PRIMARYSIXBASICSCIENCEANDHEALTH … · 2021. 2. 27. · PRIMARYSIXBASICSCIENCEANDHEALTH...
Transcript of PRIMARYSIXBASICSCIENCEANDHEALTH … · 2021. 2. 27. · PRIMARYSIXBASICSCIENCEANDHEALTH...
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PRIMARYSIXBASICSCIENCE ANDHEALTHEDUCATIONLESSONNOTES
TERM I.
THEME:THEWORLDOFLIVINGTHINGSTOPIC:CLASSIFICATIONOFLIVINGTHINGS
CONTENTCharacteristicsoflivingthings
THEYFEEDØ Various livingthingsfeedindifferentwaysie
Organism Modeoffeeding Typesof nutritionFungilikeyeast,moulds,mushrooms,puffballsetc
Saprophytically Saprophyticnutrition
Parasitesliketapeworms,hookworms,ticks,lice,mites etc
Parasitically Parasiticnutrition
Plants AutotrophicallyTheymaketheirownfoodbythehelpofsunlight
Autotrophicnutrition
Animals Hetetrophically- SomeHeterotrophicallyanimals
feeddirectlyonalreadymadefoodbyplantsieherbivores,omnivones,carnivores
Heterotrophicnutrition
DIFFERENCES INFEEDINGBETWEENPLANTSANDANIMALSPlants AnimalsTheymaketheirownfoodbythehelpofsunlight(Autotrophically)
Thefeedonalreadymadefoodbyplants(Heterotrophically)
THEYGROW.Ø Whatisgrowth?Ø Itreferstoincreaseinheightandsizeofanorganism.
DIFFERENCESINGROWTHBETWEENANIMALSANDPLANTSAnimals PlantsGrowthoccursequallyonallpartsofthebody Growthoccursonlyatthetipsofrootsandshoots
Ø Reproductionistheprocessbywhichlivingorganismsmultiplyorincreaseinnumbersastheygivebirthtoyoungones(offspring)
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MOVEMainly livingorganismslikeanimalsmove(locomote)todifferentplacesforsomereasons.Reasonwhyanimalsmovefrom oneplacetoanother
Ø Tolookforfood(pasture)andwater.Ø TolookforshelterØ Torunawayfrom theirenemies(protection)Ø Tolookformates(formating)Ø Lookingfortheiryoungones.THEYEXCRETEExcretionistheremovalofwasteproductsfrom thebody.
WHYDOLIVINGTHINGSEXCRETE?Togetridofwasteproductsfrom theirbodies.
THEYRESPIRERespirationistheprocessbywhichthebodyusesfoodandoxygentoreleaseenergy,carbondioxideandwatervapourHowdoorganismsbenefitfrom respiration?Theygetenergy
TYPESOFRESPIRATIONi)Aerobicrespirationisthetypeofrespirationwhichinvolvesuseofoxygenii)Anaerobicrespirationisthetypesofrespirationwhichdoesntinvolveuseofoxygen
THEYRESPONDTOSTIMULIAnimalsandplantresponddifferentlytocircumstancesintheenvironmentforsurvival,examplesofstimulitouch,heat,light,pain,gravity,wateretc
Livingthingsaredividedintofivekingdomsnamely;· AnimalKingdom· PlantKingdom· Prokaryotal(BacteriaKingdom)· Protoctista(singlecelledorganisms)· FungiKingdom
AnimalKingdomCLASSIFICATIONOFANIMALSwhytoclassifyanimals?AnimalsareclassifiedforeasyidentificationForeasystudy.Characteristicsusedforclassifyinganimals
- Externalfeaturessuchascolour,size,shapenumberoflegs,haironthebodyetc
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- Theirdifferentmodesofreproduction,respiration and movement
Animalsareclassifiedintotwogroups· Vertebrates· Invertebrates
Vertebrates
Vertebratesareanimalswithabackbone/vertebralcolumn(spine)- Thebackboneprotectsthespinalcord.- Allverterbrateshavean endoskeleton
GroupsofvertebratesVertebratesareclassifiedintofivegroups;
· Mammals· Birds· Reptiles· Fish· Amphibians
Vertebratesarealsogrouped basingonthebodytemperature;i.Warm blooded(homoeothermic)ii. Coldblooded(poikilothermic)
Warm bloodedi) Mammalsii) Birds
Coldbloodedi) Fishii) Reptilesiii) Amphibians
MAMMALSMammalsarevertebrateswhichhavemammaryglandsandsuckleyoungonesonbreastmilk
Characteristicsofmammals· Mammalsarewarm blooded· Mostofthem furontheirbodies· Mostofthem givebirthtolivingyoungones.· Theyfeedtheiryoungonesonbreastmilk
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· Theybreathethroughthelungs.· Theirheartsaredividedintofourchambers
Groupsofmammals· Primates(mostadvanced/fingeredmammals)· Ungulates(hoofedmammals)· Carnivorousmammals(flesheaters)· Rodents(gnawingmammals)· Insectivorous(insecteaters)· Pouchedmammals(marsupials)· Flyingmammals(chiroptera)· Egglayingmammals(monotremes)· Seamammals(cetaceans)
Primates(fingeredmammals)Thesearethemostadvancedgroupofmammals.Characteristics· Theyhavewelldevelopedbrain· Theyusefrontlimbsforholdingandhindlimbsforwalking.· Theyhavefivefingersoneachhandandfivetoesoneachfoot.· Theyareomnivorousi.e.theyfeedonbothfleshandvegetables.· Theyhavewelldevelopedsetofallthefourtypesofteethi.e.incisors,
canines,premolarsandmolars(32teeth)
ExamplesofprimatesMan,monkeys, gorillas,baboon,bushbaby,chimpanzee,etc.Theterm todescribegorillas,baboons,bushbabies,chimpanzeesisapes
Ungulates(hoofedmammals)Allmammalsinthisgroupareherbivorousi.e.theyfeedonvegetation.Ungulatesaredividedintotwosub-groups
i) Eventoedungulatesii) Oddtoedungulates
EventoedungulatesTheyinclude;Okapi,deer,pigs,cattle,giraffe,sheep,antelopes,hippopotamusEventoedungulatesarefurthersubdividedintotwo;
i) Ruminantsii) Nonruminants
RuminantsTheseareungulateswithfourstomachsandchewcuds.Mostofthem havehornswhichtheyuseforprotection.Examples· Cattle
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· Goats· Sheep· Camel
Antelopeetc
Nonruminants· Theseareungulateswhichdonotchewcudbuthaveacompletedentition.· Theyhavewelldevelopedcanineswhichtheyuseforprotection
Examplesinclude;Pigs,hippopotamus,warthog.
OddtoedungulatesThenumberoftoesisalwaysoneorthreetoese.g.oneinhorse,donkey,ZebraandthreeinelephantandRhino.
CarnivorousmammalsCharacteristicsofcarnivorousanimals· Theyarestrongmammals· Theyhavewelldevelopedcanineteethfortearingfleshoftheirprey.· Theyhavesharpclawsforholding,killingandtearingtheirprey.· Theyhaveaverygoodspeed,goodsenseofsmell,keeneyesightandgood
hearing,sotheyevenhuntatnight· Theirfeethavesoftpadsthereforetheycanrunaftertheirpreywithout
makingnoise.
Carnivorousmammalsaredividedintotwofamilies;a)Dogfamily— Faceresemblesthatofadogb)Catfamily— faceresemblesthatofacat.
Examplesofthedogfamilyinclude;Domesticdog,hyena,jackal,foxetcExamplesofthecatfamilyinclude;lion,leopard,tiger,cheetah,mangoose,domesticcat.Somecarnivorousarescavengerse.g.hyena,jackal.Gnawingmammals(Rodents)· Thesearemammalswhichhavewelldevelopedincisorsusedforbitingand
chewingpowerfullyandrapidly.· Theydonthavecanines.· Mostrodentsareherbivores(vegetarians)
Examplesinclude;Rats,squirrels,mice,rabbits,hares,porcupines,guineapigsandmoles.Insecteatingmammals(insectivores)· Thesearemammalswhichfeedoninsects.· Theyhaveasensitivesnout forsmellingandstrongclawsfordigging.
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· Theyarenocturnali.e.theymoveandhuntatnightandsleepduringday.· Examplesinclude;Hedgehog,elephantshrew,Aardvark,antbeare.t.c· Ahedgehogisananimalwithspinesonitsbody.Whenthreatened,itrolls
itselfupintoaball.
Flyingmammals(chiroptera)Batsaretheonlytrueflyingmammals.Theyhaveafoldskinattachedtotheforelimbwhichactaswings.Therearethreemaintypesofbats;
a)Insecteatingbats:Thesearehelpfultomanbecausetheyeatmanyharmfulinsectslikemosquitoes.
b)Fruiteatingbats:-Thesearedangerousbecausetheyeatourfruits.c)Bloodsuckingbats(vampires)theysuckbloodfrom largeanimalslike
horses,cows,buffaloesetc.batsarenocturnali.e.theymoveandhuntatnightandsleepduringday.Theycanfindtheirfoodatnightincompletedarknessbyusingechoesfrom thesoundtheyproduce.
Pouchedmammals(marsupials)Examplesoftheseinclude;Kangaroo,KoalabearandWallabiesMarsupialsarefoundinAustraliaandsouthAmerica.
Egglayingmammals(monotremes)· Thesearethemostprimitiveintheclassofmammalsbecause;· Theyresemblebirdsandreptilesinthattheylayeggsandalsohavebeaks
similartothoseofbirds.· Theyhavecharacteristicsofbirds,mammalsandreptiles.· Monotremesareregardedasmammalsbecausetheyfeedtheiryoungones
onmilkfrom themammaryglandsandforthecaretheygivetotheiryoungonesafterhatching.
· Examplesinclude;theduckbilledplatypusandthespinyanteater(echina)ofAustralia
Seamammals(cetaceans)· Thesearemammalswhichliveinthesea.· Theydonthavegillsbuttheybreathebymeansoflungs· Theyhavealayeroffatsundertheskincalledblubbertokeepthem warm.· Theyhaveahighlevelofintelligencenexttoprimates· Theyhavemammaryglands· Theygivebirthtolivingyoungonesandsucklethem onmilkfrom the
mammaryglands.· Mostseamammalshavefur.Examplesinclude;Bluewhale,Sperm whale,porpoisesseals,dolphinse.t.c
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BIRDSCharacteristicsofbirds· Theirbodiesarestreamlinedi.e.pointedatthefrontandback.· Theirbodiesarecoveredwithfeatherswhichtheymoulteveryyear.· Theirbonesarehollowi.e.donothavebonemarrow.· Theyhavescalesontheirlegs· Theyarewarm blooded· Theybreathebymeansoflungs· Theirfrontlimbsaremodifiedaswings· Theyhavenoteethbuthavehornybeaks.· Theireyeshavethreelidsthelower,upperandnictatingmembrane.· Theylayshelledeggswhicharefertilizedinternally· Theycarefortheiryoungones.· Manyofthem canfly.
ExternalfeaturesofabirdFeatures,alimentarycanalofabird,reproductioninbirdReferstoP.5(term work)· Feedinghabitsinbirds· Birdshavenoteeth· Theyhaveahornybeak· Theshapeofthebeakvarieswiththetypeofthefoodeaten.
Classificationofbirds· Birdshaveanumberofspecialadaptationfeatures.· Theyaregroupedaccordingtothetypeabeakandfeet(claws)theyhave.· Somebirdsaregroupedaccordingtothetypeoffoodtheyeat.
Someofthegroupsare;· Birdsofprey· Perchingbirds· Scratchingbirds· Swimmingbirds· Wadingbirds· Flightless(walking)birds· Climbingbirds· Scavengerbirds1.Birdsofprey· Theyarecarnivorousbirdsthathuntandkilltheirprey.e.g.rats,fish,mice,
lizard,chickene.t.c· Theyhavestrongeyesighttospottheirpreyevenwhentheyareflying· Theyhavestrongsharp,hookedbeaksfortearingtheprey.· Theyhavestrongsharpcurvedtalons(claws)forgrippingandkillingtheprey.Examplesinclude;Hawks,eagles,secretarybirds,owls,kites,falcons,kingfisher
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etc
StructureofthebeakandclawsPerchingbirdsThesearebirdswhichhavethreetoespointedforwardandonetoepointedbackward. Thenatureofthetoestheyhavearesuitableforperchingontreebranches
Typesofperchingbirdsi) Seedeaters
Thesehaveshortstrongconicalbeakssuitableforbreakingupseedse.g.pigeon,doves,weaverbirdsfinchesetc
Structureofthebeakandfoot
ii) InsecteatersTheyhavestoutnarrowbeaksforpickinguptheinsectsfrom thebarkoftrees.Examplesinclude;Sparrows,robbins,swallows,andswift,beeeatersetc.Swallowsandswiftshaveshortandwideopenbeakswhichhelpthem tocatchinsectsevenwhenflying.
iii) Honeysucker/nectareaterThosehavethinlongbeakswhichareslightlycurved.Example,Thesunbird.
Structureofthebeak
FruiteaterThosehavealongstoutbeakforcollectingfruitsExample,HornbillStructureofthebeak
Scratchingbirds· Thesebirdsfeedonseedsandinsectswhichtheyfindbyscratchingtheearth.· Theyhaveshort,strong,firm pointedbeaksforpickingupthingsfrom the
ground.· Theyhavestrongfeetwiththicktoesandbluntnails.· Theycanwalkeasily· Theirbodyisheavyandwingsareweak.Examplesinclude;domesticfowlsi.e.chicken,turkey,guineafowl.
Structureofthebeakandfoot
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Swimmingbirds· Theyhavewebbedfeetwhichactlikepaddles· Theyhavebroadbreastbone.· Theirskinhasmanyoilglandswhichproduceoiltoprotecttheirbodyagainst
water.· Theyhavebeakswithsmallcrossplatesonthemarginswhichhelpthem to
sievefoodfrom themud.· Examplesinclude;Ducks,swans,geese,penguins,seagulls,pelicans
StructureofthefoodandbeakFlightlessbirds· Thesearebirdswhichareunabletoflybutcanrunveryfast.· Theyhaveweakandsmallwingscomparedtothebodysize.· Anostrichisthelargestandfastestflightlessbird.ItrunsfasterthanahorseExamplesinclude;Kiwi,penguins,ostriches,emu,rhea,andcassowary.Climbingbirds· Theyhavetwotoespointedforwardandothertwobackwards.· Thisarrangementhelpsthem inclimbingtolookforseedsandinsects.· Theyliveintreesandrunaboutonbranchesoftrees.· Examplesinclude;Aparrot,awoodpecker.
Thestructureofthebeakandfoot
Scavengerbirds· Thesebirdsfeedonrottenfleshkilledbyotheranimals,rottenmeatandfish.· Theyusuallyhavebeakssimilartothoseofbirdsprey.· Theyareusefulbecausetheyclearmostofthedeaddecayingmatterwhich
mayotherwisebeasourceofmanydiseases.Examplesinclude;vulture,crow,andmaraboustorketc
Thewaysinwhichbirdsareadaptedforflying· Theyarestreamlinedtoreducefrictionsothattheycanmovethroughair
easily.· Theyhavehollowboneswhichreduceweightandtheirbackbonesare
fused(joined)togivethem rigidity.· Theyhavestrongattachmentoftheirpowerfulandstrongfrontmuscles
whichareusedformovingwings· Theirforelimbsaremodifiedintowings· Theyhavenopinnatoabstracttheflowofair.· Theyhavegoodeyesighttoseewellfrom longdistancesandjudgethe
distanceaccurately· Theyhaveanictitatingmembranewhichcovertheeyeandprotectthem
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againstmovingairduringflight.· Theirbodiesarecoveredwithflightfeathers.· Theyhaveaquickdigestivesystem
NB:somedomesticfowlsareunabletoflyhighbecausetheyhavealotofbonemarrowwhichmakethem heavy.
Advantagesofbirds· Theyaresourcesoffood· Thefeathersareusedfordecorationslike hats,suits,handbagsinstaffing
mattress· Bonesareusedformakingglue.· Somebirdskeptforcustomarypurposelikemakingsacrificesandpaying
dowry.· Theyaresourceofincometofarmers.· Theyattracttourist· Somebirdspollinateflowerslikethesunbirds,theypollinatewhencollecting
nectar.· Somehelptocleanourenvironmentlikethevultures,crowsandmarabou
storks.
Disadvantagesofbirds· Manybirdsdamageourcrops.· Somebirdscauseaccidenttorunwaysattheairport.· Theymakealotofnoiselikeweaverbirds
REPTILESMostreptilesareaviparousanimalsi.e.theylayeggs
Characteristicsofreptiles· Theyarecoldbloodedanimals· Theybreathebymeansoflungs· Theirskiniscoveredwithscales· Theirteetharesimilar· Theyhaveathreechambered hearti.e.twoaauriclesandoneventricle· Theyhavefourlimbswithclawsapartfrom asnake· Theyhaveexternalears.Thetympanicmembrane(eardrum)isusually
situatedbelowthesurfaceofthebody.· Theylayeggswhicharefertilizedinternally.Theshellsofeggsareeither
leatheryorquitehardmadeofcalcium carbonate.· Theyusuallydontlookaftertheiryoungones.
Classificationofreptiles
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Reptilesaredividedintothefollowinggroupsi) Snakesii) Lizardsiii) Turtles,tortoises,andterrapinsiv) CrocodilesandAligators
Snakes· Theyhavenolimbs· Theyarecarnivorousanimals· Theireyesarewithouteyelidsbuteacheyeisprotectedbyaimmovable
transparentmembrane· Theyhaveaforkedtonguewhichactsasasenseorganforsmellandtaste.· Theyhavealargenumberofribsandvertebrates.· Theyshed(moult)theirskinafteracertainperiod.· Theirbackwardpointedteethpreventthepreyfrom escapingfrom the
mouth.· Somesnakehavepoisonfangswhichhaveadeepcanalthroughwhich
poisonpasses.· Theribsandlargescalesontheundersideoftheirbodyalsohelpthem to
move.· Theyhideormoveawaywhendisturbed.
ClassificationofsnakeSnakesaregroupedintothreemaingroupsnamely;
· Poisonoussnakes· Constrictors· Non-poisonoussnakes
PoisonoussnakesTheyhavetwolongteethcalledfangsnearthefrontofthemouthtoinjectvenom.ExampleofpoisonoussnakestheCobra(whichbite/spitpoison)
· Mamba(black/green)· Puffudder/nightudder· Viper
Nonpoisonoussnakes· Thesedonothavefangsandthesnakevenom poison.· Theyhavesoliduniform teeth.
ConstrictorsThesetypeofsnakeskilltheirpreybycrushingandsuffocatingthem usingmuscles.Constrictorslicktheirpreytomaketheirsmoothandslippery.
Examplesofconstrictors
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· ThePython· Anaconda· Boaconstrictor
Firstaidforthesnakebite· Applyblackstoneontheinjuredparttosuckthepoisonaftermakingcuts· Stayquietandrestthebittenpartsothatthevenom doesnotspread.· Tieabandage/tourniquetbetweentheheartandthebittenparttolimitthe
flowofpoisonedbloodtotheheart.· Cutbetweenthefangmarksandsuckoutthevenom ifyoudonothave
woundsinthemouth.· Takethevictim tothenearesthealthunittoreceiveantivenom injection.Howtotellthatapersonhasbeenbittenbypoisonoussnake.Itleavestwofangmarksonthebittenareathroughwhichsomebloodoozesout.
LIZARDSTheyhavefourlimbsandtailwhichcangrowwhenitscut.Examplesoflizards· Sinks· Geckos· Chameleons· Agamalizards· Monitorlizards· Iguanalizards
Chameleonsareslowmovingreptileswhichprotectthemselvesbychangingcolour.(camouflaging)Theyusetheirlongstickytonguestocapturetheirprey.Theyhatchtheireggsinsidethebodyandlayyoungones
Tortoises,turtles,terrapins· Thesearereptilesthathavehardshellsontheirbacks· Turtlesandterrapinshavetheirfeetmodifiedintoflippersforswimmingin
water.· Tortoisesmovebywalkingusingtheirstronglegs.· Theyalllaytheireggsinsandonthebankofwater.
Diagram showingtortoiseandaturtleNB:tortoisehaveraisedshellswhileturtleshaveflatshells,
Crocodilesandalligators· Theyarethelargestofreptiles· Theyliveinwaterandcomeouttosleepinthesandoftheriverbanks.· Theyhavestrongtailsforswimmingandattackingtheirenemies/prey· Theyhaverowsofteethintheirlongjawsforgrippingtheirprey
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· Theyproducebylayingeggswhichareburiedundersandatthebankoflakesorrivers.
DiagramImportanceofreptilestoman· Theyhavegoodskinswhichisformakingdrums,belts,andshoes.· Theirskinscanbesoldastrophiestogetincome/money.· Theyaresourcesoffoodtoman.· Somereptileslikegeckosandlizardshelptoeatinsectvectorslike
mosquitoesinthehouses.· Theyareusedforstudyandresearch· Somelikecrocodilesactastouristattraction.
FISHFishbelongstothegroupofvertebratescalledpisces
Characteristicsoffish· Theyliveinwater· Theybreathethroughgills· Theylayeggswhichhatchintofires· Theireggsarefertilizedbythemalefrom outsidethefemalesbody.Inwater
(externalfertilization)· Mosthavescalesontheirbodyexceptcattlefish.· Theyhavefinsforswimmingandprotection· Theyarecoldbloodedvertebrates· Theyfeedonplantsandanimalsinwater.
Thestructureofthefish
FunctionsofpartsofafishTypesoffishTherearethreetypesoffish
· Bonnyfish· Cartilaginousfish· Lungfish
BonnyfishExamplesofbonnyfishare;Nileperch,Tilapia,herrings,trout,salmons.· Theyhavenoeyelids.· Theyhaveswim bladderwhichhelpstokeepthem buoyantinwater.· Theirgillsareprotectedbygillcoveroroperculum· Theirbodiesarecoveredbyoverlappingscales.
Cartilaginousfish
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· Theirskinistoughandshinny· Theyhavegillsslitsinsteadofgillcover.· Theyhavemostlycartilageinsteadofbonesintheirskeletons· Theydonothaveswim bladder.Examplesofcartilaginousfish· Dogfish· Skates· Rays
Lungfish· Theybreathethroughgillsinwaterandbyswim bladderwhengillscannot
supplyenoughoxygen.· Theyliveindirtypools,swampsorrivers.· Theyhavelongandthinpelvicandpectoralfins.· Theyhibernateindryseasons.
