Practicefamilyplanning.
Advantagesoffamilyplanning· Immunizationagainstinfantkillerdiseases· Itreducesriskofseriousdiseaseandmaternaldeath.· Itreducescasesofabortion/miscarriages· Itimprovesthehealthandwellbeingofthefamily.· Controlspopulationgrowth.
MethodsofbirthcontrolTherearetwomethodsusedforbirthcontrolnamely;
i) NaturalMethodsii) Artificialmethods
Naturalmethods· Abstainingfrom sex· Withdrawal/pullingoutbeforereleasingspermsduringsex· Bedseparationbycouples· Prolongedbreastfeeding· Themucusmethod(testingJell)· Usingcalendarormoonbeads.
Artificialmethods· Useofcondoms· Useofcontraceptivepills· Birthcontrolinjectionse.g.injectaplan,· Intrauterinedevicese.g.coils,spirals,diaphragm.· Useofjelliesandfoams· Sterilizationbyvasectomyinmenandtubeligation· Usingnorplant
MYTHSANDMISCONCEPTIONABOUTADOLESCENCEANDREPRODUCTIONHEALTH
- Amyth isatraditionalbeliefthatisnottrue- Misconceptionsarefalseideasorbeliefs
Mythsandmisconceptions TruthFamilyplanningcontraceptivemakewomenpermanentlybarren
Whenawomanfeelssheshouldbecomepregnant,shejuststopsusingthecontraceptivesandbecomepregnantagain
Familyplanningincreasesteenagepregnancy Instead teenagersareprotectedagainstunwantedpregnanciesandSTDs /STIs
Useofcontraceptivecauseshighbloodpressureandkillswomenduringbirth
Oncethewomenuse therightdrugsasadvisedbythetrainedworker.Complicationsarereduced
Useofcontraceptiveleadstoproducingbabieswithabnormalitiessuchashavingoneeye,earbeingblindorlame
Thisisnottrue
Familyplanningisagainsttheteachingofthechurch Atleastthechurchsupportsthenaturalfamilyplanningmethod.
Contraceptivesmakewomentoloosehairontheheadandgrowbeards
Thereisnoscientificproofaboutthis
ChangesduringadolescenceandpubertyAdolescenceAdolescenceisaperiodofdevelopmentchangesbetweenchildhoodandadulthood.Apersonatthisstageiscalledanadolescent.
PubertyThisistheperiodofphysicalmentalandsexualmaturityi.e.whenbecomesayoungadultcapableofproducing.Changesinadolescentsatpubertyarecalledsexcharacteristics
Therearethreetypesnamely;i) Primarysexcharacteristicsii) Secondarysexcharacteristicsiii) Emotional/psychologicalsexcharacteristics
Primarysexeducation(Basic)Thisinvolvesthedevelopmentofsexualorgansforreproduction.
PrimarysexcharacteristicsinboysPenisandtesticlesenlarge(increaseinsize)Thetesticlesstartproducingsperms(boysbeginexperiencingwetdreams.Internalorgansbeginproducingfluidlikesemen.
PrimarysexcharacteristicsingirlsThickeningofuteruswallsMenstruationbeginsOvariesdevelopandstartreleasingeggs(ovulationstarts)
Secondarysexcharacteristics(physical)Theseinvolvethephysicaldevelopmentofthebodyparts.
Secondarysexcharacteristicsinboys
· Voicebreaksanddeepens· Hairgrowsondifferentpartsofthebodye.g.penis,armpits,chest,aroundthe
mouthandanus.· Bonesandmusclesenlargei.e.aboybecomesmuscular.· Sweatglandsbecomemoreactive.
Secondarysexcharacteristicsingirls· Breastsenlargeandlookstenderandattractive· Sweatglandsbecomeactivemakingthefacelooksmooth· Thehip(pelvis)enlargeandagirlputsonalotofweight.
AIDSTheterm AIDSstandsfor;AcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndromesAcquiredmeansgotfrom outsidethebodyImmunemeansprotectedagainstorsafefrom disease,thebodyisalwaysprotectedbywhitebloodcells.DeficiencymeanslackorshortageorAIDSvirusdestroyswhitebloodcellsandthebodyhasshortageorshem.Syndromesmeanacollectionorgroupofdiseasesandsignswhichshowthepresenceofadisease.AIDSisapatternofdiseasesymptomswhichattachanddestroywhitebloodcellsleavingthebodyunprotectedagainstinfections.
CausesofAIDSAIDSiscausedbyaviruscalledHIV(HumanImmunodeficiencyVirus)commonlycalledAIDSvirus.