ExamplesoflungfishThecommonlungfish/mamba
· Epiceratodus· Diponi
Breathinginfish· Fishbreatheindissolvedoxygeninwater.· Watercontainingoxygenmovesthroughthemouthandpassesoutoverthe
gillswhichabsorbtheoxygeninthewater.· Gillrackerstrapsolidparticlesordirttopreventdamagetothegills.· Thegillbarsarespreadoutthegillstopreventinterlocking.· Gillfilamentsaremanyinordertogivelargesurfaceareatoabsorbalotof
oxygendissolvedinwaterforrespiration.
Diagram
Howisfishadaptedtolivinginwater?· Itsstreamlinedbodyhelpsittomoveeasilyinwater· Finshelpittomoveinwaterandstopitfrom rolling.· Theyhavegillsforbreathinginwater.· Theyhavelaterallinetodetectsoundwaves(hearing)ordanger.· Theirscalesandcolourprovideprotection.· Itsslipperyscaleprotectsitfrom predatorsandhelpsinreducingviscosity
(frictioninwater)· Somehaveelectricorganswhichgiveouthighvoltageofelectricshocktoits
enemy.· Somefishinjectpoisonintotheirenemies.
Usesoffishtoman
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· Theyarekeptaspetsinaquarium fordecoration· Theirbonesareusedtomakeglue· Theyaresourcesofemploymente.g.fishmongers.· Theycanbeusedforresearchandlearning.· Someareusedasmedicinee.g.silverfish.
AMPHIBIANSThesearecoldbloodedvertebratesthatcanlivebothinwaterandonland
Characteristicsofamphibians· Theyarecoldbloodedvertebrates· Theyreproducebylayingeggs· Theyundergoexternalfertilizationi.e.themaleshedsspermsontheeggs
outsidethefemalesbodyastheyarebeinglaidinwater.· Theyhavenoexternalearlobes.· Theireggsareusuallylaidineggspawns.· Theyhavescalelessskin· Theirheartisthreechambered.
ExamplesofamphibiansFrogs,toads,Newts,salamander,axolotis,eftse.t.c
Differencesbetweenafrogandatoad· Frogsmostlyliveinwaterwhiletoadsmostlyliveonland.· Frogshavesmoothslipperyskinswhiletoadshavewartyroughskins.· Toadslayeggsinlongribbonspawnswhiletoadslayeggsinmassspawns.· Frogshavefullywebbedhindfeetwhiletoadshavepartlywebbedfeet.· Frogscanbreathethroughtheirlungsandmoistskinwhiletoadsbreathe
throughtheirlungs.· Tadpolesoffrogsarebrownwhileoftoadsareblack.
Feedinginfrogs· Theyfeedonsmallinsectsandworms· Theyusetheirlongstickytonguestotraptheirprey.
Reproductioninamphibians· Themaleandfemalemate.· Thefemalelayseggsandthemaleshedsspermsoverthem tofertilizethem
(externalfertilization).· Theeggsdevelopandafterabouttwoweekshatchintotadpoles.· Thetadpolesundergoseveralchangestofullydevelopintoanadult.· Thistakesaboutthreemonths.
Diagram toshowlifecycleofanamphibian
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INVERTEBRATESTheseareanimalswithoutabackbone.Theyaremulticellular animals.Classesofinvertebrates· Coelenterates· Echinoderms· Sponges· Worms· Molluscs· Arthropods
a)Coelenterates· Theyhavecylindricalbodieswithonlyoneopeningwhichactsasthemouth
andtheanus.· Theyhavestingingcellsonthetentaclessurroundingtheopenings.· Theyliveinwater.
Examplesofcoelenterates· Corals· Jellyfish· Hydra· Seaanemone.
b)EchinodermsThehavespinyskinsandtubefeet.Theypumpliquidintotheirfeettomakethem expand.ExamplesofEchinoderms· Starfish· Seaurchins· Sealilies· Seacucumbers
c)Sponges· Spongesareacollectionofindividualcellsorganizedintoonebodyonthe
seafloor.· Theycannotmoveaboutbutremainstuckontheseafloor.· Theysuckinseawaterandfilterouttinypiecesoffood.· Theybreatheandfeedthroughtheholesintheirbodies.
d)Molluscs· Theseareinvertebrateswithsoftandunsegmentedbodiescoveredbya
protectiveshellormantle.
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· Theyliveonlandandinfreshwaterorsaltywater.· Somemollusksdonothaveshellslikeoctopus· Mollusesreproducebylayingeggs.
Examplesofmollusks-Octopusandsquids(thelargestandmostintelligent).Theymovebyjetpropulsion- SnailsandSlugs- Oysters- Cuttlefish- Clams- Mussel
SnailsliveonlandandinwaterTheyfeedonplants,whileothersarecarnivorousSlugsaresimilartosnailsbutdonothaveshells.
Diagram showingsnailsandslugs
E)WORMS· Thesearethin,longandsoftbodiedinvertebrates.· Someliveinsoilorwaterwhileothersareparasiteslivinginsideother
animals· Theybreathethroughtheirmoistskins· Theylayeggs.
Groups/typesofworms· Theyaredividedintothreegroupsnamely;· Segmentedworms(annelids)· Roundworms(nematodes)· Flatworms(platyhelminthes)
a)SegmentedwormsThesearewormswhosebodiesaredividedintoringsorsegments.Theymostlyliveinsoilandwater.Examples· Leeches· Bristleworms· Earthworms· Theyliveinsoilandeatsoilordecayedvegetation.· Theyarehermaphroditei.e.hasbothmaleandfemalereproductiveorgans
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· Theyhelptoaeratethesoilbymakingtunnelswhichalsohelptoimprovesoildrainage.
· Theyhelpintheformationofhumusinthesoil.
Diagram showingcommonsegmentedworms
b)FlatwormsTheyhaveflattenedandsegmentedbodies.Manyofthem areparasitesofmanandotheranimals.Examplesofflatworms
· Tapeworms· Pondflatworms· Liverflukes
TapewormsfeedondigestedfoodinthesmallintestinesLiverflukessuckbloodfrom animals.Diagram showingcommonflatworms
c)Roundworms· Thesearegroupsofwormswithcylindricalbodies.· Someareparasitesinmanandotheranimalsandplantswhileotherslivein
water.· Theyarepointedonbothends.
Commonexamplesofroundworms· Hookworms· Eelworms· Pinworms· Threadworms· Ascaris
· Hookwormsenterourbodiesbypenetratingthroughtheskinofbarefeet.· Theyfeedon blood.· Bathingordrinkingcontaminatedwater.F)ANTHROPODSTheseareinvertebrateswithsegmentedbodiesandjointedlegs.
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Characteristicsofarthropods· Theyhavejointedlegs· Theyhavehardexternalskeletoncalledexo-skeleton(cuticle)· Theycanshedtheircuticlesthroughtheprocessofmoultingifgrowthisto
occur.· Theyhavesegmentedbodies.
Groupsorclassesofarthropods· Myriapods· Arachnids· Crustaceans· Insects
MyriapodsThesearearthropodswithmanyjointedlegs.Theirbodiesaresegmentedwitheachsegmenthavingatleastapairoflegs.Therearetwogroupsofmyriapods1.Centipedes(chilopoda)· Thesehaveonepairoflegsineachsegmentandapairofantennae· Thefrontlegsaremodifiedtoform poisonclaws.· Theyarecarnivorous.2.Millipedes(diplopoda)Thesehavetwopairsoflegsineachsegment.Theycurlorcoiltoprotectthemselvesorproducesbadsmell.
Diagram showingcommonmyriapods
b)Crustaceans· Thesearearthropodswhichhavehardandcrustlikeexo-skeleton.· Theyhavejointedlegs· Theirbodiesaredividedintotwomainpartsi.e.thecephalothoraxandthe
abdomen.· Theybreathethroughgillsortheirskin.
Examplescrustaceans· Crabs· Crayfish· Lobsters· Prawns· Sandhoppers
Usesofcrustaceans· Theyareeatenasfoodbyman.· Someareusedasbaitsinfishingindustry.
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c)ArachnidsThesearearthropodswithtwomainbodypartsandfourpairsoflegs.ThetwomainbodypartsarecephalothoraxandabdomenExamplesofarachnidsSpidersTheyhavespecialorganattheendoftheirabdomencalledspinnerettesforspinningtheirwebs.TheybreathethroughlungbooksTheyusetheirwebsformovement,buildingtheirnets,trappingtheirpreyandfindingtheirwayback.Theyreproducebylayingeggs.
ii.TicksandmitesTheyliveontheskinofanimalsTheyfeedonbloodTheyspreadmanydiseasesindomesticanimalse.g.Eastcoastfever,redwater,heartwater,andtyphusfeverinhumans.NB:spiders,ticksandmitesundergoincompletemetamorphosisiii.ScorpionsTheyhavealargetailwithapoisonousstingTheirfrontlegsaremodifiedintopincersTheydonotlayeggsbutgivebirthtoyoungones.
InsectsThesearearthropodswith3(three)mainbodypartsorjointedlegs.
Characteristicsofinsects· Theyhavethreemainbodyparts(Head,thorax,abdomen)· Theheadcontains;compoundeyes,mouthpartsandfeelers.· Thethoraxcarriesthreepairsoflegs,thewings.· Theabdomencontainsthespiracles,ovipositorsandstingsinsomeinsects· Theyhavethreepairsofjointedlegs.· Theyhaveanexo-skeletoncalledCuticles· Theyhaveapairoffeelersorantennae· Theyhaveapairofcompoundeyes· Theyreproducebylayingeggs· Theybreathethroughspiracles.
Diagram showingpartsofaninsect
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Functionsofpartsofaninsecti.Mouth partsProboscisisatubeforsuckingfoodininsectslikemosquitoes,houseflies,bees,tsetsefliesetc.Mandiblesareusedforchewingininsectslikegrasshoppers,locusts,cockroaches,beetles,etc
ii.Antennae/feelersTheseareusedassenseorganfortouch,smelldetectingsound(hearing)anddetectingchangesintemperature,humidityandfindingdirection.iii.Wingsforflyingiv.Compoundeyesforseeingv.Halteresinhouseflyforbalancingduringflight.vi.Spiraclesforbreathing
LifecycleofinsectsMetamorphosisThisisacompletechangeinthelifeofaninsectfrom aneggintoanadult.TherearetwotypesoflifecycleininsectsCompletemetamorphosisIncompletemetamorphosis
CompletemetamorphosisThisisalifecycleofsomeinsectswhichgothroughfourstagesofdevelopmentnamely;Eggs— Larva— Pupa— Adult
Examplesofinsectswhichundergocompletemetamorphosis· Houseflies· Mosquitoes· Butterflies· Bees· Moth· Wasps
LifeofahouseflyAdultslayeggsinbatchesof100-150eggsinmanureheap,rottingbodies,exposedfoodorfeaces.Reasonswhyhouseflieslayeggsinmanureheapsorrottingbodies· Toprovidewarmthtoeggssoastohatchintolarvae· Asourceoffoodtomaggots(larvae)afterhatchingTheeggshatchintolarvacalledmaggotsafteraday.
NB:Somefliessuchasbluebottleflyhatchtheeggsfrom insidethebodyandlaymaggots.
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· Maggotsfeedondecayingmatter,growquicklyandturnintopupaafter4-6days.
· Thepupadoesnotfeedbutgrowsfrom insidethepupaacasecalledCocoon.· Theadultcrawlsoutofthepupaafterabout4-5days.
Diagram showingthelifecycleofahousefly
Dangers/economicimportanceofhouseflies· Theycarrygermsontheirbody,salivaormouthparts,whichcausethe
followingdiseases;diarrhea,dysentery,cholera,typhoid,trachoma,redeyes.· Theyhelptoreducethevolumeoffeacesinlatrineswhichgetfilledup
quickly.
MOSQUITOESTherearethreemaintypesofmosquitoesnamelyanopheles,mosquito,Culexmosquito,aedes/tigersmosquito.
i.AnophelesmosquitoesFemaleanophelesmosquitoesspreadaprotozoancalledplasmodiawhichcausesmalariainman.CulexmosquitoesspreadFilariawormswhichcauseselephantiasisAedes/tigermosquitoesspreadaviruscausesdenguefeverandyellowfeverinhumanbeings.
LifehistoryofmosquitoesAdultmosquitoeslayeggsinstagnantwater.After2-3daystheeggshatchintolarvacalledWrigglerswhichbreathethroughaspiracleonthetailendcalledSiphon.ThelarvadevelopintopupawhichbreathesthroughapairofspiraclescalledbreathingtrumpetsAfter2-3weeksfrom eggsafullygrownadultcomesoutofthepupa.
Diagram showinglifecycleofanophelesandculexmosquitoes
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DifferencebetweenanophelesandculexmosquitoesAnopheles CulexLayseggswithanairfloat LayseggsinraftsThelarvaliesparalleltothewatersurfacewhenbreathing.
Thelarvaliesatanangletothewaterwhenbreathing.
Adultliesinasloppypositionwhenatrest/.
Adultlieshorizontallywhenatrest.
Waysofcontrollingmosquitoes· Drainstagnantwateraroundhomes.· Buryoldfins,brokenpots,orbottleswheremosquitoescanbreed.· Clearallbushesaroundhomeswheremosquitoescanhide· Sprayadultmosquitoeswithinsecticides· Sleepunderinsecticidetreatedmosquitonets.· Keepfishindamsorreservesofwatertoeatmosquitoes larvae· Closedoorsandwindowsearlyintheevening· Applyrepellantsonthebodytodriveawaymosquitoes· Burnmosquitocoilstochaseawaymosquitoes· Planttrees/flowersthatcanrepelmosquitoesinthecompound.
Butterfliesandmoth· Theyundergocompletemetamorphosis· Femalelayseggsmainlyontheundersideoftheleaves· Eggshatchintolarva/caterpillarswhichfeedonleaves· Thelarvaspinsacocoonarounditselfandchangesintopupa/chrysaliswhich
doesnotmoveoreati.e.itisdormantstage.· Whentheadultisfullygrown,itbreaksthepupacaseandcomesout.
Advantagesofbutterfliesandmoths· Theyhelpinpollinatingflowersoffarmerscrops.· Wegetsilkthreadsfrom thecocoonsofsomebutterflies· Caterpillarsareeateninsomesocietiesasfood.
Disadvantagesofbutterfliesandmoths· Theirlarvae/caterpillarsfeedonleavesofcrops/(croppests)· Caterpillarshavebristlehairswhichcanburnandcauseirritationitchingor
woundsotheskin.
NB:Mostcaterpillarsprotectthemselvesbyuseofpricklyhair.IncompletemetamorphosisThisisalifecyclewhichinvolvesthreestages ofdevelopment,i.e.Eggs— Nymph— Adult(imago)
Theadultfemalelayseggsinthesoilinaneggsac(pouch)
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AfterafewdaystheeggshatchintoNymphsAfterseveralchanges/moulting,thenymphdevelopswingsandbecomesafullygrownadult.
Diagram showingincompletemetamorphosis
Examplesofinsectswhichundergoincompletemetamorphosisi.Cockroachesii.Grasshoppersiii.Damselflies ix. Dragonfliesiv Bedbugs x. Auntsv.Termites xi. Aphidsvi.Prayingmantis xii. Fleasvii.Walkingsticksviii.Kaytidis
Protoctistakingdom (singlecalledorganism)· Thesearegroupsofverysimplelivingorganism whicharesingle(celled
unicellular).· Theyhaveanucleusenclosedinamembrane· Theyareneitherplants,fungi,noranimals.· Theyliveinfluids(liquids)orinotherorganismsbecausetheydonothave
protectionagainstdrying.
ExamplesofprotoctistaAlgaeEuglena
a)Algae· Theyhavechlorophyllandmaketheirownfood· Theymostlyreproducebymeansofspores.· Theydonothaveroots,stemsandleaves.· Theyappearindifferentcolourse.g.blue,green,red.· Theygrowonandwithinthesoil,wood,moistrocks.
Examplesofalgae· Spirogyra· Seaweeds· Focus
Usesofalgae· Itisusedasfoodbymanandotheranimalssuchasfish.
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· Theyaddoxygentowaterwhichisbreathedinbywateranimals.· Theyareusedinmakingfertilizers
Protozoa· Thesearegroupsofsinglecelledorganismswhichhaveanucleusandthe
cytoplasm.· Theydonothavechlorophyllbutcapturetheirfoodorengulfingusing
pseudopodia· Theyaremicroscopic· Theyarefoundinwaterandonlandindampplacesandinbodyofanimalsas
parasites.· Theyreproducebymeansofpseudopodiae.g.amoebawhileotherbyciliae.g.
paramecium
Examplesofprotozoa· Amoeba· Paramecium· Plasmodium· Trypanosome
Illustrationofamoebaandparamecium
c)Euglena· Thisisaunicellularorganism whichhasbothplantsandanimalfeatures.· Ithaschlorophyllandproducesitsownfood.· Itcanmovefrom oneplacetoanotherveryquicklyforprotectionlikean
animalusingitsflagellum.· Itismicroscopicandlivesinditchesandponds.
FUNGI KINGDOMThesearesimpleorganismsthatlackchlorophyllandexistasamassofthreadscalledhyphae ormycellium.
HOW DOFUNGIFEED?Theyfeedsaprophytically.
- Theyliveasparasitesonotherlivingthingsorondeadanddecayingbody.- Theygrowwherethereismoisture.- Theyreproducebymeansofsporesexceptyeastwhichreproduceby
budding.Commonexamplesoffungi
- Mushrooms- Toadstools- Yeast- Moulds
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- PuffballsIllustrationtoshowthestructureofmushroom andfunctionsofeachpart.
Advantagesoffungi- Somefungicausedecayandhelpsinformationofsoil.- Somefungiareeatenasfoodbyman.Egmushroom- Someareusedinmakingmedicineegpenicillium mouldsformaking
penciline.- Yeasthelpinflavouringcheese,formationofbeerandspiritmakingbread
sourceofvitaminBandfermenting tobacco.
Disadvantagesoffungi- Somefungiarepoisonoustoman.- Fungicauseanumberofdiseaseinanimalsringworm ,eczema,athletics
foot,andfinger/toenailformation- Fungicausediseasesinplantseg: potatoblight.- Somefungicausefoodpoisoning
CAREFORANDPROTECTIONOFVERTEBRATESANDINVERTEBRATES- Animalslikehumans,birdsneedcareandprotection.Theycanbecared
throughthefollowingways.- Traintrainableanimals- Treatsickdomesticanimalsandcleanthehousetheystayin.- Gazetteareasforbothdomesticandwildanimalsasgameparksand
gamereservestopreventextinctionandendangeringanimalspecies.- Regularvaccinationofanimals- Enforcingstrictlawsthatgrownpollution,poachinganddestructionofbio
diversity
FORMSOFENERGYWhatisenergy?Energyistheabilityofthebodytodowork.
Energyexistsinthefollowingforms(types)i. Soundenergyii.Heatenergyiii.Lightenergyiv.Mechanicalenergyv.Nuclear(Atomicenergy)vi.Solarenergyvii.Chemicalenergy
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viii.Electricalenergy
N.BKineticandphysicalenergyareformsofmechanicalenergy.
SOUNDSoundisaform ofenergythatstimulatesthesenseofhearing(thatenablesustohear)Useofsound
- Forcommunication- Entertainment- Forprotection- Forevidenceincourtsoflaw- Helpstopromoteculturei.e.traditionalfolksongsandfolktales.
TYPES OFSOUNDi. Loudsoundii.Softsoundiii.Highsoundiv.Lowsound.
Sourcesofsound
Naturalsources· Animals· Wind· Storm· Volcaniceruption· Waterfalls· Rainfall
Artificialsources· Musicalinstruments· Vehicles· Aeroplanes
Howissoundproduced?Soundisproducedbyvibration(whenanobjectvibrates)
Whatisavibration?Avibrationisatoandfromotionwhichiscontinuouslyrepeated.
Wayshowlivingthingsproducesound· Humanbeingsproducesoundbythevibrationoftheirvocalcords.Vocal
cordsarefoundinthevoicebox.Whenairpassesoverthem,theyvibrateandproducesound.
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· Cricketsproducesoundbyrubbingtheirwingsagainstthehindlegs.· Birdssingbythehelpoftheirringsofcartilagethatvibrate· Beesandmosquitoesproducesoundbyvibrationofwingswhenflapped
rapidly.
TransmissionofsoundHowdoessoundtravel?Soundtravelsinsoundwaves.Ittravelsthroughthefollowingmedia:· Air(gases)· Water(liquids)· Solidmaterials
N.Bsounddoesnottravelthroughvaccum.
Reason:Thevaccum doesnotcontainmatter(molecules)· Thespeedofsoundinairis330m/sec· Thespeedofsoundinwateris500m/s.· Thespeedofsoundinmetals(solids)is4800m/sec
Thereforei. Soundtravelsfastingasesii. Soundtravelsfasterinliquids.iii. Soundtravelsfastestinsolids.
Factorsaffectingthespeedofsound· Temperatures· Wind· Altitude· Heat
EFFECTSOFTEMPERATUREANDWINDONSOUND- Soundtravelsmoreclearlyduringnightwavesmoveclosetotheground.- Atnighttemperaturesarelower (itiscool)- Whenitishot,soundwavesrisehigherabovetheground.- Windcarrysoundfurtherifitisblowingthesamedirection;butifitis
blowingagainstthesounditobstructsFrequencyThisisthenumberofvibrationspersecond. /numberofoscillationsmadebyaparticlepersecond.
PitchThisisthehighnessorlownessof sound./isthesharpnessormildnessofsound.
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Anexperimentonpitch.
Whatdeterminesthepitchofsound?· Sizeofavibratingobject.· Lengthofavibratingobject.· Thicknessofthestringproducingsound.· Tension· Frequency
CALCULATIONSONSOUNDNB:Thespeedofsoundinairis330metres/secExamples1. Ifamanheardagunshotafterfourseconds.Howfarwashefrom thefiringpoint?Distance = speed xtimetakenDistance =speedxtimetaken
2= 330m/secx4sec
2330m/secx4sec
21330m x2
= 660metres
2. Ittook3secondstohearechoofamanchoppingwood.Howfarwasthemanfrom achoppingplace?D = S xT
2
D = (330x3)metres2
D = 990D =495m
NB: Wedivideby2becausetherearetwosetsofsoundwavesieorginalwavesandthereflectedwaves(Echo)3. Amootiwasstandingacrossthevalley,whichwas660m awayfrom thecliffifheshouts,howlongwillittaketoheartheecho.
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T = D x 2S
2T = 660m x 2
330m/s1
T = (2 x2)second= 4 seconds
4. Okellowasstanding165m awayfrom hisfatherwhocalledhim byclapping.Howlongdidittakehim toheartheclapping?
T = DS
T = 165m330m/s T =
0.5sec
VolumeItistheloudnessorsoftnessofsound. /Isthemagnitudeorintensityofacertainsound.
EchoIsthereflectedsound(thebouncingbackofsoundwaves)Echoisformedwhensoundisreflectedbyanobject.
Usesofechoinnature.· Ithelpsbatstofindtheirwayandlocatefood.· Ithelpssailorstodetectthedepthoftheseaorocean.· Fishermanuseechotolocateshoalsoffishbeforelettingdowntheirnets.· Pilotsuseechosurroundingfrom thickclouds,mountainsetctoavoid
accidents.
DISADVANTAGESOFECHOESINNATUREEchoesaretroublesomeespeciallyinemptyhallsTheycauseirritating soundsand noisetotheearsSoft,poroussurfacesabsorbsound.HowdowepreventechoesIncinemahalls,broadcastingstudiosandconferenceortheatrehallsthewallsarecovered usingsoftboards,thickandheavycurtainsthatabsorbsound.
MUSICALINSTRUMENTSTheyareclassifiedintothree:Stringinstruments
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WindinstrumentsPercussioninstruments
Stringinstruments (chordophones)Theseproducesoundbyvibrationoftheirstringswhenplucked.ThepitchofsoundinstringinstrumentscanbeincreasedbylooseningortighteningthestringsExamples
i. Celloii.Violaiii.Violiniv.Bowharp(Adungu)v.Guitarvi.Lyrevii.Tubefiddleviii.Harp
Windinstruments (Aerophones)Theseproducesoundbyvibrationofairblowninsidethem.Theirpitchisdetermined(increased)byreducingthesizethesmallertheinstrumentthehigherthepitch.Examples· Records Diagrams· Whistles· Trumpet· Panpipes· Fluteetc
PERCUSSIONINSTRUMENTSTheseareinstrumentsthatproducesoundwhenbitten/hit.Theirpitchcanbeincreasedbyreducingthesizeoftheareastruckorincreasingthetightness
Examples Diagrams· Drums· Thumbpiano· Shakers· Xylophone· Cymbals· Shakers· Rattlesetc
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Methodsofstoringsoundenergy.Soundcanstored:-a)bywritingmusic (Solfanotation)Thisisaform ofwritingmusicusingsyllablesonstavesb)Recordingsoundcanbestoredonrecordplayersdiscs,compactdiscs,computersetc
Anillustration
Devicesusedtostoresound- Memorycards- VCDs- DVDs- Magnetictapes- Projectors- Taperecorders- Mobilephones- Flashcards- Computerdiscs- Ipods- Film stripsetc
Devicesusedtoreproducesound· recordplayers· radiocassettes· taperecorders· videodecks· Film projectors.· DVDplayers· Computers· Mobilephones· Grammarphone
Waysofreproducingstoredsound.· Re-playing· Singing· Reading
THEMAMMALIANEARThestructureofthemammalianear.
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Theearisdividedintothreeregionsnamely:a)Outerearb)Middleearc)Innerear
TheouterearItconsistsof:
i. Pinnaii.auditorycanal
ThepinnerItcollectssoundwaves
AuditorycanalItdirectssoundwavestotheeardrum
ThemiddleearItconsistsofthe:-
i. eardrumii.ossiclesiii.Eustachiantube
EardrumItvibratesandtransmitssoundwavestotheossicles
OssiclesThesearethreesmallbonesfoundintheearnamely;hammerincusandstapes
The workofossicles· Theytransmitsoundvibrationtothecochlea.· Theyamplifysoundwavesintheear
EustachiantubeItequalizesairpressureintheear.
TheinnerearItconsistsof:-· Semicircularcanal· TheCochleas· Auditorynerves
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Cochlea:Thisisafluid—filledorganfoundintheear.
Function:itconverts(changes)soundwavestosoundsignals
Semi-circularcanal:Ithelpsinbodybalanceandposture.
AuditorynervesTheysendsoundsignals(messages)tothebrainforinterpretation
Commondiseasesoftheeari. Otitisexternusii.Otitisinternusiii.Earcancer
Commondisordersoftheear· Deafness· Earaches· Earitching.
Usesofwaxfoundintheear- Ittrapsdustandsomeforeignbodiesintheear- Itcleanstheearcanal- Itprotectstheearagainstinfections,waxcontainschemicalsthatkill
germs
Note:Toomuchearwaxcan leadtopartial(temporary)deafnessCAREFORTHEEAR.
i.Usesoftmaterialtocleantheear. Sharpobjectsbreakanddamagetheeardrum.
ii.Haveregularhealthexaminationiii.Removeexcesswaxfrom theexternalearthatcancausetemporary
deafness.iv.Cleanyourearwithclearwaterandsoapregularly.
NB.Partialdeafnesscanbecorrectedbyearsyringing(syringefilledwithwarmwater)
COMPARINGTHEHUMANEARWITHORGANSOFHEARING INOTHERANIMALS
HEARINGINFISHFishuselaterallinetodetectandpickupsoundvibrationsinwater
HEARINGINSNAKES
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Snakesdonothaveactualears,buttheyhaveinnerearsystemssuchascochleainmammals.Insnakesthecochleaisconnectedtojawbones,thismakesitsensitivetogroundvibrationsbythehelpofjawbonesconnectedtocochlea.
HEARINGINBIRDSBirdshavearuffoffeatherscalledauricularswhichtheyusetodetectsoundintheenvironment.
Hearingininsects- Someinsectslikemosquitoescollectsoundvibrationsusingtheir
antennae.(feelers)- Otherslikecaterpillars,butterfliesandmothsusesmallhairscalledsetae
foundontheirbodysurfacestopicksoundvibrationsNB: Adultbutterfliesalsodetectsoundvibrationsthroughveinsontheirwings
HearinginamphibiansTherearethreeordersofthelivingamphibians.Theseare
- Theapoda— theleglessandworm liketypesuchascaecilians- Theurodella— thetailedformssuchasmudpuppies,Newtsand
salamanders- TheAnura— thetaillessform suchasfrogsandtoads.
NB: AllamphibianshaveearsThehearingorganforamphibiansiscalledtheamphibianspapilla
THECIRCULATORYSYSTEMTheterm bloodcirculationrefertothemovementofbloodfrom thehearttoallbodypartsBloodcirculationisveryimportantinthefollowingways
- Itsuppliesfoodandoxygentoallpartsofthebody- Itremoveswasteproductssuchascarbondioxideoutofthebodytothe
excretoryorgans,
TYPESOFBLOODCIRCULATIONSINGLEBLOODCIRCULATION
- Itisthetypesofcirculationwhenbloodmovesthroughheartonceeg.infishes.
DOUBLEBLOODCIRCULATION- Itsatypeofcirculationwhenbloodgoestothehearttwicebeforeitgoes
toallbodypartseginmammals.
BLOODBloodisatissuefluidwithsuspendedcellsthatmovesinandaroundthebody.Compositionsofblood
- Redbloodcells(erythrocytes)- Whitebloodcells(leucocytes)
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- Platelets(thrombocytes)- Plasma
1.REDBLOODCELL- Thereareabout30millionredbloodcellsinthehumanbody.- Theycontainaredpigmentcalledhaemoglobinthatcontainsiron.- Theyaremadeinredbonemarrowofshortboneslikestemum,scapula,
ribs,vertebraandpelvis.- Theydonthaveanucleus.- Theirfunctionistotransportoxygeninthebody.
ADAPTATIONSOFREDBLOODCELLSTOTHEIRFUNCTION- Theyhavehaemoglobinwhichenablesthem carrymoreoxygenmolecules.- Theyareproduced inlargenumber.- Theyhavenonucleusthatprovidesalargesurfaceareatocarrymore
oxygen.NB:Whenoxygencombineswithheamoglobinitformsoxyhaemoglobin
Thestructureofaredbloodcell.
Note:Theredbloodcellsaredestroyedbytheplasmodiagermsthatcausesmalaria.Sicklecellalsodeformsthenormalshapeoftheredbloodcellshencemakingthem unabletocarrytheirfunction.
WHITEBLOODCELLS- Thesearelargerthanredbloodcells.- Theyhaveanucleusandnohaemoglobin- Theyaremadeinthebonemarrowoflongbones,lymphnodesandthe
spleen.- Theirmainfunctionistofightagainstdiseasegerms
Howdowhitebloodcellsdefendthebodyagainstdiseasegerms?- Byengulfinganddigestinggerms- Producingantibodiesagainstthegerms.
AdaptationofwhitebloodcellstotheirfunctionsIthasanucleuswhichcontrolscellactivitiesIthascytoplasm thathelpsittoengulfgerms.NOTE: TheHIV/AIDSdestroysthewhitebloodcells.
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Thestructureofawhitebloodcells
PLATELETS- Aremadeintheredbonemarrow.Theirfunctionistohelp inclottingof
blood.- BloodclottingoccursinpresenceofvitaminKandCalcium
Structureofplatelets
PLASMAThisistheliquidpartofbloodconsistingofthefollowing
- Water- Bloodprotein- Dissolvedfood- Mineralsalts- Urea- Carbondioxide- Hormones
FUNCTIONSOFBLOOD- Itcarriesdigestedfoodandoxygentoallbodyparts- Itcarrieswastewasteproductsfrom thebodypartstoexcretoryorgans.- Ittransportscarbondioxidefrom thebodytissuestothelungs- Itdistributesheattothebody.- Itcarrieshormonestodifferentbodyparts.- Defendsthebodyagainstinfections.
BLOODGROUPSTherearefourbloodgroup.ABABONB : ABisauniversalrecipientwhileOisauniversaldonor
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BLOODTRANSFUSIONIsthetransferoftestedandscreenedbloodfrom onepersontoanother.ThescientistwhodiscoveredbloodgroupswasSirKarlLandsteiner.
THEHEARTThestructureoftheheartandfunctionsoftheeachpart
- Theheartisdividedintofourchambers- Theupperchambersarecalledatria(atrium)andthelowerchambers
calledventricles.- Theheartismadeupspecialmusclescalledcardiacmuscles- Themainfunctionoftheheartispumpbloodtoallbodyparts.
OTHERORGANSRELATEDTOTHECIRCULATIONOFBLOOD- Thelungs— itswherediffusionofgasestakesplace.- Thekidneys -filtersbloodtoremoveexcretoryproducts.- Theliver— regulatesbloodsugar
THEDIAGRAM TOSHOW CIRCULATIONOFBLOOD
BLOODVESSELSThisisanetworkoftubestransportingbloodinthebody.Therearethreebloodvessels
- Arteries- Veins- Capillaries
ARTERIES- Arteriesarebloodvesselsthatcarrybloodawayfrom thehearttothe
body.- Theyhavethickwalls- Theyhaveanarrowlumen- Theycarrybloodwithahighpressure- Theydonthavevalves
Diagram showingthewallsoftheartery
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VEINS- Thesearebloodvesselsthatcarryblood towardstheheart.- Theyhavethinwalls- Theyhaveawiderlumen.- Theyhavevalvestopreventthebackflowofblood.
STRUCTUREOFAVEIN
CAPILLARIES- Thesearethesmallestbloodvessels- Theyconnectarteriesandveins- Exchangeofbodymaterialstakeplace inthecapillaries.- Theyhave sothinwalls
STRUCTUREOFTHECAPILLARY
DIFFERENCESBETWEENARTERIES,VEINSANDCAPILLARIESArteries Veins CapillariesTheycarryoxygenatedbloodexceptthepulmonaryartery
Theycarryde— oxygenatedbloodexceptthepulmonaryvein
Exchangeofmaterialsbetweenbloodandbodyandbodycellstakesplaces
Theyhavethickandmuscularwalls Theyhavethinandlessmuscularwalls Theyhaveaverythinwallwhichhastinyholesorponesinit.
Theycarrybloodawayfrom theheart Theycarrybloodtowardstheheart TheylinkarteriesandveinsBloodflowsunderhighpressure Blowsflowsunderlowpressure BloodflowsunderverylowpressureTheyhaveanarrowlumen Theyhaveawidelumen TheyhaveanarrowerlumenTheyhavenovalves Theyhavevalves Theyhavenovalves
Increasingthevolumeofbloodincirculation
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- Eatingabalanceddiet- Bloodtransfusion- Takingalotoffluidsandtakingironsupplementtablets
DiseasesanddisordersofthecirculatorysystemTheyareclassifiedintothreegroupsnamely.
- Diseasesofblood- Diseasesoftheheart- Hereditarydiseases
Diseasesofblood Diseasesoftheheart Hereditarydisease- Leukemia(bloodcancer)- Hypertension(highblood
pressure)- Malaria- AIDS- Anaemia- Sicklecellanemia- Lowbloodpressure
- Coronaryheartdisease- Heartattack(cardiacarrest)- Heartstroke(cerebrovascular
Accident,CVA)- Heartfailure
- Haemopholia- Sicklecellanaemia
OtherdisordersA)ARTIOSCLEROSOSThisisthehardeningandthickeningofthewallsofthearteries
PREVENTIONANDCONTROLOFTHECIRCULATORYDISEASES- Properfeedingieeatingfoodthatmakeabalanceddiet.- Eatingmealsoflow fatcontent- Performingregularphysicalexercises- Goingformedicalcheckup.- Avoidtakingalcohol.
IMPORTANCEOFHAVINGREGULARBODYEXERCISES- Helpthehearttopumpmorebloodtothebody.- Theyreducetheleveloffatsinthebody.- Helptostrengthenthemusclesoftheheart.- Theyreducetheriskofgettingheartdiseases- Jointsbecomesmoreflexible.- Digestionoffoodiscarriedoutquicklyandeasily.- Promotesproperfunctioningofbodysystem- Itmakesthebodyphysicallyfit.
HIV/AIDSANDBLOOD- AIDSiscausedbyHIV- TheVirusdestroysthewhitebloodcellsinthebody.- ThebodybecomesweakandcannotfightdiseasegermsHIVstandforHumanImmuno— deficiency
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VirusAIDSstandsforA -Acquired - meansgetfromI - Immune— meansprotectedagainstD -Deficiency— LackofS -Syndrome -Itmeansacombinationofsignsandsymptoms.
HOW HIV/AIDSISSPREAD- Throughunprotectedsexualintercoursewithaninfectedperson.- Throughsharingunsterilizedsharpobjectswithaninfectedperson.- From mothertochild (MCT)a) atbirthb)throughbreastfeedingc)from mothertounbornchild-Through unscreenedbloodtransfusion
SignsandsymptomsofHIV/AIDS- Prolongeddrycough(chroniccough)- Widespreaditchingandskinrash- Prolongeddiarrhoea(chronicdiarrhoea)- Oralthrush -Itisawhitecoatingdevelopsinthemouth- Persistentfever.- Generalbodyweakness- Lossofappetite- Excessivesweatingatnight- Herpezoster(kisipi)
EFFECTSOFHIV/AIDSINDIVIDUAL
a)Lossofimmunityasthevirusdestroysthewhitebloodcells,theindividualisattackedbyseveraldiseases.Thediseasegermstakeadvantageoftheweakenedbody.Thesediseaseswhichattackaweakenedbodyarecalledsecondaryor
opportunisticinfectionsb)Lossofincomec)AIDSleadstodepression,frustrationandworriestoanindividual.d)Anindividualcanbeabandonedbythefriendsduetofearofthe
diseasee)Theinfectionscausesdeath.
FAMILY- SomechildreninthefamilymaybeinfectedwithHIV/AIDS- Reductiononthelabourforceinthefamily- Childrenbecomeorphanswhenparentsdie.
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- Lossoffamilyproperty- Familymembersareseparatedwhendifferentrelativestakecareofthem.- ThefamilymayexperienceshortageofbasicneedsincasetheAID
victimsareparents
COMMUNITY- Lossofskilledmanpower- Causeschildheadedfamilies- Breakdownofsocialorder/families.- Shortageofproductivepopulation- Itleadstoloweconomicdevelopment
PREVENTIONANDCONTROLOFHIV/AIDS- Abstinencefrom sexuntilmarriage- HavinganHIVtestbeforepeoplegetmarried- Havingonlyonelongsexualpartner- Properuseofcondoms- Bloodscreeningbefore transfusion- Healthwordsshouldwearprotectiveglovestoavoidcontactwithblood- Carryingoutsexeducation inschoolsandhomes
ALCOHOL,SMOKING,ANDDRUGSINTHESOCIETY
ALCOHOLINSOCIETYWhatisalcohol?Alcoholisacolourlessliquidsubstancethatmakespeopledrunkwhentheydrinktoomuchofit.Itiscontainedinmanydrinkslikebeers,winesandspirits.
TypesofalcoholTherearetwotypesofalcoholnamely· Methanol· Ethanol
Methanolisfoundmostlyinhomedistilledalcohol.· Itisverydangerousandpoisonousandmanycauseblindnessordeath.· Itismainlyusedasafuelorforsterilizingmedicalinstruments.· Ethanoliscontainedinallalcoholicdrinksthatareconsumed.· Itcanalsobeusedasfuel.
ProductionofalcoholCommonalcoholicdrinksaremadefrom juicesofbananas,pineapples,sugarcane,maize,millet,sorghum,rice,barley,cassava,potatoes.
Yeastisaddedtothemixtureofwaterandthesefoodsubstancestospeedupfermentation.
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Methodsofproducingalcoholi. Fermentationii.Distillation
Fermentationistheprocessbywhichsugarinjuiceisturnedintoalcoholwiththehelpofyeast.- Fermentedfruitjuicesmakewine.- Fermentedstarchmixturefrom grainsorcerealsmakebeer.
Examplesofdrinksproducedlocallybyfermentation- Mwengebigere - from bananas- Malwa(ajon) - from millet/sorghum- Kwete - from cassava/maize- Munanansi - from pineapples- Omurambi - from sorghum-Beer - from oats,barleyand sorghum
Distillation- Thisistheprocessbywhichwegetalcoholfrom fermentation.- Thealcoholinthefermentedjuiceisheatedanditevaporates.- Thealcoholvapouristhencondensedandcollected.
Howdistillationofalcoholisdone.- Crudealcoholisboiledtoproducealcoholvapour.- Thevapouriscondensed togetliquidalcoholwiththehelpofcoldwateras
acondenser.- Theliquidalcoholnowcalleddistillateispassedthroughacoileddelivery
tubeintoacleancontaineri.e.bottlesorjerrycans.- Thedeliverytubeisusuallycoiledtoincreasethesurfaceareafor
condensationofalcoholinthecondenser.(coldwater)
Illustrationonhowdistillationisdone;
Usesofalcohol·Fordrinking· Makingmedicines· Fordisinfectingwounds· Forsaletogetmoney· Usedduringculturalfunctions· Usedinmakingcosmeticsandperfumes· Usedtosterilizemedical instrumentsinhospitals· Usedasafuel· Usedinmakingnailvanishsolutions
Alcoholism isaconditionwhereanindividualdependsonalcoholfornormalfunctioningofthebody.
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Alcoholicisapersonwhoisaddictedtoalcohol.
Addictionisaconditioninwhichapersonhasaverystrongdesiretotakealcoholeveryday.
Effectsofalcoholonthecommunity· Mayleadtojobneglectcausinglowproductivity.· Maycausetrafficaccidentsathome,suicidalbehavior.· Highcrimerateinthesocietye.grape,defilement,robberyetc.· Canleadtoincreaseofcertaindiseasesinthecommunitye.gAIDS.· Alcoholicsbecomepublicnuisance.· Nationmayloseveryimportantpeople· Lossofincometaxbaseduetolessproduction.
Reasonswhypeopledrinkalcohol· Idleness· Frustration· Peerpressure· Thedesiretopasstime,withfriends.· Familybackgroundandsocialenvironment· Toshowthattheyarerich.· Peoplescultureinceremonies/celebrations· MisleadingadvertsonT.V,radio,magazines· Toforgettheirproblems.· Influencebypeopleoneadmirese.g.parents,teachersetc.
.
Effectsofalcoholonpeople(immediateeffects)· Slowsdowntheaction(function)ofthebrain.· Peoplewhoarenotusedtodrinkingalotofalcoholvomitwhentheydrinka
lotofit.· Peoplegeteasilyannoyedafterdrinkingalotofalcohol.· Peoplewhoaredrunkbecomeforgetful· Peoplewhoaredrunkloserespectforlaws.· Peoplewhoaredrunklosebalance.
Longterm effects· Lossofappetite· Pepticulcers· Liverdiseases· Leadstoselfneglect· Lossofjobs· Thepancreasmayswell.
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· Toomuchandconstantdrinkingmaycausehandtremors
Effectsofalcoholtoafamily· Leadstofamilyneglect· Leadstopovertyinafamily.· Itcausesspouseandchildabuse.· Leadstobadbehavioramongchildren· Itcausesviolenceinhomes.Howtoavoidalcoholism· Avoidbadpeergroups· Neverbelieveinadvertisementswhichpraisealcoholasagooddrink.· Neverdrinkalcoholtoovercomeaproblem.· Joingroupswhosemembersdonottakealcohol.· Engageinactivitieswhichhelpyoutoappendfreetimeproperly.· Takeyourparentsandotherpeopleswarningaboutthedangersofalcohol
seriously.
Ugandalawsonalcohol· Peopleunder18yearsofagearenotallowedtodrinkalcoholinpublicplaces.· Nooneisallowedtodriveavehiclewhenheisdrunk.· Homedistillationofalcoholisforbidden· Nooneisallowedtotransportorsellhomedistilledalcohol.· Publicplacesthatusealcoholicdrinksareallowedtooperateuptoalimited
time.
SMOKINGSmokingisthedrawinginsmokefrom burningtobaccothroughthemouth.
Asmokerisapersonwhosmokestobaccofrequently.Chemicalscontainedintobacco
· Nicotine· Tar
SmokingiseitheractiveorpassiveActivesmokingisthatoneinwhichthesmokertakesinsmokedirectlyfromcigaretteorsmokingpipe.