TransmissionofAIDSvirus· AIDSviruscanonlysurviveinthehumanbody.· Thediseasecanbespreadwhenbodyfluidsofaninfectedpersongetinto
contactwith thatofthehealthyperson.· Bodyfluidscanbeexchangedinthefollowingways;· Sexualcontactswithaninfectedperson.· Bloodtransfusionfrom aninfectedperson.· Sharingorusingsharpcuttinginstruments· From aninfectedpregnantmothertohernewlybornbabyatbirth.· From themothertothebabythroughbreastfeeding.
AIDSviruscannotspreadby;· Normalshakingofhands· Bitesfrom mosquitoesandbedbugs· CaringforAIDSpatients· Sharingcutleryandcookingutensils
· HuggingorembracingAIDSpatients· Cleaning,washingbeddingsandclothingofpeoplewithHIV/AIDSSignsandsymptomsofHIV/AIDSSigns· ThemajorsignsofAIDSare;· HerpeszosterlocallycalledKisipiwhichinflamestheskinmakingitappear
asscalded.· Chronicdiarrhoeawhichmaylastformorethanaweek· Suddenlossofabout10%ofthenormalbodyweight.· SkincancerwhichisalsocalledKaposisscarcomer,itcausesitchingand
leadstoscratchingthatleavesblackspots.· Swollenlymphglandsespeciallythoseoftheneckandarmpits· Oralthrushwherebythetongue,gums,lips,andinsideofthemouthplusthe
alimentarycanal· Chroniccoughwhichlastslong.
Symptoms· Tirednesswithoutanypropercause· Generalbodyweakness· Persistentfeverwhichisonandoff· Lossofappetite
PeoplewhoareatriskofgettingHIV/AIDS· Sexuallyactivepeoplebetweentheagesof15-45years· Rapeanddefilementvictims· Longdistanttruckdriversandtraderswhooftenhavecasualsexwhenaway
from theirmarriedpartnersforalongtime.· Prostituteswhosellthemselvesforsextomanypartners.· Barattendants.
EffectsofAIDS/HIV· ThesearemanyeffectsofHIV/AIDSoninfectedperson,familyand
community.· Theysufferpersonalpainfrom thedisease.· Thefamilyspendsalotofmoneyontreatment,careandfeeding.· Theyarestigmatizedorisolatedinthesociety.· Lossoffamilyincomeifthebreadwinnerdies.· Manychildrenareorphanedandbecomechildparents.
PreventionandcontrolofHIV/AIDS· ThereiscurrentlynocureagainstAIDS,sopeopleneedtoguardthemselves
againstthediseaseby;· ABCapproach· Havingonefaithfulsexualpartner· Abstainfrom sexualintercourseuntilmarriage
· AvoidpracticeswhichinvolverisksofgettingAIDSliketattooing,earpiercing.· Useofcondomsduringsex.· Screeningbloodbeforemarriageandtransfusion· Sterilizingmedicalinstruments.· Disposingsyringesandneedlesafteruse.
HowcanwemanageAIDSpatients· PeoplewithAIDSneedsupportinmanyways..· Eatingabalanceddiet.· Joingoodsocialgroupstorelaxandavoidheavywork.· Shouldgiveupbadhabitslikesmokinganddrinkingalcohol
DISORDERSOFTHEREPRODUCTIVESYSTEM· Impotenceistheinabilityofamanspenistobecomestifforerect· Lowsperm count· Istheinabilityofthetestestoproduceenoughsperms· Penilecancer· Thisisthegrowthofabnormalcellsthatform onthepenis
EnlargementoftheprostateglandsThisdisorderiscommoninelderlymenover50yearsofage
FibroidsTheseareswellingscalledcyststhatdeveloponthewalloftheuterus.
EctopicpregnancyThisisaconditionwhenafertilizedeggimplantsitselfintheoviduct
OvariantumoursThesearemassesofabnormalcellsthatform ontheovary
Cervicalcancer (cancerofthecervix)Thisistheconditioninwhichthecervixdeveloptumours
Inflammationoftheoviduct.· Counseling,isaspecialform ofcommunicationthroughwhichapersonis
helpedtocontrolhis/herfeelingsbyacounselor
Typesofcounseling· Pre-HIVantibodytestcounseling· Pest-HIVantibodytestcounseling· CounselingHIV/AIDSpatients
Importanceofcounseling
· ItpreventsAIDSvictimsfrom committingsuicide· Avoidsspreadofthediseasetoothersknowingly.· Toencouragepeopletocontinuetolivelongeranduseful.