Passivesmokingisthetypeofsmokinginwhichanonsmokerbreathesinaircontainingtobaccosmoke.
Reasonswhypeoplesmoke.· Topasstime· Toconcentrateonwhattheyaredoing· Tofeelwarm
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· Tofitinapeergroup(peerinfluence)· Tofeelconfident
Effectsofsmokingonthehumanbody· Leadstorespiratorydiseasessuchas;· Lungcancer· Emphysema· Heartattack(coronaryheartdisease)· Pepticulcers· Cancerofthemouthandthroat.
Howtoavoidsmoking·Donotbelieveinadvertisementsaboutcigarettesmoking.·Knowthatthereisnogoodreasonforsmoking·Avoidjoininggroups of smokers.·Keepyourselfbusyforexamplebyreadinganovel,ordoinganyother
meaningfulactivitiessuchasplayinggamesetc.
Lifeskillstosafeguardagainstsmoking.· Keepawayfrom peoplewhosmoke· Neverallowanybodytoconvinceyoutosmoke.· Gathermoreinformationondangersofsmokingfrom healthworkers.· Reportyourfriendswhosmoketotheteachersortheirparentsforadvise.· Likegamesandsportsduringyourfreetime.· Neveruseyourmoneytobuycigarettes.
DRUGSAdrugisachemicalsubstancewhichaffectsthewayonesmindandhowthe
bodyworks.· Itcaneitherhelporharm thebodysystem.· Drugsareeitherinmanufacturedform orrawform· Rawdrugsareeitherintheform ofplantsandanimalpartsorextractsfrom
animalorplants.· Ifdrugsaremanufacturedandtestedinlaboratoriestheyarecalled
laboratorymanufactureddrugs.
Characteristicsoflaboratorymanufactureddrugs· Theyarecarefullymadeandtested.· Theirstrength,stabilityandpurityisknown.· Theyarethesameforeachquantity.· Theireffectonhumanhealthisknown,· Theyarepackagedandproperlyprotected· Theyarewelllabeled· Theyhaveexpiryandmanufactureddates.
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Examplesoflaboratorymanufactureddrugs· Aspirin· Chloroquine· Quinine· Fansidar· Panadol· Coartem· Mabendazole
Characteristicsoftraditionaldrugs.· Theyaremadeofrawplantsandanimals· Theirstrength,purityandstabilitychanges.· Theyareofdifferentquantities· Theireffectsonhumanhealthisnotknown.· Theyarenotwelllabeled· Theyarenotwellpackaged.
Examplesoftraditionaldrugs· Mululunza· Kigagi· Bombo· Eusuk· Asimiri
EssentialdrugsEssentialdrugsaredrugsneededtocareandpreventcommondiseasesaffectingthemajorityofpeopleinanareaorcountry.
Qualitiesofessentialdrugs· Theyshouldbeaffordabletomakethecostoftreatmentmanageable.· Theyshouldbeaccessibleandavailablewheneverneeded.· Theyshouldbeeffectivetocure,preventandcontroldiseases.· Theyshouldbesafewhenthecorrectdosageisused.· Theyshouldhaveasatisfactoryvalueformoney.
Examplesofessentialdrugs· Coughmixture· Chloroquine· Paracetamol· Piriton· Penicillin· ORS
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· Tetracyline
DrugprescriptionThisreferstohealthworkerswritteninformationonhowadrugshouldbeused.
Ifadrugistakenwithoutaprescription,thepatientwilleithertakeunderoroverdose.
OverdoseThisisthetakinginofmoremedicinethanisrequired.
Anoverdoseisdangeroustothebodybecauseitcanleadtopoisoningordeath.UnderdoseThisiswhenonetakesfewerdrugsthantherequiredThemajordisadvantageofanunderdoseisthatitcausesdrugresistance.
Advantagesofdrugprescriptions.· Ithelpsthepatienttoknowthecorrectdrug.· Itsdosagerelationtoage,weightanddurationoftreatment· Preventoverdoewhichisharmfulandpoisonoustothebody· Preventsandcontrolsmisuseofdrugs
DrugsofdependenceThesearedrugswhichcauseaddictionafterprolongeduse.Anadditiontoadrugisastrongdiseasethatonefeelsuncomfortablewhenhe/shedoesnotusethedrug.
DrugsofdependencyThisisthecontinuoususeofdrugsonaregularbasisafterthebodyoftheuser.Itcanalsobetheillegaluseofthedrug.Commondrugsofdependency· Marijuana· Khartormiraa· Cocaine· Glue· Aviationfuel· Heroin· Alcohol· Tobacco· Paintthinner.
Drugmis-useThisistheuseofadrugwithoutoragainstthehealthworkersinstruction.
WaysofMis-usingdrugs
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· Sharingdrugs· Takingunprescribeddrugs
DrugabuseThisistheuseofadruginawaywhichisharm (dangerous)tothebody.
Whypeopleabusedrugs· Somepeopleabusedrugstoovercomefear· Duetopeerinfluence· Tokeepawakeorsleep· Duetogoodadvertisement· Topasstime· Tofeelwarm· Togetenergy· Toconcentrateonwhattheyaredoing· Togainmoreappetite.
Commonpeoplewhoabusedrugs·
Effectsofdrugsofdependencetoanindividual·Braindamage· Lossofappetite· Insomnia(inabilitytosleep)· Jobneglect· Selfneglect
·Lowimmunitytodisease
Effects tothefamily·Familyneglect· Familyaggressionandviolence· Criminalactslikedefilementandrape· Poverty· Itsetsabadexampletothechildren
Effectstothecommunity· Itleadstoincreasedaccidents· Criminalbehavior· Poorjobperformance
Lifeskillstosafeguardagainstalcohol,smokinganddrugdependency
Whatisalifeskill?Itispersonalandsocialskillthatenablesapersontofunctionconfidentlyandcompetentlyinordertofitinacommunity.
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Selfawareness- Knowyourself- Careforyourselftoavoiddrugabuse- Makechoiceswhichyouthinkareconsistentandofvalue.- Avoidassociatingwithwronggroups- SayNotopeopleinfluencingyoutousedrugs
Copingwithstress- Inthissituation,trytobefirm toaproblem andbereadytocontainit.- Trytoacceptpositivepiecesof adviceswithpatience- Dontdrink/smokeasmeansofreducingstress
Selfesteem- Acceptyourselfasyouandbelieveinyourself- Havegooddiscipline- Appreciateyourself- Peerresistance- Avoidbadcompany
Assertiveness- Beopenandgivereasonsforallyourdecisions- Insistonthefactthatwrong thingsarewrong.- Bestraightforwardandhonestwithyourself.
Decisionmaking- Makeachoicewithgoodresults- Baddecisionmayaffectyourlifeinfuture
Leisuretime- Involvingyourselfinmeaningfulactivitiesduringfreetime.
Lifeskillsthatcanhelpyoutoavoiddrugs· Desistfrom badpeergroups· Throughcounselingandguidance· Followgoodmoralsfrom elders.· Spendingleisuretimeconstructivelybyengaginginproductiveactivities.· Readinggoodmaterialwhichisusefultolife.
TERM IICLASSIFICATIONOFFLOWERINGANDNONFLOWERINGPLANTS
PLANTKINGDOMPlantsaredividedintotwogroupsviz:
i. Nonfloweringplantsii.Floweringplants
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NON — FLOWERINGPLANTSTheseareplantswhichdontbearflowers.Groupsofnonfloweringplants
· Sporebearingplants· Coniferousplants
SporebearingplantsTheseareplantsthatreproducebymeansofspores.Theyinclude:· Ferns· Mosses· Liverworts· Horsetails
Asporeisasinglecellwhichisabletodevelopintoanewplant.Asporeisprotectedbyasporecase.
FERNS· Havechlorophyllandcanmaketheirownfood.· Haveproperroots,stemsandleaves.· Reproducebymeansofspores,sporesareproduced atthelowersideof
theleaves insporecases.· Theygrowinshadymoistplaces.Diagram
MOSSES· Thesearesmallgreenplantsgrowonhouseroofs,verandah,treetrunks,logs,
rocks,andsoilindampshadyplaces.· Reproducebymeansofspores.· Containchlorophyllandmakesitsownfood.Diagram
LIVERWORTS· Growinwetmoistplaces.· Havechlorophyllandmaketheirownfood.
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· Reproducebymeansofspores.
CONIFERS· Thesebearseedsinstructurescalledcones.· Havesmallneedleshapedgreenleaves.· Donthaveflowersbutproducepollenandovulesincones.Examplesinclude;· Pine· Cedar· Fir· Cypress· Cycades· Podo· Ginkgo
Economicvalueofconifers· Giveussoftwoodtimber.· Actaswindbreaks.· Producesoftwoodformakingpapers,matchsticks,ceilingboards.· Earnsforeignexchange.
FLOWERINGPLANTSTheseareplantsthatbearflowersandreproducebymeansofseeds.
Groupsoffloweringplants· Monocotyledonousplants· Dicotyledonousplants.
MonocotyledonousplantsTheseareplantsthatbearseedswithonecotyledon.ExamplesMillet maizeSorghum riceBarley wheatOats
Characteristicsofmonocotyledonousplant· Produceseedswithonecotyledon· Theyundergohypogealgermination.· Havefibrousroots.· Haveleaveswithparallelleafvenation.
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DicotyledonousplantsTheseareplantswhichbearseedswithtwocotyledons.Examples:Legumese.g.beans,peas,groundnuts,bambaranutse.t.c.
Characteristicsofdicotyledonousplants· Produceseedswithtwocotyledons· Undergoepigealgermination· Haveanetworkleafvenation· Haveataprootsystem.
Afloweringplantconsistsoftwosystemsi. Rootsystemsii. Shootsystem.
Partsofafloweringplant.Diagram.Functionsofpartsofafloweringplant.Terminalbud— Growingtipoftheplant.Auxiliarybud— growsintobranch,floweretc.Node— Pointonastem wherealeafgrows.Internode:-TheregionbetweentwonodesRootcap:-Protectsthetipofthetaproot.(mainroot)
ROOTSApartofaplantthatgrowsinthesoil.Itdevelopsfrom theradicle.
Functionsofroots· Absorbwaterandmineralsaltsfrom thesoil.· Holdtheplantfirmlyinthesoil.· Somerootsstorefoodfortheplant.· Somerootshelptheplanttobreathe.
Usesofrootstoman· Somearesoldtogetincome.· Somerootsaresourcesoffood.· Somerootsareusedasherbalmedicine.· Someprovidewoodfuel.
ROOTSYSTEMSThesearetwomainrootsystems
i. Fibrousrootsystem.ii.Taprootsystem.
Diagrams
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Typesofrootsi. Proproots
Thesegiveextrasupporttoaplantsuchplantsinclude;-maize,sorghum,etc.Diagram
ii.Buttressrootsiii.Claspingrootsiv.Stiltrootsv.Breathingrootsvi.Storagerootse.g.carrots,cassava,sweetpotatoesetc
Withdiagrams
OSMOSISThisisaplantprocesswherefluids(plantnutrientsmovefrom aregionoflowconcentrationthroughasemi-permeablemembrane.Osmosismainlytakesplaceintheroothairsofplants.
Anexperimenttoillustrateosmosis.
STEMSFunctionsofthestem toplants.· Theyholdleavesandbranchesinpositiontogetsunlight.· Holdtheflowerforpollination· Helpintranspiration· Somestemsmakefoodfortheplant.
Functionstoman.· Somearesourcesoffood.· Somearesourcesofincome.· Someprovideherbalmedicine.
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· Someareusedforpropagation.· Someprovidetimber.
Typesofstems· Uprightstems.· Creepingstems· Undergroundstems.
Withdiagrams
Reasonswhyplantsclimbothers.· Togetsupport· Toobtainsunlight.
Wayshowplantsclimbothers· Useoftendrils· Useofhooks· Bytwiningorclasping
UndergroundstemsExamplesare:
· Bulbs· Rhizomes· Stem tubers· Corms
BulbsExamplesare;Onions,garlicetcdiagram ofonion
RhizomesExamplesare:turmeric,gingeretc
Stem tubersExamplesare;Irishpotato,whiteyamsetc
CormsExampleiscocoyam
Plantstem propagationThisisthewayplantscanbegrownusingstems.
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Examples· Bulbs· Rhizomes· Corns· Stem tubers· Suckers
Withdiagrams
LEAVESThestructureofaleaf,partsandtheirfunctions.Typesofleaves.· Simpleleaves· Simpleserrated· Simpledivided· Simplelobed.
Withdiagrams
Compoundleaves· Bipinnate· Pinnate· Digitate· Trifoliate
WithdiagramsFunctionsofleavestobothplantsandman(animals)
PHOTOSYNTHESISTheprocessbywhichgreenplantsmaketheirownfood.Photo— meanslight.Synthesis— meanstobuildup.
Rawmaterialsforphotosynthesis· Water· Carbondioxide.Conditionsnecessaryforphotosynthesis· Chlorophyll· Water· Sunlight· Carbondioxide.
ImportanceofPhotosynthesis· Ithelpsinfoodproduction· Ithelpstopurifytheenvironmentbyusingatmosphericcarbondioxide
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Adaptationsofleavesforphotosynthesis· Haveabroadflatshapetoincreasesurfaceareaforsunlight.· Havethinwallstoallowcarbondioxide· Havestomataforgaseousexchange.· Haveveinsfortranslocation.
TRANSPIRATIONTheprocessbywhichplantslosewateraswatervapourtotheatmospherethoughleaves.Anexperimenttoshowtranspiration.Importanceoftranspiration· Tocooltheplant.· Helpsplantstoabsorbswaterandmineralsalts.· Helpsinrainformation
Factorsaffectingrateoftranspiration· Temperature· Lightintensity· Wind· Natureoftheleaf· Humidity· StomataWaysofreducingtranspiration· Plantsshed theirleaves· Formingalayerofwaxontheleafsurface.· Reducingthesizeofleavestothorns.
REPRODUCTIONINFLOWERINGPLANTSTherearetwotypesofreproductioninplants.Asexualreproduction(Vegetativepropagation)Sexualreproduction.
THEFLOWERThestructureofaflower(Itspartsandfunctions)
POLLINATIONThetransferofpollengrainsfrom antherstothestigma.
Typesofpollination· Crosspollination· Selfpollination
SELFPOLLINATIONThetransferofpollengrainsfrom antherstothestigmaofthesameflower.
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NB:Apawpawundergoesselfpollination.Diagram
Crosspollination:Thetransferofpollengrainsfrom theantherof oneflowertothestigmaofanotherflowerofthesame kind..
NB:AmaizeplantundergoescrosspollinationDiagram
Agentsofpollination· Animals· Wind· Flowingwater
Characteristicsofinsectandwindpollinatedflowers
Wind InsectsHavenonectar HavenectarDullcolouredpetals Bright petalsAlotofpollengrains FewpollengrainsHavenoscent Havescent
Importancesofpollination- Itallowsfertilizationtotakeplaceincrops- Leadstohighyieldsinfarmersharvest.
Usesofflowers- Fordecoration onvariousfunctions- Makingofinsecticide- Perfumemaking- Usedtogetdyes- Sourcesofincomebygrowing/selling- Signoflove.- Signofrespectforthedead.
FERTILISATION
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Theunionofamaleandfemalegamatestoform azygote.Afterpollination,pollentubesdevelopreachingdowntheovules.Afterfertlisationintheovary,ovulesbecomeseedsandanovarydevelopsintoafruit.
Diagram
SEEDSAseedisafertilisedovulethatdevelopsintoanewplant.
Classesofseeds· Monocotyledonousseeds· Dicotyledonousseeds
MonocotyledonousseedsThesehaveonecoytledon.
ExamplesDicotyledonousseedsTheseareseedswithtwocotyledons.Examples
Structureofabeanseed
GERMINATIONThedevelopmentofaseedintoaseedling.
Typesofgermination· Epigealgermination· Hypogealgermination
EPIGEALGERMINATIONThetypeofgerminationwherethecotyledonscomeabovethegroundlevel. Itoccursinalllegumes.E.g.beans,peas,G.nuts,etc.
HYPOGEALGERMINATIONThisisthetypeopfgerminationwherethecootyedonsremainbelowthegroundlevel.Itoccursinallmonocotyledonousplantse.gwheat,maize,sorghum etc.
Diagrams
Conditionsnecessaryforgermination· Air(oxygen)· Water(moisture)
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· WarmthDifferencebetweendicotsandmonotplants
MONOCOT DICOTHaveonecotyledon HavetwocotyledonsHavefibrousrootsystem HavetaprootsystemsHaveparallelleafvenation HavenetworkleafvenationUndergoeshypogealgermination
UndergoesepigealgerminationFormstruewood.
FRUITSAfruitisadevelopedovarycontainingseeds.Fruitshavetwoscars.Stylestalkandstalkscar.Fruitsprotectseedsandassistindispersal.
Typesoffruits· Succuentfruits· Dryfruits
SUCCULENTFRUITS/JUICYFRUITSThesearefruitswhosepericarpandmesocarpbecomejuicyandfleshyandcanbeeaten.Theyaredividedintothreegroups.·Berries·Drupes·Pomes.
BerriesThesearefruitswithmanyseeds.Thesoftpericarpisdividedintothreelayers.·Epicarp· Mesocarp· Endocarp
Examples· Oranges· Tomatoes· Pawpaw
Diagram ofanorangefruit.
DrupesThesearefruitswihoneseedinsideahardendocarp.Drupeshavethreelayers;· Epicarp· Mesocarp
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· Endocarp
Examples· Mangoes· Avacadoes· Coconuts· Palm oil· Cashewnuts.etc
Diagrams
PomesThesearefruitsinwhichthereceptaclebecomesjuicyandmodifiedasafruitwhiletheinnercoreisthepericarp.Examples·Apples· Figs· PearsetcDiagram
FRUITANDSEEDDISPERSALThisisthescatteringofseedsandfruitsfrom parentplantstoanewenvironment.
Importanceofseeddispersal· Preventsovercrowding· Reducescompetitionforlightandnutrients.· Enablesplantstocolonisenewareas.· Thefarmergetsnewspeciesofcrops.
Agentsofseeddispersal· Water· Animals· Wind· Explosivemechanism
Explainthecharacteristicsofeachandtheirdiagrams.
TROPISMTropism isgrowthmovementofplantsinresponsetoastimulus
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Astimulusisanychangeintheenvironmentwhichtheplantissensitiveto
KindsoftropismPhototropismThisisgrowthmovementofplantstowardslightegwhenaplantisplacedinthedarkboxwithasmallopeningtowardstheplanttendstogrow
Diagram
GeotropismThisisagrowthmovementofaplanttowardsthedirectofforceofgravityplantrootgrowwardsduetoforceofgravity.
Diagram forillustration
HydrotropismThisisagrowthmovementofsomepartsofcertainplantinresponsetotouchoneside.Thisstimulushelpstwinningplantssuchasbeans,passionfruitsandyamsclimbsbyuseoftendrils,hooks
ChemotropismThisisthegrowthmovementofplantpartstowardsthesourceofchemicalegpollentubesgrowthestyletoreachtheovules
PLANTPROPAGATIONPlant propagation refersmethodsusedingrowingcropsTherearetwobasicmethodsofpropagation
i)Seedpropagationii)Vegetativepropagation
SEEDPROPAGATIONmostfloweringplantsarepropagatedbymeansofseedsegbeans,maize,coffee,mangoetcvegetativepropagation
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inthismethodapartofaparentplantisplantedtogiverisetoanewplant.
Partsifplantsusedinvegetativepropagationare:-- Stems- Leaves- Buds
Typesofvegetativepropagation- Naturalvegetativepropagation- Artificialvegetativepropagation
NaturalvegetativepropagationPlants Methodsof
propagationYams(whiteyams) Stem tubersIrishpotatoes Stem tubersGinger RhizomesBanana,pineapple,sisal SuckersPineapples Crowns,slipsisal BulbilsOnions BulbsStrawberry RunnersPyrethrum Split
ArtificialvegetativepropagationThisinvolvesuseofspecialskillandtechniquestoproducehighqualityandhighyieldingcropswhichareresistanttodiseases
Exampleofartificialvegetative propagationa) Stem cutting
Description & Diagram
b) LayeringDescription & Diagram
c) GraftingDescription & Diagram
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d) BuddingDescription & Diagram
e) MarcottingDescription & Diagram
ECONOMICVALUESOFPLANTSTOMAN- Plantsprovidefoodtoman.- Plantshelpincontrollingsoilerosion- Plantsareneeded inconstructionandbuildingindustry.- Theyproviderawmaterialsforagrobasedindustries- Agriculturalindustryisasourceofrevenueforgovernment
ANIMALHUSBANDRYAnimalhusbandryisthecareandmanagementoflivestock(farm animals)Examplesoffarm animalsinclude;goats,rabbits,pigs,sheep,cattle,poultry.
KEEPINGCATTLEThisistherearingofcows,bulls,oxen,heifersandbullocks.
Whyfarmersrearcattle· Formeatandmilkproduction· Togetincome· Forprovisionoflabour· Forpaymentofdowryandbrideprice
Importanceofkeepingcattle· Theyprovideuswithmeatandmilk· Theyareasourceofemploymenttofarmers· Bullsandoxenareusedforploughingandtransport· Cowdungisasourceofmanure· Hidesfrom cattleareusedtomakeleather· Bones,hornsandhoovesareusedtomakeglueandanimalfeeds.· Cattleareusedtopaydowryorbrideprice.
Externalpartsofacow
TypesofcattleAtypeofcattlemeansaclassofcattlekeptforaspecificpurpose.
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ThemajortypesofcattlekeptinUgandainclude;· BeefCattle· DairyCattle· DualpurposeCattle
TypesofbreedsofcattleAbreedisafamilyofcattlehavingspecificcharacteristics. The typeofbreedofcattlearedeterminedby;colour,size,milkyield,bodyconformationlikeshapeetc.Therearethreetypesofbreedsofcattle,namely;· Localbreeds/indigenousbreeds· Exoticbreeds· Crossbreeds
LocalorindigenousbreedsThesearebreedsthathaveexistedinEastAfricaforlong.TheyarealsocalledNativeBreeds.Examples
· Ankolecow· Boran· Zebu
Advantagesoflocalbreedsofcattle· Theyareresistanttosomediseases.· Theycansurviveonpoorpastureandlittlewater· Theyrequirelesscareandmanagement· Theyproducehighqualitymeatandmilk· Disadvantagesoflocalbreedsofcattle· Theymatureslowly· Theyproducelessproducts(i.e.Milkandmeat)
Advantagesofexoticbreedsofcattle· Theygrowandmaturefaster· Theyproducemoremeatandmilk
Disadvantagesofexoticbreedsofcattle· Theyareeasilyattackedbydiseases· Theyneedgoodpastureandwaterallthetime.· Theyneedalotofcareandattention.
TypesofcattleTherearethreetypesofcattlenamely;· Beefcattle· Dairycattle· Dualpurposecattle
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· Worktype(draughtcattle)
BeefcattleThesearecattlemainlykeptforbeef(meat)production.
Characteristicsofbeefcattle· Theygrowfast· Theyhaveablock(rectangular)shape· Theyhavesmallheads· Theyhaveshortlegswithlongbroadbacks.
Examplesofbeefcattle· Shorthorn· Galloway· Hereford· Aberdeenangus· AmericanBraham· Charolais· SantaGertrudis
Diagram ofabeefcattleasseenfrom aboveandaside.
Seenfrom aside Seenfrom above
DairycattleThesearecattlekeptmainlyformilkproduction
Characteristicsofdairycattle· Theyaretriangularinshape· Theyproducealotofmilk· Theyhavewellsetlegstosupporttheirweight.· Theyhaveplentyofspacebetweentheirhindlegs.· Theyareusuallydocile(calm)· Theyhavesmallnecksandwidehindquarters.
Examplesofdairycattle
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a)Friesian b)BrownSwissc)Guernsey d)Ayrshire
Diagram ofadairycowasseenfrom aboveandaside
Seenfrom above Seenfrom aside
DualpurposecattleThesearecattlekeptforbothmeatandmilkproduction.
Examples1.RedPoll 2.MilkingShorthorn3.Sahiwal
Work(draught)cattleThesearecattlemainlykeptforprovidinglabouronafarm (ploughing,transport).Theyareusedtoploughsoil,pullcarts,etc.
DifferencesbetweenlocalandexoticbreedsofcattleLocalBreeds ExoticBreedsTheyhavedifferentcolours Theyhavespecificcolours.Theymatureslowly. Theymaturequickly.Theyproducelessmeatandmilk. Theyproducemoremeatandmilk.Theyneedlesscare. Theyneedalotofcare.Theyaremoreresistanttodiseases. Thearelessresistanttodiseases.Theycansurviveonpoorpastureandwater.
Theyneedgoodpastureandwaterallthetime.
BreedingofcattleBreedingisthekeeping(maintaining)ofinheritedcharacteristicsincattle.Suchcharacteristicsinclude;colour,growth,diseaseresistance,milking,longevity,(abilitytolovelong).
Typesofbreeding
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1.InBreeding 2.Linebreeding3.OutBreeding 4.Crossbreeding5.Upgrading 6.Selectivebreeding
InBreedingThisisthematingofverycloselyrelatedanimals(suchasbrothersandsisters).
AdvantagesofinbreedingItmakesgoodcharacteristicsinthefamilyofanimalsstrong.
DisadvantagesItleadstoproductionofpoorquality.Itcanleadtoinheritanceofbadtraits.
LineBreedingThisisthematingofcloselyrelatedanimals(suchascousins).Linebreedingcanleadtoinheritanceofbadtraits.
OutBreedingThisisthematingofdistantlyrelatedanimals.Outbreeding bringsgoodqualitiesthatmaybedisappearinginabreed.
CrossBreedingThisisthematingofunrelatedanimalsofdifferentpurebreeds.(e.g.Matingexoticbreedswithlocalbreeds).Theoffspringsaftercrossbreedingarecalledcrossbreeds.Crossbreedshavebetterperformancethantheirparentsorrelatives.
UpGradingThisistheimprovementofqualityofonebreedbyusingabreedofsuperiorqualityseveraltimes.
SelectiveBreedingThisisthematingofselectedgoodbreedsinaherd.Badorpoorbreedsinaherdaresoldoffforslaughter.
Typesofservice/inseminationTherearetwotypesofinsemination;
a)NaturalInseminationb)ArtificialInsemination
NatureInseminationThisisthedepositingofspermsintothefemalereproductivesystem byamaleanimal.
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Typesofnaturalinseminationa)Handmatingb)Pasturemating
HandmatingThismeansbringingabulltomatewithacowonheat.
PastureMatingThismeansallowingabulltomovewithcowssothatitmateseasilywiththoseonheat.
Advantagesofnaturalinsemination· Afarmerdoesnotbothertolookforanexpertinseminator.· Itischeapforafarmersincesemenisnotbought.· Thebullnoticesthecowsonheateasily.· Animalsonheatenjoythefeelingofsex.
Disadvantagesofnaturalinsemination· Controllingveneraldiseasesisdifficult.· Smallcowscanbeinjuredbybigbulls.· Transportingabullifnonisaroundisexpensive.· Inbreedingiseasilypracticed.ReproductionincattleReproductionistheabilitytoproduceoffspringsandincreaseinnumber.Theremustbeamaleandafemaletomateandproduceyoungones.
MatingMatingisthesexualunionofthemaleandfemaleanimals.Duringmating,serving(insemination)takesplace.Aheiferisreadyformatingattheageof18months.Whenacoworheiferisreadyformating,itshowssignsofheat.
Heatperiod oroestrusperiodThisisthetimewhenafemaleanimalisreadytomatewithamaleanimal.
OestruscycleThisisaperiodwhenafemaleanimalcanconceiveifitmates.Signsofheat· Thecowmountsothercows.· Thecowallowsothercowstomountit.· Thecowlosesappetitetograze.· Mucusdischargefrom thevulva.· Slightriseinthebodytemperatureofacow.· Thevulvaswellsandchangesfrom pinktored.· Thecowurinatesfrequently.· Thecowbecomesrestlessandmoosallthetime.
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· Milkproductioninlactatingcowdrops.· Threeweeksaftertheperiodofservice,ifthecowshowsnomoresignsof
heat,wesayithasconceived.
ArtificialinseminationThismeansdepositingspermsintothefemalereproductivesystem ofacowusingssyringeoraninseminatinggun.
Advantagesofartificialinsemination· Itcontrolsveneraldiseases.· Itischeapertobuyspermsthanbuyingabull.· Itpreventsinjurytosmallcows.· Semenfrom agooddeadbullcanbeusedtoimprovebreeds.· Inbreedingiscontrolled.· Wastagesofsemenisminimized
Disadvantagesofartificialinsemination· Itrequiresanexperttocarryitout.· Storingsemenisdifficult.· Itmaynotgivegoodresults.· Afarmermaynoteasilynoticethecowonheat.
Thereproductivesystem ofacow.Diagram
UsesofeachpartVulvaItreceivesandguidesthepenistothevagina.Itprotectsandcoversthevagina.VaginaItreceivesspermsandpassesthem totheuterus.Itisabirthcanal.
CervixItprotectsthefoetusduringpregnancybyclosingthecervix.
OvaryItproducesmatureova(eggs)
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Itproduceshormoneswhichcontrolsthesexualcycle.
OvaThesearefemalereproductivecells.Theyfusewithspermstoform azygote.
UterusItiswhereimplantationtakesplace.Itprovidesasuitableenvironmentforimplantationtotakeplace.Oviduct(fallopiantube)Itiswherefertilizationtakesplace.Itpassesafertilizedeggtotheuterus.
Thereproductivesystem ofabullUsesofeachpart· Testes· Theyproducesperms.· Theyproduceahormoneresponsibleforpubertyandsexualdesire.This
hormoneiscalledtestosterone.
UrethraItpassesurinetothepenisItpassesspermstothepenis.
Sperm ductsTheycarryspermstotheurethra.
PenisItdepositsspermstothevagina
TestesTheyhelptomanufacturesperms
EpididymisItstoressperms.
ProstateglandsandseminalvesiclesTheyproducesementhroughwhichspermsswim.
ScrotumThisistheoutercoveringofthetesticles.Itprotectsthetesticles.Itregulatesthetemperatureofthetesticles.FertilizationinacowFertilizationistheunionofmaleandfemalegametestoform azygote.Agameteisareproductivecell.
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ThefemalegameteiscalledOvumThemalegameteiscalledaSperm.
Diagram ofasperm andanOvum
Sperm Ovum
Afterfertilization,thezygotedevelopsintoanembryo.Theembryodevelopsintoafoetusandfinallyintoacalf.
Zygote Embryo Foetus Calf
Theembryoisattachedtotheuteruswallthroughtheplacenta.
ImplantationThisistheattachmentofthefoetustothewallsoftheuterus.Therefore,Implantationtakesplaceintheuterus.
GestationperiodThisisthetimebetweenconceptionandgivingbirth.Thegestationperiodofanin-calfis270-280daysorninemonths.Anin-calfisacowthatispregnant.
SignsofpregnancyAcowdoesnotgoonheat21daysafterservice.· Theuterusenlargesinthesecondandthirdmonthafterconception.· Theudderenlargesandfillswithmilk.· Thecervixclosesduringpregnancy.· Themovementoffoetuscanbeseenorfeltafter7months.
DryperiodThisisthetimewhenalactatingcowisleftwithoutmilkingitinpreparationtogivingbirth.Acowisdriedsixtosevenweeksbeforecalving.Duringthedryperiod,thein-calfisfedonfoodsrichinprotein.
SteamingupThisisthefeedingofanin-calfonfoodsrichinprotein.Itisnormallydoneduringthelasttwomonths.
Whysteamingup/advantagesofsteamingup· Itencouragesthefoetustogrowhealthy.· Itbuildsacowsbodyinpreparation forcalving(parturition)· Itincreasesthemanufactureofcolostrum.· Itpreventslowbirthweight.· Itprolongsmilkletdown.
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CalvingorparturitionThisistheactofgivingbirthincattle(cows).
Signsofcalving· Thevulvaswellsandbecomesred.· Thecowliesdownmostofthetime.· Theudderandteatsbecomeswollen.· Theamnion(orwatersac)comesoutanditbursts.
ColostrumThisisthefirstyellowishmilkgotfrom acowwhichhasjustgivenbirth.
Usesofcolostrum· Ithasallfoodvalues.· Itopensupthedigestivesystem ofacalf.· Itbooststheimmunityofacalfsinceitisrichinantibodies.· ItimprovesacalfssightsinceitisrichinvitaminA.
CattlemanagementonafarmTherearevariouswaysofcattlemanagementonafarm.Theseinclude;1.Numbering 2.Dehorning/Disbudding3.Hooftrimming 4.Castration5.Dehorning 6.Spraying7.Dipping 8.DustingNumberingThismeansputtingamarkorlabelonthebodyofanimals.Numberingenablesfarmerstoidentifyanimalseasily.
Waysofnumberinga)Branding b)EarNotchingc)Eartagging d)Numberlacinge)Eartattooing f)TailBobbingg)Grueling
EarnotchingThisisthecuttingoftheedgeoftheearsofanimalswithmarks.
Diagram
EarTaggingThismeansfixingtagswithnumbersontheearofanimals.
Diagram
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NumberinglacingThisistheputtingofawoodenoironpieceofplatearoundtheneckofanimals.
Diagram
EartattooingThismeansputtingpermanentmarkontheearsofanimalsusingplierscarryingnumbersonthem.
Diagram
TailbobbingThismeanstrimminglonghairontheanimalstail(switch).
N:BCowsarenotusuallydockedi.e.tailsarenotshortened.
GruelingThismeanstrimminglonghairaroundtheanusandgenitalparts.
Dehorning/disbuddingThisistheremovalofhornbudsfrom thecalfshead.
Materialsusedfordehorningi) Dehorningironii) Chemicalssuchascausticsticks.
Advantagesofdehorning· Itmakesanimalseasytohandle.· Itreducestherisksofinjuriesamonganimalsandpeople.· ItincreasesspaceintheKraal/Manyanimalscanbekeptinasmallspace.· Hooftrimming· Thismeanscuttingoffovergrownhoovesofanimals.
Advantages
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Itreducestheriskofinjuriesamongcattle.Itreducestheriskoftransmissionofdiseases.
CastrationThisistheremovalof testiclesfrom amaleanimal.
MethodsofcastrationTherearethreemethodsofcastration;
i) OpenOperation(opencastrationorSurgery)ii) Closedoperation(closedcastration)iii) Useofaloop(Rubberring)
OpenoperationThisistheremovaloftesticlefrom amaleanimalbyusingasharpknifeorbladetoslitthescrotum.
Diagram
ClosedoperationThisisthecrushingofsperm ductsbyusingaburdizzowhichhasbluntpincers.
Diagram ofaburndizzo
Usesofaloop· Thismeanssqueezingsperm ductsusinganelasticrubberband.· Whenthesperm ducts,(spermaticcords)andbloodvesselsarebroken,the
testesshrinkanddie.
DiagramAdvantagesofcastration· ItpreventsthespreadofSTDsamongcattle.· Castratedanimalsbecomehumble(docile)andeasytohandle.· Castratedanimalsfattensformorebeef.· Castratedanimalsgrazewithfemaleswithoutdisturbingthem.· Itpreventsinbreeding
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· Itpreventspoorbreedssincebullswithpoorbreedsarecastrated..
DisadvantagesofcastrationCastratedanimalsmaylosealotofbloodanddie.Woundsmaybecomesepticandcausepainanddeath.Animalsaredeniedtherightofmating.
DewormingThismeansgivingdrugstodomesticanimalsandbirds.
Whydeworm?Toremoveendoparasitesfrom thebody.Methodsofdeworming
1.Drenching2.Dozing
DrenchingThismeansgivingliquidmedicinetoanimals.Drenchingcanbedoneusingadrenchinggunorabottle.
Diagram ofadrenchinggun
DozingThismeansgivingsolidmedicinetocattle(animals)Thesolidmedicineisinform oftabletsorcapsules.
SprayingThisistheremovalofectoparasitesonthebodyofananimalbysprinklingacaricidesusingaknapsacksprayerorsprayrace.
DustingThismeansapplying thebodyofanimalswithpowderedchemicalstokillectoparasites.
DetickingThisisthepickingofticksfrom theskinofanimalsusinghands.
DippingThismeansmakinganimalstoswim throughwatermixedwithacaricides inadiptank/pool.
Diagram ofadiptank
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RemovalofextrateatsThismeanscuttingextrateatsfrom theudderofacow.Thereshouldbeonlyfourteats.
MILKINGThisistheremovalofmilkfrom theudderofacowthroughteats.
MilkletdownMilkletdownistheflowofmilkfrom theudderofacow.
TypesofmilkingTherearetwotypesofmilkingnamely;
a)handmilkingb)MachineMilking
HandmilkingHandmilkingisthedrawingofmilkfrom theudderofacowbysqueezingteatsusinghands.Handmilkingisalsocalledfullhandmilking.
MachinemilkingThisistheuseofamachinetodrawmilkfrom theudderofacow.Thepartsofamilkingmachinemustbewashedtoavoidmilkcontamination.
Diagram illustratingmachinemilking
Preparationformilking· Assemblethemilkingequipment.· Cleanallthemilkingequipmenttomakethem ingoodworkingorder.· Putthecowinamilkingplaceandtiethehindlegswitharope.· Givethecowsomefeedstokeepitbusyandrelaxedduringmilking.· Washtheudderandteatstoencouragemilkletdown.
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· Washyourhandsclean.· From eachteat,drawoneortwostreamsofmilkthroughastripcuptodetect
thepresenceofmastitisinmilk.· Ifthecowhasmastitis,bloodstainswillbeseeninmilkdrawnthroughastrip
cup.· Acowwithmastitisshouldbemilkedlast.· Aftermilking,washthemilkingplaceandequipmentusingdisinfectants.
STRIPCUPThisisaninstrumentusedtodetectthepresenceofmastitisinmilk.
Diagram ofastripcupLACTOMETERThisisanequipmentusedto;
a)detectthepresenceofwaterifadded inmilkb)detectthepresenceoffatsinmilk.
Alactometerisaclosedweighedtubegraduatedtomakethelevelofnormalmilk.
Howalactometerworks· Alactometerisdippedinacontainerhavingmilk.· Ifwaterhasbeenaddedtomilkorfatshavebeenremoved,itwillnotget
enoughsupporttofloatandthereforeitwillsinkdeeper.Diagram ofalactometer.
PreservingmilkMilkisagoodenvironmentforbacteriatomultiply.Itshouldthereforebepreservedforfutureuseotherwiseitwillgobad.
Methodsofpreservingmilk1.Sterilization 2.Refrigeration3.Boiling 4.
Sterilization/pasteurization· Thismeanskillinggermsinmilkbymaximum boilingfollowedbycoolingand
boiling.· Itisalsocalledpasteurization.· Theheatingkillsgermsandquickcoolingpreventsbacteriafrom entering
milkandmultiplyinginit.· ThismethodwasnamedafterLouisPasteur,aFrenchScientistwho
discoveredthatmilkgoesbadbecauseofbacteria.
RefrigerationThismeansputtingmilkinarefrigeratorwheregermscanteasilyandquicklymultiplybecauseofverylowtemperature.
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BoilingThismeanskillinggermsbyboilingmilkfrom timetotime.
HomogenizingThisisawayoftreatingmilksothatfatsarebrokenandthencream ismixedwiththerest.Homogenizingisnotawayofpreservingmilk.
Productsfrom milkButter Cheese creamGhee Yoghurt
CASEINANDWHEYThisisthepartleftafterbutterhasbeenremovedfrom milk.Caseincanbeusedasarawmaterialformakingshinnypaper.
WheyThisistheliquidpartleftaftersourmilkhasformedcurd.Wheycanbeusedasasourcetoaccompanyfood.
ExamplesofprocessedmilkWholemilk SkimmedMilkPasteurizedMilk FortifiedMilkCondensedMilk
HOUSINGONAFARMUsesofhousingonafarm· Houseskeepfarm produce· Houseskeepfarm records.· Housesstoreanimalfeeds,utensilsandfarm toolsfarm (equipment)· Housesareusedasmilkingshadesforanimals.· Housesareusedastreatingplacesforanimals.
TypesofhousesonafarmTherearetwotypesofhousesonafarm.Theseare;
a)Semi-Permanenthousesb)Permanenthouses
Semi-PermanenthousesThesearehousesmadefrom simplelocalmaterials,(mud,reeds,cowdung,grass,poles,nails)Examplesinclude;Kraalsandbyres.
PermanentHousesThesearemadefrom strongdurablematerialssuchastimber,bricks,concrete,
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ironsheets.
RoofinghousesonafarmRoofingfarm housesdependsonavailablematerials.Thecheapestform ofroofingisusinggrass,bananafibres,bambooorstraws.
Advantagesofthatching· Itprotectsanimalsfrom badweather.· Itpreventswaterfrom enteringthehouse.· Itischeapinconstruction.
Disadvantagesofthatchingusinggrass· Thatchingmaterialscaneasilycatchfireandburnanimals.· Materialscaneasilyrot.· Thatchcaneasilyleakifnotwelldone.
FENCINGAfenceisabarrierofliveordeadmaterialsusedtodividelandintoplotsorpaddocks.Fencingmeansputtingabarrierofliveordeadmaterialsonlandtodivideorseparateitintosizeablepieces.
Typesoffences· Naturalfences(liveFences)· Artificialfences(deadfences)
NaturalFencesTheseareplantedplantsalongboarders(margins)oflandtobefenced.Examplesofplantsusedtomakenaturalfencesinclude;bamboo,sisal,cypress,conifers,hedges,thornyplants,tatropa,cedar(x-mastree)
ArtificialfencesThesearefencesmadeoutofdeadmaterialsExamplesofmaterialsusedinclude;chainlinks,barbedwire,wirenets,concrete,bricks,treatedpoles,nails.
Importanceoffencing· Naturalfencesactaswindbreaks.· Naturalfencesmaintainsoilfertilitybyaddinghumus.· Fencingcontrolsthespreadofdiseasesbycontrollinganimalmovements.· Fencingallowsproperuseofpasture.· Fenceskeepoffintruderssuchasthievesandwildanimals.· Fencespreventthestrayingofanimals.· Fencesmakecullingeasy.· Fencesmakeseparationofanimalsaccordingtoage,sex,type,sizeand
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healtheasy.
PASTUREPastureisanopengrasslandonwhichanimalsgraze.
TypesofpastureTherearemainlytwotypesofpasture,namely;
a)Naturalpastureb)PreparedPasture
NaturalpastureThisispasturethatgrowsbyitself.Itiseatenbyanimalsinitsrawform.
Examplesofnaturalpasture.a)Kikuyugrass b)Guineagrassc)Nandigrass d)Elephantgrasse)Guatamalagrass f)Alfaalfa
PreparedpastureThisispasturemadeoutoffoddercrops.Foddercropsarecropsgrownforfeedinganimals.
Examplesofpreparedpasture· Silage· Hay· Cloves· Milletcrops· Desmodium
Importanceofpasture· Pastureisusedforfeedinganimals· Pastureaddshumustothesoil.· Itprovidesbeddingmaterialsforanimals· Itprovidesthatchingmaterialsforhouses· Leguminouspasturesfixnitrogeninthesoil.
Thedigestivesystem ofacowUsesofeachpartMouthForchewingfoodbytheactionoftheteeth.Itpassesfoodtothegullet.
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GulletItpassesfoodtotherumen
Rumen(pouch)Tostorefoodtemporarilybeforeitisreturnedtothemouthforchewing.ItiswherefoodisfermentedItisthelargestofthefourstomachsReticulum (honeycomb)Bacterialactioncontinueshere.Foreignbodiesareretainedhere.OmasumItchurnsandgrindsfoodintofineparticlesWaterisabsorbedherealso.Abomasum (truestomach)Digestionbyenzymestakesplacehere.NB;from abomasum totherectum,digestionisthesameasinnonruminants.
TypesoffoodstuffsRoughagesConcentratesAdditives
RoughagesTheyincludehay(driedgrass),silages(preservedgreenpasture),greengrass,pasture,legumes,straws,maizestalks.
ConcentratesTheseincludecereals,oilyseedsandlegumes.
SupplementsTheseincludeproteinsandvitaminsaddedtofeeds.
AdditivesThesearedrugs,flavoursandhormonesaddedtofeeds.
Note:MaintenancerationsThesearefeedsgiventoanimalstosustaintheirusualfeeds.
ProductionrationsTheseareextrafeedsgiventoanimalsforproductionofeitherbeeformilk.