OrganizationinUgandathatofferscounselingservicesInUganda,therearemanygovernmentalorganizationswhichoffercounseling.TASO:TheAIDSSupportOrganization.Italsoprovidefood supplementsfoodforpatients.AIC:AIDSInformationCentreACP:AIDS ControlProgrammeofministryofhealth.ItalsoprovidesHIV/AIDStesting.
Gonorrhea· Itisavenerealdiseasecausedbyabacterium calledgonococci(sing
gonococcus)· Itisspreadthroughunprotectedsexualintercoursewithaninfectedperson.
Signsinmen· Painwhenurinating· Dischargeofpusfrom thepenis· Painfulswellingonthetesticles· Rashandsoresonthegenitalareas
Signsinwomen· Slightpainwhenurinating· Sometimesverypainfulmonthlyperiods.· Vaginaldischargeofsmellypus· Paininthelowerabdomen.
Signsinbabies· Redandswolleneyes· Puscomesoutofthebabyeyes· Blindness.
Effectsofgonorrhea· Itleadstopermanentdamageofmaleandfemalereproductiveorgans.· Leadstosterilityinbothmenandwomen.· Causeblindnessinbabies.· Blockstheurethramakingurinationdifficultandpainful.
Controlandpreventionofgonorrhea· UsingtheABCformulaforpreventingAIDSandotherSTDs.· A-Abstainfrom sexualintercourse· B-Befaithfultoyourpartner· Condomsshouldbeusedduringsexualintercourse
· Seekearlymedicaltreatment· Stopplayingsexuntilyouarecompletelytreated.
SyphilisSyphilisisachronicanddangerousvenerealdiseasecausedbyabacteriumcalledSpirochereItisspreadbyhavingsexualcontactwiththeinfectedperson.
Signsandsymptomsvarywithstages· Painfulsorescalledchancreappears2-5weeksafterinfection.· Insecondstageanumberofsignsandsymptomssuchassoresinmouth,
throat,itchingskin,rashesappear.· Inthethirdstagethebacteriacauseheartdisease,paralysis,blindnessand
insanityormadness.PreventionandcontrolofsyphilisItispreventedbypracticingABCapproachInfectedpeopleshouldseeadoctorimmediately
Otherurinarytractinfection· Pelvicinflammatorydiseases(PID)· Infectedpeopleshouldseeadoctorimmediately· Itaffectstheabdominalandpelvicarea.
EpididymisSeriousinfectionoftheepididymisleadingtoswellingtendernessandpaininthetesticles.
GenitalherpesThesearesores(inflammation)ofthegenitalscausedbyviruscalledherpessimplex.
TrichomoniasisVaginalisItiscausedbyprotozoacalledtrichomonasThediseasecausesinflammationofthevagina
GenitalwartsThesearesoresinthesexualpartsandaroundtheanus.Theyarecausedbyavirus.
HydrocellItisanincreaseinquantityoffluidsinthesacaroundthetestisandepididymis.
OrchitisInflammationofthetestisduetoinjuryorinfectionoftuberculosis
CandidasisItisalsocalledthrashandiscausedbyafungus
SterilityInabilityofamantoimpregnantawomenorawomanfailingtoconceiveLymphglandcomaThisreferstoenlargelymphnodesspreadbysexualcontact.
UrethririsAdiseasethatcausetheurethratobecomesoreandswollen.
Prevention· UsingABCapproach· Seekingmedicalattention· Personalhygieneespeciallyofthegenitals.
PIASCYMESSAGESABOUTADOLESCENCEANDREPRODUCTIVEHEALTHPIASCY STANDSP — PresidentialI— IntitiativeonA — AidsS— StrategyforC — CommunicationtotheY— YouthThefollowingmessagesarepassedtousthroughPIASCYactivities
- Abstainingfrom sexuntilmarriage- LearnhowHIVistransmitted- HIVdamagestheimmusesystem- PeoplelivingwithHIVandAIDSneedcareandsupport- TestingforHIV- Managingmenstruation- Youneedtounderstandhowyourbodychangesatpuberty- SexuallytransmittedinfectionsmakeiteasierforHIVinfections- SayNotosexforgifts- Lifeskillshelpstoprotectyoufrom HIV.- Usingviolencetogetsexiswrong- YouhavetherighttosayNotoforcedmarriages.- SayNotobadtouches- Choosetodelaysex
- Avoidriskyplacesandriskybehaviours