SaltsupplyAnimalsaregivensaltinorderto;
a)stimulatemilkproductionb)controlsomediseasessuchasmilkfever.
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IntakeThisistheamountoffoodeatenbyananimal.CATTLEPRODUCTS· Meat· Fats· Hides· Bones· Cattledungandurine· Milk· HornsandhoovesGRAZINGGrazingistheproperuseofgrasslandbyanimals· Systemsofgrazing· Herding/freerange/opengrazing· Rotationalgrazing· Zerograzing
HERDINGThismeanslookingafteranimalsastheygrazebyaherdsman.Theherdsmanguidesanimalstogoodpastureandwater.
Advantagesofherding· Animalseatavarietyoffeeds.· Manureisevenlydistributedonthefarm.· Animalsarenoteasilystolenbecausetheyareeasilyandcloselywatchedby
aherdsman.
Disadvantages· Animalscaneasilygetdiseasesandparasites· Animalsmaystrayanddestroycrops.· Animalsarelikelytostarveifthelandissmall.· Animalsarelikelytoovergrazethepasture.
ROTATIONALGRAZINGThisisamethodofgrazinginwhichanimalsgrazeononeportionofpastureatatime.Therearethreemethodsofrotationalgrazing;
i) Paddockingii) Stripgrazingiii) Tethering
Paddockgrazing· Thismeansgrazinganimalsonsmallfencedplots.· Thesmallfencedplotsarecalledpaddocks.· Theanimalsareallowedtograzeinonepaddockforafewweeksbefore
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theyaremovedtoanotherpaddock.
Illustrationofpaddockgrazing
Drinkingwaterforanimalsisfoundinpaddocks.
Advantagesofpaddockgrazing· Paddockgrazingallowsproperuseofpasture.· Itgivesthefarmertimetodootheractivities.· Manureisevenlydistributedonthefarm.· Paddocksbreakthelifecycleofticks.· Itgivesgrasstimetogrowback.· Itcontrolsovergrazing.
DisadvantagesFencingpaddocksisexpensivePaddockingrequiresabigpieceofland.
STRIPGRAZINGThismeansgrazinganimalsonsmallplotsseparatedbyatemporarywire.Thewiresometimescarriessmall(low)current(electricity)thatcontrolsthemovementofanimalsinselectedpastureareas(strips).Animalsgrazeinonestripatatimeuntiltheyhavegonethroughthepastureandbacktothefirststrip.
Illustrationofstripgrazing
Advantagesofstripgrazing· Pastureiswellused.· Parasitesanddiseasesareeasilycontrolled· Itrequireslesslabour
DisadvantagesMaintainingstripsisexpensive(costly)Itisonlysuitableforfewanimals.
TETHERINGThisisthetyingofanimalstoapegortreeusingarope.
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Theanimalstetheredcanbemovedtoanewplacewhennecessary.
Advantagesoftethering· Itischeaptomaintain· Itdoesnotrequiremuchattention· Animalsdonoteasilydestroycorps· Animalsdonotgetastray.Disadvantages· Animalslackbodyexercises· Animalsmayberestrictedononetypeofgrass.· Ropesmayeasilystrangleanimals· Replacingropesduringtherainyseasoniscostly.· Itissuitableforfewanimals.· Animalsmaybeeasilystolen· Animalsmaybeeasilykilledbywildanimals.
ZEROGRAZINGThismeanskeepinganimalsinaspecialbuiltstructure.Waterandfoodareprovidedtoanimals.
Requirementsforzerograzing· Awellconstructedshade· Astore· Afeedingtrough· Awatertrough· Workers· Gardenwherefoddersisgrown· Chaffcutterforcuttingfoddercrops.
Illustrationshowingzerograzing
Advantagesofzerograzing· Feedsarewellused.· Collectingmanureiseasy· Sickanimalsareeasilyidentifiedandculled· Manyanimalsarekeptinasmallarea.· Animalshavelesschancesofgettingdiseases.· Animalsgrowfatandproducemoremeatandmilk.Disadvantagesofzerograzing· Constructingthestructureiscostly.· Feedshavetobegrownorbought.· Cleaningthebuiltstructuredailyistiresome.· Spreadofdiseasesiseasyincaseofoutbreak.
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CATTLEDISEASESANDPARASITESCattlediseasesareclassifiedaccordingtotheircausativeagents(germ)andmethodofspread.Therearethreemaincausativeagents(germs)namely;· Bacteria· Viruses· Protozoa
Signsofsicknessinanimals(cattle)· Theanimalisdullandhasroughhaironthebody.· Theanimalcoughsandsneezes· Thereisdiarrhoea.· Theanimalhasdifficultyinpassingouturineanddung(faeces)· Thereisriseinbodytemperatureandpulserate.· Theanimallosesappetiteforfood(pasture)
Causesofsicknessofdiseasesinanimals· Diseasesinanimalscanbecausedbylackofsomenutrientsintheanimals
diet.· Dirtyenvironmentanddirtyfood.· Physicalinjurieslikecutsandwounds· Infectiousbygerms.
Signsofgoodshealthinanimals(cattle)· Theanimalfeedswelli.e.havegoodappetite.· Theeyesarecleanandbright.· Theanimalwalkssteadily· Thenoseiscoldandwet.· Thehairissmoothandshining· Theanimalsearsarewarm andalert.· Urineanddung(feaces)ispassedoutwithoutdifficulty.
Waysroutesofdiseaseinfectioninanimals· Directcontactwithsickanimals· Directcontactthroughfoodandwater.
Typesofcattlediseases· Bacterialdiseases· Thesesarediseasescausedbybacteria
ANTHRAX· Thisiscausedbybacillusanthracisbacterium.· Itisanacuteinfectiousdiseasewhichattackscattle,sheep,goats,pigsand
humans.
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Signsandsymptoms· Oozingoutofdarkbloodfrom naturalopening· Deathwithin24hours· BlownupstomachwhenanimaldiesPreventionandcontrol· Treatearlycaseswithantibiotics· Carcassoftheanimalshouldbecompletelyburntorburied.· Donotopenthecarcassofanimalsthataresuspectedtohavediedof
anthrax.· Nevereatmeatofanimalssuspectedtohavediedofanthrax.· Vaccinateanimalseveryyear.· Reportsuspectedcasesofanthrax.
MASTITISItisaninfectiousbacterialdiseasethataffectsthemammaryglands(teatsandudder)ofcattle,sheep,goats,bitchesandhumans.
Signsandsymptoms· Milkturnswateryorthickclotswithbloodandpusinit.· Theudderandteatsswell.· Thecowrejectsmilkingandsuckingbythecalf.· Theaffecteduddergetsdeadandgivesnomilk.· Deathoftheanimalmayresult.
Preventionandcontrol· Treatearlycaseswithantibiotics· Milkoutteatsandmassagewithwarm water.· Ensuregoodhygienewhenmilking· Usedisinfectantswhenmilking· Usetherightmilkingtechniques
CalfscourItisaninfectiousdiseasecausedbybacteria.Attackspiglets,calves,kids,andhumans.
Signsandsymptoms· Profusesharpsmellingdiarrhoea· Dullnessandlossofappetite.· Slightriseintemperature· Suddendeathincalvesandpigletswithblownupandhardstomachs
Preventionandcontrol· Strictcleanlinessmustbeobservedincalfpens,kraals,pigstysetc.· Avoiddampwetconditions
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· Treatinfectedcaseswithantibodies.
BlackquarterItisanacuteinfectiousdiseasecausedbybacteria.Itattacksruminantssuchascattle,goats,andsheep.
Signsandsymptoms· Highfever· Shivering· Lossofappetite· Lameness· Musclesareswollenandpainful
Preventionandcontrol· Vaccinateanimalsearly· Neveropencarcassofanimalthatshowssignsofblackquarter· Burnorburydeadanimals
PNEUMONIAItisaninfectiousdiseaseofthelungsItiscausedbyvarioustypesofbacteriaandviruses.
Signsandsymptoms· Difficultbreathingandcoughingduetocongestionofbronchioles· Nasaldischarge· Lossofbodyweight· Theanimalisreluctanttomovedullandsleepy.· Lossofappetite· Theanimalstemperaturemaybehighorlow.
Preventionandcontrol· Treatearlycasesofpneumoniawithantibiotics· Keepbuildingwellventilated,warm,andclean· Providesoftfeedsandwater.
Footrot· Itiscausedbybacteriaoffusiformisgroup.· Itattackshoovesofallhoofedanimals.Thisdiseaseisusuallycommon
duringwetweather.
SignsandsymptomsHoovesofanimalsswellmakingthem lame.Partsofhoovesmaycontainpusandsmell.
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Preventionandcontrol· Treatearlycasesoffootrotwithantibiotics.· Trim affectedhoovesproperlyandisolatetheanimal· Provideanimalswithfootbatheveryweek.· Routinetrimmingandexaminationofthefeet.
BRUCELLOSIS· Itisaninfectiousdiseasecausedbybrucellaabortusbacteria.Itaffects
cattle,goats,sheep,andman.· Itisspreadthroughfoodcontaminatedwithdischargefrom infected
animals.
SignsandsymptomsAbortioninanimalsfollowedbybrownishdischargefrom thevaginaThetesticlesswellThereisstillbirthsincowsTheplacentaremainsintheuterus(womb)
Preventionandcontrol· Cullandslaughtertheinfectedanimal.· Vaccinateallyoungfemalesespeciallycattle.· Donttouchabortedfoetuswithbarehands.· Milkfrom infectedanimalsshouldbeboiledfirst.
Contagiousbovinepleuro-pneumoniaItiscausedbybacteriadischargefrom thenosesofinfectedanimals
PreventionandcontrolCullandslaughterallinfectedanimalsImposequarantineincaseofanoutbreak.Earlyvaccinationoftheherd.Thediseasehasnotreatmentyet.
TUBERCULOSIS· Itisachronicinfectiousdiseasecausedbymicro-bacterium Tuberculosis.· Itisspreadthroughinhalationofthebacteria.
Signsandsymptomsoftuberculosis· Lossofappetiteatadvancedstages· Coughinganddecreaseinmilkproduction
PreventionandcontrolPracticinggoodhygieneCullandslaughterinfectedanimals.
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VIRALDISEASESThesearediseasescausedviruses,mostviraldiseasesare;
Rinderpest(Capitalletters)· Itisahighlyinfectiousdiseasecausedbyvirus.· Itattacksthemembranesofthealimentarycanal.· Itcankilllargenumberofanimals.
Signsandsymptoms· Highfever· Severedullnessandlossofappetite· Seriousdiarrheawithbloodstainedcowdung.· Themuzzles,noseandmusclebecomehotwithfastbreathing.· Rapiddehydrationresultinginemaciationwithsunkeneyes.
FOOTANDMOUTHDISEASEThisisanacutecontagiousdiseaseofruminantssuchascattle,sheep,goatsetc.itattacksthemembranesofmouthandcoronet.
Signsandsymptoms· Fever,dullnessandlossofappetiteforpasture.· Serioussalivationinthemouth· Lamenessduetowoundsonthecornet.· Painfulblistersaroundthemouth,udderandbetweenthehooves.· Emaciation· Reducedmilkyield.
Preventionandcontrol· Vaccinateanimals· Affectedanimalsshouldbeslaughtered· Applicationofquarantine.
NairobisheepdiseaseThisisanactiveviraldiseaseofsheepandgoats.Itistransmittedbythebrownearandbontticks.
Signsandsymptoms· Hightemperature.· Diarrhea· Nasaldischarge· Rapidbreathing· Abortioninewes.
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Preventionandcontrol· Notreatment· Controltickstopreventthedisease.
PROTOZOANDISEASESThesearediseaseswhicharemostlyassociatedwithbloodsuckinginsectsandticksexamples;Nagana(trypanosomiasis),Eastcoastfever,Redwater,Heartwater.
REDWATERItiscausedbyaprotozoatransmittedbybrowneartick. Itattackscattle,goatsandsheep.
Preventionandcontrol· Isolatesickanimals· cullandslaughterthesickanimals· Addcoccidiostatinfeedsandwater.
Signsandsymptoms· Hightemperature· Constipationanddullness· Animalbecomesanaemic· Animallickssoil· Presenceofredbloodpigmentsintheurine.· Swollenlymphnodes.
Preventionandcontrol· Tickcontrolbysprayinganddipping· Injectanimalswithant-babesiadrugs.· Somerespondwithtetracyclineantibiotics.
EASTCOASTFEVERItisaseriousprotozoandiseasespreadbyboththered-leggedandbrownearticks.Itattackscattleonlyespeciallythecalvesarevulnerable.
Signsandsymptoms· Thereisrapidriseintemperature· Swollenlymphnodesespeciallyalongthedelap.· Thereisgeneralbodyweakness.· Difficultyinbreathing.
Preventionandcontrol· Burningareasaffectedwithticks.· Fencingfarmstopreventstrayanimals.
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· Sprayinganddippinganimalsregularly.· Controlledgrazing· Smearinganimalswithacarcides· Detickingbyhands· Antibioticsandsulphurdrugsareusedtocontrolsecondaryinfections.
ANAPLASMOSIS(GALLSICKNESS)· Itiscausedbyaprotozoan· Itistransmittedbytheblueticks.
Signsandsymptoms· Theanimalgetsconstipation.· Bloodinurineanddung(feaces)· Theanimalbecomesanaemic· Thetemperaturemayfall.
NAGANA(TRYPANOSOMIASIS)· Itisaninfectiousprotozoandiseaseofanimalssuchascattle,goats,dogs
andhorses.· Inman,thediseaseiscalledsleepingsickness.Itistransmittedbyatsetsefly
andcausedbyagerm calledTrypanosoma(e.g.t.Virax,t.congolese,t.bruscei)
Signsandsymptoms· Fever,dullnessandlossofappetite· Anaemiaandemaciation· LickingofsoilbyAnimals· Swollenlymphnodes· Runningeyeswhichleadstoblindness.· Deathmayoccurafterseveralweeks.
Preventionandcontrol· Clearbushestocontroltsetseflies· Spraywithinsecticidestokilltsetseflies· Usingtsetseflytrapstokilladulttsetseflies· Treatusingdrugssuchasethidium.
NB;Tsetsefliesbreedinswampyandfrostedareas.Theydonotlayeggsbuthatchtheyoungonesinthebodyanddepositthem.
HEARTWATERItisaprotozoandiseasespreadbyticks(itisatickbornedisease)itattackscattle,sheepandgoats.
Signsandsymptoms
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·Highfeverandlossofappetite·Animalmovesincircles·Animalsbecomerestlessandplacestheheadagainsthardobjects.·Whenitfalls,thelegskeeppeddlingintheair.
REDWATER
Cattleparasites· Aparasiteisalivingorganism thatlivesonanotherlivingorganism and
obtainsitsfoodfrom it.Or· Aparasiteisalivingorganism thatdependsonanotherlivingorganism for
food.· Theorganism onwhichaparasitedependsforfoodiscalledahost.· Aparasiteeatsfoodmadeforthegrowthanddevelopmentofthehost.
TypesofparasitesParasitesaregroupedintotwonamely;
i) ExternalParasites/Ectoparasitesii) InternalParasites/Endoparasites
ExternalParasitesExternalparasitesareparasitesthatliveoutsidebodyofthehost.Examplesare;ticks,tsetseflies,mites,lice,jiggersetc.
InternalParasitesInternalparasitesareparasitesthatliveinsidethebodyofthehost.Theyliveinmuscles,intestines,liveretcexamplesofinternalparasitesare;tapeworms,roundwormsandliverflukes.
Effectsofparasitesofcattle· Pestsliketicks,tsetseflies,mitesandfleassuckbloodfrom thehostleading
toemaciation.· Somepestsspreaddiseasestoanimalse.g.Nagana,Eastcoastfever,red
water.Etc.· Somepestscausedamagetotheskinofthehostmakingitoflowquality.· Somepestscausediscomfortandirritationtothehost· Someparasitessuckfoodandbloodfrom hostmakingitmalnourishedand
unhealthy.
Preventionandcontrolofcattleparasites.· Someofthem canbecontrolledbydippingandsprayingcattlewith
acqricides· Clearbushesandusetsetseflytrapstocontroltsetseflies.
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· Draingrazingareastocontrolliverflukes.· De-worm animalswithde-wormingdrugs.· Keepanimalsawayfrom pastureswhicharefrequentlycoveredbyfloods.· Usedoublefencingofgrazingareasandkraalstocontrolticks.· Burnalltheoldpasture.· Practicerotationalgrazing
RequirementsforstartingalivestockfarmTostartafarm,afarmerrequiresthefollowing;a)LandThisistheplacewherethefarm islocated.itisusedforgrowingpasture,buildinghousesetc,thelandmaybebought,inheritedfrom parents,rentedorhired.b)CapitalThisreferstothemoneyandallthebuildingsequipmentsandmaterialsandtostartafarm.Capitalmaybeadonation,borrowedfrom abankinheritedfromsalesofpropertyormonthlyearnings.c)LabourReferstoallthepeoplewhoperform thedifferenttasksontheafarm.Thefarmerdoesnothavealltheskillsandtimeforeverythingonthefarm.Hemayemployworkers,hirelabourers,orusefamilymembers.d)ManagementThisreferstoorganizing,planningandguidingtherestoftheworkerstocarryouttheirdutiesinamoreorganizingwayandmakethefarm profitable.Thefarmermaymanagehim/herselforemployothers.e)MarketBeforestartingafarm,oneshouldensurethatthereismarketforthefarmproductssuchasmeat,milk,eggs,hidesetc.
f) FarmThesearewrittenaccount/documentsoftheactivitiesofthefarm.
IMPORTANCEOFKEEPINGFARM RECORDS· Tohelpthefarmerknowwhetherheismakingprofitsorlosses.· Forfairassessmentoftaxes· Toenablethefarmertomakedecisions· Incaseafarmerdieswithoutwritingwill,ithelpsthefamilymembersto
sharepropertyequally.· Toenablethefarmerknowthehistoryofthefarmer.· Helpsthefarmertoplanandbudgetforthefarm.
TYPESOFFARM RECORDS· Breedingrecords:Theseincludereproduction,birthordeathrates.· Productionrecords:Theseshowyieldsofvariousfarm producee.g.eggs,
milk,meatetc.Healthrecords:Theseincludewhenandwhichanimalsweresick,whattreatmenttheygotorwhichonestocull.
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· Labourrecords:Theseincludethenumberoffarm labourers,typeofworktheydoandtheirwages.
· Fieldoperationsrecords:Thesearerecordsofalldifferentactivitiescarriedoutonthefarm ploughing,harrowing,plantingetc.
· Marketingrecords:Theseincludewhere,when andwhatpricesvariousproductsweresold.
· Inventoryrecords:Thisisarecordofallthethingsafarmerownsandthecashvaluesofeachitem.
· Incomeandexpenditures:Thesearerecordsofallthesalesandpurchasesofthefarm business.
· Feedingrecords:Theseshowtheamountoffeedsbought,consumedandmethodsoffeeding.
PRACTICESWHICHHARM CATTLEANDOTHERDOMESTICANIMALSATHOME
- Beatinganimals- Overworkinganimals- Nottreatingsickanimals- Dehorning- Castration- Branding
INTHEFIELD- Over beatinganimals- Overworkinganimals- Notgivinganimalsadequatefeeds- Improperdisposalofpolythenebags
IN TRANSIT- Overloadinganimals- Transportinganimalswhensomelegsarehangingoutofvehicles- Overtyinganimalsduringtransportation.
INTHEABATTOIR- Slaughteranimalsbrutally- Killinganimalsbybangingtheirheadswithhammer,axeorironbars- Handlinganimalsrudelywhengoingtoslaughter
RESOURCESINTHEENVIRONMENTAresourceissomethingorobjectwhichisusedforcertainpurpose.Someresourcesaregotfrom non-livingthingswhileothersaregotfrom livingthings.
Typesofresources
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1.NonrenewableresourcesTheseareresourceswhichcantbereplacednaturallyoncetheyareusedup.
Examplesare:i)Mineralsoresii)Crudeoil(petroleum)iii)Coal
2.RenewableresourcesTheseareresourceswhichcanbereplacednaturallybeforetheygetexhausted(usedup)
Examplesare:i)Soilii)Wateriii)Thesuniv) Air(wind)v) Plantsvi) Animals
Resourcesfrom nonlivingthingsAnonlivingthingisonewithoutlife.
Example· Soil· Water· Airandwind· Rocksandminerals
a)SoilSoilisanaturallayerwhichcoverstheearthssurface.Soilisarenewableresource.
Howissoilusedasaresource?ItisusedforgrowingcropsSoilisusedforbuildinghouses inoursocieties
b)WaterWaterisarenewableresourcewhenusedcarefully.
Howwaterisusedasaresource?· Waterhelpsplantstogrow· Waterisusedtoturnturbinesforhydro-electricpowergeneration.· Waterhelpstodissolvefoodforeasyabsorptioninthebodyofanimals.
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c)AirandWindBotharerenewableresourcesAirisamixtureofgasesWindismovingair.
Howwindisuseful· Windturnswindmillstoproduceelectricity· Winddriveswindmillstodrawwaterfrom theunderground· Windhelpsinwinnowingofharvestedcrops.
d)SunItisarenewableresource
Howthesunisusedasaresource· Thesunprovidessunlightenergytogreenplantstomakestarch.· Thesunprovidessolarenergythatgivesoutheatandlightenergytoman.· ThesunhelpsourbodiestomakevitaminD· Thesunhelpsingenerationofsolarelectricity.
RocksandmineralsAmineralisanythingthatoccursnaturallylikearockintheearth.Theyarenon-renewableresources.
Examplesofminerals· Crudeoil(petroleum)· Chalk· Clay· Copper· Gold· Tinetc
Mineralsarenon-renewableresources.N.B:Mineralsfrom whichmetalsaregotarecalledores.RocksArockisasubstancemadeupofmineralstightlypackedtogethertoform asolid.
Typesofrocksi) Igneousrocksii) Metamorphicrocksiii) Sedimentaryrocks
IgneousRocksThesearerocksformedwhenmagmapoursoutsidetheearthaslavaand
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solidifiesTheyaregenerallyhardandimpervious.Examples· Basalt· Granite· Quartz
SedimentaryRocksThesearerocksformedfrom brokenparticlesofsandclayandmudsettingindifferentlayers.(strata)atthebedsofwaterbodieslikeseas,lakes,riversetc.Sedimentaryrocksaresoftandporous.Examples· Sandyrocks· Limestoneetc
FOSSILS· Fossilsareremainsofplantsandanimalsburiedunderground many
thousandsofyearsago.· Theyarefounddeepinsidetheearthinsedimentaryrocks.· Theseremainsareusuallyofbonesorteethofanimalsandroots,leavesor
stemsofplants.· Sometimestheremainsareofmouldofawholebodye.g.ofafish.
Usesoffossils· Fossilshelpgeologiststodeterminetheageofaplaceorrock.· Fossilshelpgeologiststoknowhowdifferentplantsandanimalshave
existedandchanged.· Fossilshelptotellhowlandlookedbefore.· Fossilsshowushowandwherethedifferentsedimentaryrockswereformed.· Fossilshelptotellwhattheanimalorplantlookedlike,whatitate,whereit
livedetc.
Importanceofrocks· Rocksform soil,whichisimportanttooursurvival· Rocksmakegoodmaterialsforbuildingandroads.· Theytellusabouttheearthshistory.· TheycontainmanyvaluablemineralsALLOYSAnalloyisamixtureoftwoormoremetalsAlloy Combination UsesBrass CopperandZinc - Decoratingornaments
- Makingwires,tubingcasesforbullets.
DentistAmalgam GoldandCopper,gold,copperandmercury
- Makingcoins.
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Solder LeadandTin - JoiningmetalsBronze CopperandTin - Usedforornaments,bells,statuesSTEELSteelconsistsofCarbondissolvediniron.Differentalloysaremadefrom steel
Examplesofalloysmadefrom steeli) Manganesesteel
ItisamixtureofsteelandmanganeseThisisaverytoughalloy.Itisusedwherefrictionmaycauseweare.g.inrailwaypoints.
ii) NickelsteelItisamixtureofnickelandsteelThisalloydoesnotrust.Itisusedformakingcookingandkitchenutensilsandcutlery.
iii) StainlesssteelItisamixtureofcobaltandsteelThisalloyisusedtomakepermanentmagnetsbecausetheyretaintheirmagnetism overalongperiod.
Whyarealloysmade?· Tomakethemetalharder· Tolowerthemeltingpointofthemetal.· Tomakethemetalmoreresistanttocorrosioni.e.wearandtear· Toincreasetheelectricalresistivityofmetals.
FUELSAfuelisanythingthatburnstoproduceheatandlightenergy.
Examplesoffuels· Firewood· Charcoal· CrudeOil(Petroleum)· Coal
· Firewoodandcharcoalarerenewableresourceswhilecrudeoilandcoalarenon-renewableresources.
· Coalwasformedfrom marshyvegetablesandplantswhichlivedlongagoandwereburiedundergroundbutduetoheatandpressuretheychangedtocoal.
· Coalisburnttogetthermalelectricity.· CrudeOil(petroleum)isrefinedthroughtheprocessoffractionaldistillation.· Theproductsafterrefiningcrudeoil(petroleum)are;Petrol,dieseland
kerosene.· Theseproductsareburnttoproduceheatandlight.
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· Petrolanddieselareusedtorunengines.· Oilwasformedfrom animalsremainswhichburiedundergroundlongago
andwerechangedtocrudeoilduetoheatandpressure
Resourcesfrom livingthings.· Alivingthingisonewhichhaslife.· Livingthingsincludeplantsandanimals.· Mostoftheresourcesfrom livingthingsarerenewableresourcesoncethey
arelookedafterproperly.
Howareplantsusedasresources?· Someplantsgiveusnaturalplantfibreslikecotton,sisal,juteandlinen.· Cottonandlinenareusedtomakeclotheswhilesisalandjuteareusedto
makeropes.· Someplantsareusedasherbalmedicinetocurecertaindiseases.· Someplantsareeatenasfoodbymanandotheranimals.
Howareanimalsusedasresources?· Someanimalslikemerinosheepprovidewool,usedtomakeclothes,suits,
blankets,carpets,curtains,bedsheetsetc.· Silkwormsprovidesilkusedtomakedifferenttypesofcloths.· Somedomesticanimalsprovideskinsandhidesusedtomakebags,shoes,
belts,etc· Cattleprovidehornsandhoovesusedtomakeglue.· Beeshelptopollinatefarmerscrops,providehoneyandbeewax.· Someanimalslikeoxenanddonkeysprovidelabour.
Conservationofresources· Conservationistheprotectionandpropermanagementofresourcesinour
environment.· Bothrenewableandnon-renewableresourcesneedtobeconserved.· Resourceslikeforests,wildlife,water,soil,rocks,mineralsneedtobe
conserved.· Conservationofresourcesisdonetokeepthem doerfutureuse.
Conservingrenewableresourcesi) Conservingrenewableresources
· Wildlifereferstoanimalsandplantsinourenvironment.· Manykindsofanimalshavedisappearedfrom earthandtheyareextinct.· Otheranimalsareabouttodisappearandwesaytheyareendangered.· Animalsmaybecomeendangeredorextinctbecausetheyarekilledfortheir
skins,horns,tusks.· Someplantshavealsobecomeendangeredorextinctduetotheincreasing
demandforwoodandlocalmedicine.
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Advantages(importance)ofconservingwildlife· Somemammals,plantsandbirdsareasourceoffoodforman.· Someanimalsandbirdsarevaluedasculturalheritagebysomecountries
andclans.· Plantsarehomesofmanyanimals,birdsandinsects.· Treesorforestshelpintheformationofrainfall.· Mammals,birdsandtreesspeciesearnforeignexchangeforthe
governmentthroughtourists.· Plantsimprovetheatmospherebybalancingtheamountofcarbondioxide
andnitrogen.· Plantsprovideshadetomanandotheranimals.
Howtoconserveandprotectwildlife.· AnimalsareprotectedbylawintheirhabitatthroughtheUgandaWildlife
Authority(UWA).· Ahabitatisanaturalenvironmentorhomeofaplantoranimal.· UgandawildlifeAuthorityisadepartmentwhichisresponsibleforwildlifein
Uganda.· Theanimalsarebeingtakencareofinnationalgameparksandgame
reserves.· Banningthesellingandbuyingofwildlifetrophieshelpstoreducetheir
beingkilled.· Fishescanbeconservedbycontrolledfishing.· Somerareanimalsshouldbecaughtandlettobreedinwildlifeeducational
centre.
Conservingnonrenewableresources· Soilerosionshouldbecontrolled.· Soilshouldbekeptfertilebyusingmanureandfertilizers.· PlasticwasteslikebrokenJerrycans,polythenepapersshouldberecycled.· Vehiclesindangerousmechanicalconditionsshouldberepairedtoconserve
fuel.· Petroleum productsshouldbeusedwiselytopreventfurtherexploitationof
oil.
Conservingthenaturalvegetation· Overgrazingshouldbediscouragedbecauseitcausessoilerosion.· Bushburningshouldberestrictedtocertainareas.· Overstockingisdangerousbecauseitleadstoovergrazing.· Thegovernmentshouldlimitpopulationgrowthbecausemorepeoplemeans
morelandtobedestroyedforhousingandagriculture.· Cattlefarmersshouldpracticerotationalgrazingwhichlatercausessoil
erosion.· Afforestationshouldbepracticed.· Swampsandwetlandsshouldbedeclaredrestrictedareas.
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HARVESTINGRESOURCESThisisthecollectionofmaterialsfrom theenvironmentforthepurposeofusingthem
a)Harvestingnon— livingresources- Obtaining sandfrom dryriverbeds:scoopingitwithspades and
machinery- Miningsandfrom theground
Harvestingminerals- Bymining- Fossilfuelinglikeoil- Bydrilling
Harvestingenergyfrom thesunEnergyfrom thesunisknownassolarenergy
- Itcanbeharvestedinthefollowingways- Usesofsolarpanels- Useofsolarcookers- Useofsolardriers- Useofsolarheaters
NB:Solarpanelstrapsunlightandconvertitintosolarelectricity
Solarheaters + cookerstrapraysfrom thesunandchangesintoheatenergyHarvestingwaterWaysofharvestingwater
- Itcanbecollectedfrom roofsusingtanksandbigdrums- Rainwaterflowingonthegroundisdirectedintodams.- Watercanbedrawn from wellsandbroughttothesurfaceusingwind
lossandelectricpumps.
Harvestingenergyfrom air- Windcanbetrappedandusedtodrivewindmills- Itcanbetappedusingsailtodrivesailboat+dhows
HarvestinglivingresourcesPlantsresource
- Handpickingripecoffeeberries,cottonballs- Pluckingtealeavesfrom teaplants- Readymaizecobsareharvestedbyhands- Bycuttingsisalleaves
Harvestingwood- Bypollarding- Bycoppicing
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- Bylopping- Byselectivefelling
PollardingItisthecuttingoffofthetoppartofatreeforuse.
Diagram
CoppicingItisthecuttingoffofthemainpartofthemainpartofthetreestem leavingthestumptogiverisetonewshoot.
Diagram
LoppingThisisthecuttingofthesidebranchforuseDiagram
Harvestinganimalresourcesa)MeatAnimalsareslaughtered,skinnedandmeatcutofffrom thecarcass.b)SkinsandhidesAnimalsareslaughteredandskinscarefullyremovedfrom thecarcass.c)HornsThe hornsarecutorsawn offwiththe sawfrom theheadoftheslaughteredanimalsd)Milkitisobtainedbymilkingusingeitherhandsormachinesd)Honey:itisextractedfrom honeycombs.
THEENVIRONMENTWhatis environment?Environmentreferstoallthingsthatsurroundman.Thesethingscanbeairwater
,plantstemperature,fuel,peoplebuildingetc.COMPONENTSOFENVIRONMENTTheenvironmentiscomposedofthefollowing
- Water- Land(soil)- Air(wind)- Plants
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- Animals- Temperature- Mountains(hills)- Minerals- Sun
TYPESOFENVIRONMENTEnvironmentisdividedintotwotypes:-
Biologicalenvironment (Abiotic/nonphysicalenvironment)Thisisthetypeofenvironmentwhichconsistsiflivingthingsegplantsandanimals
Physicalenvironment (abiotic environment)Thisisthetypeofenvironmentwhichconsistsofnon— livingthingsegmountains,lakes,rivers,temperature,wind (air)vapour.
FOODCHAINAfoodchain isthewayhoworganismsinanenvironmentgettheirfood.Intheenvironment,plantsmaketheirownfoodandarecalledproducers.Theorganismswhichdependonfoodmadebyplants(producers) arecalledconsumersareconsumersConsumersaredividedintothefollowinggroups
PrimaryconsumersTheseareorganismswhichfeeddirectlyonproducerseggoats,cattle,rabbits,sheepetc
SecondaryconsumersTheseareorganism whichfeedonprimaryconsumersegfoxes,dogs,lions
TertiaryconsumersTertiaryconsumerswhichfeedonsecondaryconsumerseg.leopards, manbirdsofpreyetc.NB:Inafoodchain,organism likefungiandbacteriahelpinreducingfoodtoitscomponentparts(decay/rot)arecalleddecomposersThesunisthemainsourceofsunlightenergyinafoodchainfrom whichenergyflows tootherorganism intheenvironment
IllustrationofafoodchainProducer— primaryconsumer— secondaryconsumers— Tertiaryconsumers— plantsgrasshoopers— lizard— Hawks
AFOODWEB
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Afoodwebisamorecomplicatedinterrelationshipofhoworganism inanenvironmentobtaintheirfood.Afoodwebinvolvesmanyorganism inanecosystem howtheygetfoodfrommanyotherlivingthingsIllustrationofafoodweb
EcosystemAnecosystem isthecommunityoflivingthings(organisms)inahabitatplusthenonlivingpartintheenvironment.
AhabitatAhabitatisahomeofalivingorganism intheenvironment
DEGRADATIONDegradationisthewayoflowering(spoiling)thequality,stabilityandusefulnessof aresource.
EnvironmentdegradationIstheloweringthequality,stabilityandusefulnessof resourcesintheenvironment
Typesofenvironmentdegradation- Soil/landdegradation- Degradation/deforestation- Wetlanddrainage- Air/atmosphericpollution- Waterpollution- Wildlifedestruction(degradation)
CausesofenvironmentaldegradationTherearetwomaincausesofenvironmentaldegradationa) Humanactivitiesb)Naturalcauses
HUMANACTIVITIESTHATCAUSESENVIRONMENTALDEGRADATIONa)Mining/quarryingb)Constructionandroadworkc) Poorwastedisposald)Badagriculturalpracticesegbushburning,overgrazingetc
NATURALCAUSESENVIRONMENTALDEGRADATION- Soil erosion/leaching- Silting- Hurricanes- Tornados
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- Whirlwind/whilpools- Earthquakes- Hailstones- Landslides- Floods- Tsunamis- Volcaniceruptions- Globalwarning
a)Soil/landdegradationThisisthedestruction/loweringthequalityorusefulnessoflandbyhumanactivitiesornaturalcauses.
LeachingIsaprocessthroughwhichmineralsaltsornutrientssinkdeeperintothesoillayerswheretheycannotbereachedbyplantsItiscausedbytoomuch rain.
Soilerosion:Isthewashing/blowing awayoftopsoilbyagentsoferosion.
SiltingIstheprocessbywhichfinesand,mudorotherthingsarecarriedintothewaterbody.
Causesofsilting- Soilerosion- Cultivationnearwatersources- Allowinganimalstodrinkfrom waterbodies- Swampdrainage- Burning/destroyingvegetationintheswamp
Effectofsilting- Itdestroyshabitatforanimalsthatlive liveinwater- Lowerwaterleveland sodriesoutwaterbodies- Destroyssourceoffoodforfishandotheraquaticanimals- Killsfishofotheranimalsandplantsinwater- Destroyseggsoffishandotheraquaticanimals.
DeforestationDeforestationisalsocalleddevegetaioniecuttingdownlargenumberoftrees/plantwithoutreplacingthem.
Causesofdeforestation- Populationgrowthleadingtoneedforlandforsettlement,farmingand
recreation
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- Industrialization(developmentof industriesinanarea)- Wildfires/bushburning- Clearingforestsforfirewood,charcoal,buildingpolestimberetc
Effectsofdeforestation- Itleadstoreductionofrainfallcausing drought/desertification- Lossofhabitatfordifferentplantsandanimalspecies- Soilerosionleavinginfertilesoils- Siltingofwaterbodies.
WetlandAwetlandisanyareawhichhaswaterandgrowingvegetationthroughouttheyear
Examplesofwetlands- Swamps- Marshes- Bogs- Lakesandrivers
Importanceofwetlands- Theyarehabitatstomanyplantandanimalsspeces- Theycontrolfloodsbysuckingthewater- Theyfiltermuddywaterbytrappingtheimpurities- Theyregulatetheclimatebyinfluencingthetemperatureandhumidity- Theyprovidewater- Theyprovidewaterfordomesticandindustrialuse.- Theyaresourcesoffoode.g.fish- Theyproviderawmaterialsforarlandcraftse.g.clay,papyrusetc- Theyaresourcesofbuildingmaterials
POLLUTIONPollutionistheadditionof harmful(dangerous)chemicalsintotheenvironmentPollutiontakesplacenaturallyorthroughhumanactivities.
CAUSESOFPOLLUTION- Wastegasesfrom industries- Industrialwaste/chemical- Exhaustfumesfrom vehicles- Oilspillsfrom shipsintheocean- Chemicalsprays- Nonbio-degradablewastesegpolythene,glassplasticsetc
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- Smokefrom burningtyres,oilorbushes- Dust
TYPESOFPOLLUTIONa) Airpollution - causedbysmokeandfumes/poisonousgases.b)Soilpollution— causedbyagricultural sprays,industrialwaste,refuseetcc) Waterpollution -Bysilt,oilspills,refuse,humanwasteandindustrialwaste washedintoit.d)Noisepollution— Duetotoomanyvehiclesorindustriesintheenvironmentloudmusicetc
EFFECTSPOLLUTION- Poisoningofsoilandwaterbychemicalwastesdumpedonthem.- Deathanddisappearanceofbiodiversity(varietyofplantsandanimals
livingthings)- Outbreakofdiseaseintheenvironment- Lossofsoilfertilityleadingtopooryields- Formationofacidrainsduetogasesfrom industriesandvehiclesasthey
dissolveinrain.- Destructionofhabitatsformanyplantsandanimals- Lessproductionofplantssuchasfibers,timbersfruitsandother
constructionmaterialsCONTROLANDPREVENTIONOFPOLLUTIONINTHEENVIRONMENT
- Usesofalternativeenergysourceeg.biogas,naturalgas,solarenergy,windpower,hydroelectricity
- Ensureproperdisposalofdomesticsandindustrialwastes- Educatingpeopleaboutthedangersofpollution- Usinggoodmethodoffarming
RESPIRATORYSYSTEMWhatisrespiration?Respirationistheprocessbywhichthebodyusesfoodandoxygentoproduceenergy,carbondioxideandwatervapour.Respirationtakesplaceinbodycells.Theby-productsofrespirationare;
i) Carbondioxideii) Watervapour
BREATHINGBreathingisthetakinginandoutofair.Oritmeanstheconstantexchangeofgasesbetweenanorganism andthesurroundings.Therespiratoryorgansinmanarethelungs.
Therespiratorysystem
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· Thisdealswiththeuseofoxygeninthebody.· Lungsaretherespiratoryorganssituatedineithersidesofthechestcavity.· Lungsarecoveredinamembranecalledpleuralmembrane.· Fluidthatlubricatesthelungsandribsandsoreducefriction.· LungsareprotectedbythepartofthebraincalledRibcage.· Theribsareheldinpositionbytheintercostalmuscles.· Inthelowersideofthelungsisadiaphragm thatseparatesthechestcavity
from theabdomen;
Thestructureofthelungs,partsandtheirfunctions.
Typesofbreathingi) Expiration(breathingout)exhalation.ii) Inspiration(breathingin)inhalation.
Functionsofpartsofthebreathingsystemi. Thenose
Itcontainsmucuswhich/thatwarmsandmoistensairbeforereachingthelungs.ItcontainshairlikestructurescalledCiliathattrapgermsanddirtthatmayenterthenose.
Whathappenstotheairinthenose?Airisfiltered(cleaned)warmedandmoistened.
Whathappenstotheairinthemouth?Nomucustomoistenandwarm air.Nociliatofilterairbytrappinggermsanddirt.
ii. Thetrachea(windpipe)Ithasanepiglottisthatprotectstheopeningofthetracheawhenswallowingfood.Epiglottispreventschoking.Airentersintolungswhichcontainsthevoicebox.Insidevoiceboxarevocalcordswhichhelpinproducingsound.Tracheacontainsringsofcartilagethatpreventsitfrom closingandpreventssuffocation.Theexchangeofgasestakeplaceintheairsacs.
iii. TheairsacsThisiswheretheexchangeofgasestakesplacebydiffusion.
AdaptationsofairsacstotheirfunctionTheyhavewallstoalldiffusiontakeplace.Theyaresurroundedbyanetworkofcapillarieswhichbringcarbondioxideandtakeoxygen.
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Theyaremanyinnumber.
Thestructureofthevillus
Compositionofairbreathedinandout.Typeofair Inspiredair ExpiredairOxygen(O2) 21% 16%Carbondioxide(CO2) 0.03% 4%Nitrogen(N2) 79% 79%Watervapour Less More
Whathappensduringinspiration(inhalation)· Thevolumeofthechestandlungsincreases.· Diaphragm andintercostalsmusclescontracts.· Ribsmoveupwardsandoutwards.· Thelungsincreaseinvolume
Whathappensduringexpiration/exhalation?· Thevolumeofthechestandlungsdecreases.· Thediaphragm andintercostalsmusclesrelax.· Ribsmovedownwardsandinwards.· Thelungsdecreasesinvolume.
Diseasesthatattackthebreathing/respiratorysystem.Tuberculosis BronchitisInfluenza AsthmaDiphtheria PneumoniaEmphysema WhoopingCough
Habitsthatimprovetheworkingoftherespiratorysystem· Avoidingsmoking· Havingregularphysicalexercises.· Goodfeeding/nutrition· Eatfoodwithlowandfat· Keepawayfrom dustyplacesetc.
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DisordersoftherespiratorysystemChokingHiccupSneezingetc
RESPIRATIONINRELATIONTOFOODANDOXYGEN- Respirationisthechemicalburningoffoodinthepresenceofoxygenin
ordertorelease(produce)energy- Waterandcarbondioxidearereleasedasbyproducts.- Respirationtakesplaceinthebodycells- Food + oxygen carbondioxide
+ water + energy (ATP)(Starch)
Types ofrespirationAerobicrespirationIsrespirationwhichusesoxygen.AnaerobicrespirationItisatypeofrespirationwhichtakesplaceinabsenceofoxygenandinwhichfoodsubstancesareonlypartlybrokendown.Itproduceslacticacidinanimalsandalcoholinparts.Itoccursinmusclesduringexercise.
SCIENCEPRIMARYSIXTERM III-2016
SCIENCEATHOMEANDCOMMUNITY
WATERWaterisacolourlessliquidsubstancemadeupofhydrogenandoxygengases.Thesegasesareintheratioof2:1(H2O)
Sourcesofwater· Rainwater· Artesianwells· Hotsprings· Streams,lakes,rivers,swamps,ponds,oceans,andseas.
Propertiesofpurewater· Itiscolourless· Itiswithoutsuspendedmatterlikegerms.· Ithasnosmell· Purewateristasteless· Purewaterboilsat100oC(212oF)andfreezesat0oC(32oF)atsealevel.· Purewaterformslather(foam)veryeasily)withsoap.
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Usesofwatertothebody· Watermakesuppartofbloodasplasma· Helpstodissolvethedigestedfoodforeasyabsorptioninthebody.· Maintainstheshapeofbodycells.· Coolsthebodyinform ofsweatwhenitevaporates.· Helpsinformationofbodyfluidssuchastears,saliva,urine,sweatetc.
Otherusesofwater· Fordomesticusee.g.cooking,washingetc· Fordrinkingbyman,mammals,andbirds· Forirrigationinagriculture· Usedinindustriesforcooling,washingmachinesandrawmaterials.· Usedtogeneratehydro-electricity· Usedbyplantsforphotosynthesis
Preparationofsafewaterfordrinkingi. BoilingWhenwaterisheated,itboils,toatemperatureof100oC(212oF)thistemperaturekillsgerms.
ii. FilteringThisistheprocessbywhichacleanorsterilizedpieceofclothorlocalwaterfilter.
Examplesofsolidimpuritiesfilteredaredirt,soil,stones,leaves,animalswastesetc.
NB:Filteredwaterisnotsafefordrinkingbecauseitmaybecontainingsomegerms.
iii. TreatmentofwaterTreatmentofwateriswhenchemicalsareaddedtokillgermsinit.Examplesofchemicalsusedtotreatwaterare;chlorine,waterguardandaquasafe.
AdvantagesofchemicalsusedinwatertreatmentThechemicalskillgermsinwater
Disadvantagesofusingchemicals· Theyareexpensive· Theydonotmakewaterclear· Theyaddsomesmellandtastetowater.
DECANTINGDecantingisamethodofremovinglargeparticlesofobjectsfrom water.
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Decantingisdonebypouringwaterslowlyfrom onecontainertoanothersothatheavilyparticlesareleftbehind.Inthismethod,thethreepotsystem isusedtopurifythewater.
WATERIMPURITIESImpuritiesarecontaminantsorforeignobjectsinwater.Waterimpuritiesmakeitunsafeforuse.Impuritiesmaybesolubleorinsolubleorganic.
InorganicimpuritiesItconsistsofdissolvedmineralsaltswhichmakewaterunsafetouse.
OrganicimpuritiesTheseincludebacteria,fungiandprotozoaothersmaybedeadplantmaterialssuchasleavesandgrass.Examplesofwaterimpurities
- Humanwastes- Animalwasteslikeurine,dung- Herbicides- Insecticides- Siltfrom erosion
CLEANINGCLOTHESATHOMEOnemainuseofwaterathomeistowashclothes.ThisalsocalledlaundryStepusedincleaningclothesathomeSorting
- Itinvolvesselectingandputtingclothestogetheraccordingtocolour,intensityofdirt,natureofthefabric,useofclothesetc.
SoakingItistheputtingclothesinsoapywaterforsometime.Importanceofsoakingclothes
- Ithelpstoloosendirtanddissolvestains- Itsavestimeduringwashingasitalittleefforttoremoveit.- Itsavesagainsttearandwearduetoconstantrubbingwhilewashings.
WashingItistheremovalofdirtusingwateranddetergentRinsingClothesareputincleanwater.Ithelpstoremoveallsoapywaterfrom theclothes.WringingItinvolvessqueezingexcesswateroutoftheclothesNOTE:Woolenclothesshouldbedriedwithoutwringingbecauseitmayloosenthefabricandmakesthem tolosetheirshape.
DryingSomeclothescanbedriedoutcompletelyunderthesun.IroningIthelpstoremovecreasesfrom thewashedclothesandbringthem totheir
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originalform
ACCIDENTSANDFIRSTAIDWhatisanaccident?Anaccidentisasuddenhappeningthatcauseharm tothebody.Accidentscantakeplaceanywhere.Theymayhappenathome,school,placeofwork,wherewegoforprayers,onthepitchetc.
FirstaidThisisthefirsthelpgiventoacasualitybeforehe/sheistakentohospital.acasualityisapersonwhohasgotanaccident.
BurnsThesearebodyinjuriescausedbyheat.
Typesofburns1.Burns2.Scalds
BurnsandscaldsBurnsareinjuriescausedbydryheat.
Causesofburnsa.Hotmetalsb.Hotflatironc.Acidsd.Glowingcharcoale.Hotcharcoalstovef. Fire
DegreeofburnsBurnsandscaldsaredescribedusingtheworddegreetotellhowseveretheyare;Therearethreetypesofdegreesofburns.Theseare;
a)Firstdegreeburnsb)Seconddegreeburnsc)Thirddegreeburns
FirstdegreeburnsTheseareminorburnswhichdonotform blisters.Ablisterisaraisedskinwithaliquidunderneath.TheskinistenderforseveraldaysTheskinisunbroken.
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FirstaidPuttheburntareaincoolwaterimmediatelyaftertheaccident.
Why?Toreducethetemperatureoftheburntpart.N.B;Firstdegreeburnsneednodressing.
SeconddegreeburnsTheseareburnswhichform blisters.Theyareseverethanfirstdegreeburns.
Signsof seconddegreeburnsa)Blisterareformedb)Unbrokenblisters
FIRSTAIDIftheblisterisbroken,washtheareawithcleanwaterandsoap.Covertheskinwithabandageorcleancloth.
NB;Itisnotgoodtobreaktheblisterbecauseitmayleadtoinfectionofthewoundbygerms.Fats,oil,coffee,herbsordungshouldneverbeputontheburnbecausetheycancauseinfection.
Sugarshouldnotbeputontheburnbecauseitattractshouseflieswhichbringgermstothewound.Thevictim oftheseconddegreeburnsshouldbegivenplentyoffluidstodrink.
ThirddegreeburnsThereareburnswhichcausedeepburningoftheskin.Theskinisburntdeeplyanditappearsshinnywhite.a)Theskinisburntdeeply
FIRSTAIDPuttheburnareasincoolwater.Encouragethecasualitytodrinkalotoffluids.NB:Patientsofsecondandthirddegreeburnsshouldbegivenalotoffluidstodrink.
Why?Theylosealotoffluidsthroughtheburntskinbyevaporation
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Preventionofburnsandscalds· Useheatinsulatorstohandlehotobjects.· Cookingfrom raisedplaces· Keeppetroleum productsoutofreachofchildren.· Donotallowyoungchildrentocook.· Refilllanternsorlampsafterputtingthem off.· Teachchildrenthedangersofburns· Tellchildrentoplayawayfrom fireplaces.
FeverandconvulsionsFeveristheconditionofthebodywhenitstemperaturegoesbeyondthenormal.Thenormalbodytemperatureis37oCor98.4oF.Feverisnotanillnessbutasymptom ofmanyillnessessuchasmalaria,typhoid,measles,etc
EffectoffeverItcanleadtoconvulsions
ConvulsionsTheseareuncontrollablejerkymovementsofthebody.Convulsionscanbestoppedifthediseasecausingthem istreated.
Firstaidforconvulsions· Removealltightclothesfrom thebodyofthevictim.· Putanobjectinthemouthofthevictim tostophim from bitingthetongue.· Givethevictim plentyofcolddrinksafterrecovery.· Takethepatienttohospital
FirstaidforfeverCarryouttepidsponging(coldcompress).Awetclothisputontheforeheadorchestofavictim.CautionDonotuseverycoldwaterbecauseitleadstoconvulsions.
FaintingItisthelossofconsciousnessforashorttime
MaincauseoffaintingReducedsupplyofbloodrichinoxygenandfoodtothebrain.
Conditionsthatcanleadtofainting· Anxiety· Heavybodyexercises· Extremesorrow(sadnews)
fear
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· Prolongedhunger
FIRSTAID· Putthevictim inopenair.· Removetightclothingsaroundtheneckandchesttoenablethevictim get
enoughoxygen.· Raisethelegsofthevictim higherthanthehead.
Why?Toallowbloodflowfastertothebrain.Dontallowthevictim tobeovercrowded
DROWNINGThismeansdyingasaresultofhavinglungsfilledwater.Drowninghasnofirstaidsincethevictim dies.
NeardrowningItistemporarylossofbreathduetohavingoneslungsfilledwithwater.Apersonwhohasnearlydrownedhasonlyfourminutestolivethereforeafirstaidermustbeveryfasttosavehislife.
FirstAidRemovethevictim quicklyfrom waterShoutforhelpLiethepersononhisback.Carryoutmouthtomouthbreathing(kissoflife)
Howtocarryoutmouthtomouthrespiration· Makethevictim tolieonhisback· Tilttheheadbackwardsandkeephismouthopened· Removeanyobjectstuckinthemouth· Pressthevictimsnostrilswithyourfingerstoclosethem· Putyourmouthdirectlyintothemouthsothatthechestrises.· Stopabittolettheairoutandblowagain· Repeatthismanytimes(about15timesinaminute)· Continuethestepsuntilthevictim canbreatheagainbyhimself.· Placetheheelsofyourhandsbetweenthenavelandtheribsofthevictim· Makeaquickstrongpushforwardintotheribcage.
Howtopreventneardrowning· Acquireswimmingskills· Alwaysemptybathtubs· Coveringallseptictanks· Puttingonalifejacketwhentravelingonwater.· Fencingpitsthatbuildersusedtotrapwater
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· Donotallowchildrentogonearwatersourceswithoutadults· Donotallowbabiestoplayinbasinsfullofwater.
Commondrowningplaces· Swimmingpool· Ponds· Streams· Lakes· Wells· Seasandoceans· Bathtubs
NosebleedingThisistheflowofbloodfrom thenose.
Causes· Overinhalationofdryair· Overblowingoronesnosewithcold· Takingfoodsonesbodyisallergicto.· Takingmedicationsforalongtime(aspirin,garlic,ginger)· Overinhalationofdryairdriesthebloodvesselsinthenostrilsandtheybreak.· Overblowingthenoseoverstrainsthebloodvesselsinthenostrilsandthey
break.· Takingaspirin,garlic,andgingerpreventsnormalbloodclottingandinstead
thintheblood.
FirstAid· Letthecausalitysitandbendforward.· Squeeze theuppersideofthenostrils.· Encouragethecausalitytobreathethroughthemouthtopreventover
strainingthebloodvessels.· Keeptheheadofthevictim higherthantheleveloftheheart.· Puttheicewrappedinatowelonthenoseandcheck
Why?Tomaketheliningofbloodvesselsinthenostrilsmoist.NB:donotmakethecausalitytoleanbackbecauseitallowsbloodtoflowbacktothethroatwhichmaycausevomitingorirritation.
Prevention· Keepingthenostrilsmoist· Takingcitrusfruitssuchasorangesandlemonstostrengthentheliningof
bloodvessels.· Takingfoodsoneisnotallergicto.
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ForeignbodiesAforeignbodyisanyunwantedmatterthatentersthebody.Aforeignbodymayenterthebodythroughthe;
· Nose· Mouth· Anus· Eye· Ears· Vagina
ExamplesofforeignbodiesInsectsSmallstonesSeeds(coffee,berries,beans,g.nuts)DirtyordustSoil
ForeignbodyintheeyeObjectsthatenterintheeyeinclude;dust,smallinsects,soil.
FirstAidWashtheeyewithplentyofcleanwater.Usethecornerofasoftpieceofclothtoremovetheforeignbody.Takethevictim totheoculist.
ForeignbodyintheearExamplesSmallinsectsSmallseedsSmallstones
FirstAid· Makethevictim sitandbendtheheadtooneside.· Ifitisaninsect,pourcleanwaterintheearfortheinsecttofloatandcome
out.· Flashlightattheentranceoftheeariftheforeignbodyisaninsect.· Takethevictim tothehospital
ForeignbodyinthenoseForeignbodiesinthenoseinclude;
· Smallinsects· Smallseeds· Smallstones
FirstAidTellthevictim toblowhisnosehardandfast.
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Takethecasualitytothehealthworker.
ForeignbodyinthethroatForeignbodyinthethroataremainlylargepiecesoffoodorsmallbone.Foreignbodyinthethroatleadtochokinganddeath.
Firstaid· Givethevictim anumberofsharpblowsintheback· Wrapyourarmsaroundhiswaistandpressthebellyupwardsstrongly.· Ifthevictim isunconscious,liehim onhisbackandmakeseveralsudden
pushesonthebellyusingheelsofyourhands.· Itthepersondoesnotbreathe,trymouthtomouthbreathing.· Takethevictim tohospital· Ifthevictim issmallerthanyou,turnhim overyourfoldedlegandgivesharp
blowsattheback.
Preventingaccidentscausedbyforeignbodies· Chewfoodproperly· Donottalkorlaughwheneating· Keepbeads,button,coins,andseedsoutofreachofchildren· Puttingonglasseswhilemovingonmotorcyclesandbicycles· Teachchildrennottoputseeds,coins,stones,andsoilintheireyes,nose,
ears,andmouth.
PoisoningPoisonisanysubstanceoncetakenintothebodydamagesbodyorgansorcausesdeath.
Wayspoisoncanbeintroducedintothebody· Throughfood· Throughair· Throughanimalbites(snakes,rapiddogs)· Throughinjections· Throughswallowing(orally)
CommonhouseholdpoisonsParaffin herbicidesRootpoison JikPetrol InsecticidesWormcides DieselAcaricides Drugs(Aspirin/chloriqune)
Signsofpoisoning· Rapidbreathing· Feverandsweating
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· Feelingthirsty· Mentalconfusion· Comma· Vomiting· Lossofbalance
FirstAidGivethecasualityalotoffluids(freshmilk).
Why?TodilutepoisoninthestomachMakethepersonvomitincaseitsnon-corrosivepoison.
Howtomakethepersontovomit· Placingthefingerinthemouthorthroat.· Givethevictim watermixedwithsoap· Rushthevictim tothehospital
NB:Ifthecausalityhastakenparaffin,petrol,orbleach(Jik),donotmakehimvomit.
Why?Itcausesmoredamagetothestomachandgullet.
Preventingpoisoning· Keeppetrol,paraffinoutofreachofchildren· Keepdrugsoutofreachofchildren· Followthedoctorsprescription· Buydrugsfrom recommendedpharmacies· Disposeexpireddrugs.· Avoiddrugsmisuse
TheABCtechniquefollowedbeforegivingfirstAIDA-AirwayB-BreathingC-Circulation
TOPICALQUESTIONS1.Mentionthemainreasonforgivingfirstaid2.Distinguishburnsandscald.3.Howisthecauseofburnssimilartothatofscalds?4.Whyshouldaburnthandofavictim bedippedincoolrunningwater?5.Whyisitnotadvisabletobreakblistersontheskin?6.Howdoheatinsulatorspreventburnsandscalds?
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7.Definefever.8.Listdownthemaineffectoffever.9.Explainthefirstaidyoucangiveapersonwhohasfever.10.Howwouldyouhelpapersonwhohasconvulsion?11.Whatisfainting?12.Statethemaincauseoffainting?13.Howdoesdrowningdifferfrom neardrowning?14.Whyshouldpatientsofsecondandthirddegreeburnsbegivenalotofdrinks?
15.Giveonedifferencebetweenfirstdegreeburnsandthirddegreeburns.16.Whyisitnotgoodtomakethevictim whoisnosebleedingtofaceup.17.Howdoesaforeignbodyinthethroatcausechoking?18.Whywouldyougiveplentyofdrinkstoapersonwhohastakenpoison?19.Whyisitdangeroustomakeapersonwhohasdrunkparaffintovomit?20.Mentiononewayofpreventingpoisoningathome.
SANITATIONDefinition:Sanitationisthegeneralcleanlinessofaplacewherewelive.
Waysofmaintainingsanitation· Constructionoflatrinesortoiletsforproperdisposalofwastes.· Diggingrubbishpitsandprovidingdustbinsforproperdisposalofhousehold
refuse.· Slashingbushesaroundthehomes.· Drainingawayallstagnantwatertodenymosquitoesbreedingandprotecting
watersources.
ConstructingalatrineortoiletAlatrineispitduginthegroundwherehumanexcretaisdeposited.
UsesoflatrinesTheykeepfaecesandurinewherevectorscannotbringthem toourfood.
Typesoflatrinesi) Pitlatrineii) Toiletsiii) Potties
PitLatrinesQualitiesofawellbuiltlatrine· Itshouldbe5to7metresdeep· Thefloorshouldbestrongenoughtostandonandsmoothtosweepand
clean.· Itshouldhaveaholebigenoughtoallowfaecesandurinetopassandsmall
enoughtopreventchildrenfrom fallinginside.
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· Itshouldhavespiralwallsanddoorstoprovideprivacytotheuser.· Itshouldhavealidtocoverthehole.NB:Coveringcontrolsbadsmelland themovementoffliesiscontrolled.· Itshouldbeconstructed10metresawayfrom themainhouseand30metres
from thewatersource.· Itshouldbebuiltbelowthewatertableorsourcetoavoidcontamination.
Siteofapitlatrine· Itshouldbeatleast10metresfrom alivinghousetopreventfliesfrom
carryinggermsontofood.· Itshouldbeatleast30metresawayfrom awatersource(watertable)to
preventfeacesandurineseepingintowatersourceandcontaminateit.· Itsinkingrainyseasons· Shouldnotbebuiltabovethewatertabletopreventthefeacesandurine
goingintoandcontaminate.
TypesofPitlatrinei) Ordinarypitlatrineii) VIPlatrines
OrdinarypitlatrineItiscommoninvillagesItshouldhavealidtocoverthehole.
TheVIPlatrineItisaspecialtypeofalatrinewithaventpipetotakeoutsmellandascreenontoptotrapflies.
ImportantfeaturesofaVIPlatrine· Ventpipe:itletsoutbadsmell.· Screenontop:trapsflies· Spiralshapedwallsnodoorsforfreecirculationofair.· Ithasnolidtoletinair
HowtoconstructaVIPlatrine· Itshouldbeatleast10metresawayfrom anyschool,house,kitchen,and
otherbuildings· Itshouldbe30metresawayfrom anywatersource.· Itshouldbebuiltonsolidgroundandnotinvalleysorswamps.· Digapitofabout5-10metresdeepCoverthepitinanyofthefollowingways;i.Usestrongpolesofhardtimbersii.Metalbarsiii.Buildahouseontopofthepitfixanetorscreenontopoftheventpipe.
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Placethepipeinitshole.
HowtomaintainaVIPlatrine· Thefloorshouldbesweptorwashedifitscemented.· Washorremoveanyfeaces,insects,cobwebsanddustfrom wallsand
cornersoftheroof· Trim grassandbushesaroundthelatrine· Whileusingalatrine,makesurethatthefeacesgodirectlyintothehole.· Cleanwithanysofttissueorleaves· Washyourhandswithsoapafterusingthelatrine.
Toilets(waterclosetsystem)Thisisabowlshapeddeviceusedfordisposinghumanwaste,whichisflushedawaythebowlbywaterfrom atank(cistern).
ComponentsofaflushtoiletsystemPartsinclude;i. Atankthatstoreswaterforflushingii.Aseatwithacoverforsitting.iii.Apipethattakeswaterfrom thetanktothebowlandanotherthattakesitto
septictank.iv.Aseptictank,anundergroundstorageholeforhumanwasteandwastewater
from kitchenandbathroom (i.e.Sewage)Thewastematerialsintheseptictanksarecalledsewage.Sewagefrom septictanksmaybecarriedawaybypipes(sewers)for
treatmenttomakeitlessharmful.Wherethereisnopipesystem,itiscarriedusingvehiclescalledcesspool
emptiers.InUganda,collectionandtreatmentofsewagefrom homesandinstitutionsis
donebyNationalwaterandsewagecorporation(NSWSC).v.Theleveriseitherpulledorpushedtopreleasewaterduringflushing.Flushtoiletsarecommonlyusedincities,townsandotherplaceswherethereis
pipedwater.
Advantages· Canbeputinsidethehouseandvehicles· Theyareeasytoclean· Theyareuserfriendly,evenyoungchildrencanusethem.
Disadvantages· Theyareveryexpensive· Theyrequirealotofwatertofunction· Theyareonlyusedwherethereispipedwater.· Theycaneasilygetblockedifhardobjectsareputinit.
Howtomaintainflushtoilets
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· Keeptheseatclean,donotsteporurinateinthem.· Flushtoiletsafteruse.· Useonlysofttissueortoiletpaperaftercleaningyourself.· Donotusethetoiletwhenitisblocked.
THEREPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMGrowthisanincreaseinsizee.g.changesfrom larvatoadult.Developmentreferstogrowinggraduallyandbecomingmoremature.
ReproductionThisistheprocessbywhichalllivingthingsmultiplyandincreaseinnumber(becomemany)i.e.giverisetonewoff-springs(youngones)tocontinueagenerationofthespecies.
TypesofreproductionTherearetwotypesofreproduction
i) Asexualreproductionii) Sexualreproduction
ASexualreproductionThisisthetypeofreproductionwherenoreproductivecells(gametes)areusedtoproduceyoungones.
ExamplesofasexualreproductionVegetationpropagationinplantse.g.budding,grafting,layering,marcoting,stemcutting,sulkers,bulbscrown,slips,leaves,androotcutting,celldivision,binaryfissioninsinglecelledanimalse.g.Amoeba,bacteria,paramecium.
SexualreproductionThisisthetypeofreproductionwhichinvolvesjoining(fusing)ortworeproductivecells,maleandfemalegametes.Theunion/fissionofamalefemalegametesiscalledfertilization.Thenucleiofthetwocellsuniteandform aZygotedevelopsintoanewindividualorfoetus.Inanimals,themalereproductivecells(gametes)arecalledspermsandareproducedbythereproductiveorganscalledtestes.ThefemalereproductivecellsarecalledOvaandareproducedbytheovaries.
HermaphroditesTheseareanimalsthatcontain(have)bothmaleandfemalereproductiveorgans(TestesandOvaries)onthemselves.E.g.earthwormsandsnails.
TypesoffertilizationTherearetwotypesoffertilization
i) Externalfertilization
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ii) Internalfertilization
ExternalfertilizationThisiswherethefemalelayseggsandthemalepoursspermsonthem outsidethemothersbodytofertilizethem e.g.fishandamphibians.
InternalfertilizationThisiswheneggsarefertilizedinsidethemothersbodyaftermating.
HumansexualreproductionDiagram showingthecrosssectionofthefemalereproductiveorgans(system)
ThefemalereproductiveorgansandtheirfunctionsTheOvary:therearetwoovaries.Oneontheleftandanotherontheright.Ovariesproduceova(ovum)thefemalereproductivecells.Oviduct(fallopiantube):itisthetubedowntheuterus(womb)from theovary.Itisthepassageforanovum totheuterus.Thisiswherefertilizationtakesplace.Uterus(womb):itisabaglikestructureinsidewhichthefoetusorZygotegrowsfrom.Cervix:Thisisaringofmusclewhichhelpstoclosethelowerendoftheuterustothevaginatherebyprotectingit/foetusfrom externaldamage.
Thestructureofgametesi) Femalegamete(anOvum)ii) Malegamete(sperm)
Thestructureofmalereproductiveorgan
FunctionsofpartsofthemalereproductiveorganScrotum:itisasacorbagthatenclosesandprotectsthetestes.Testes:theseareglandsthatproducethemaleseminalfluidscontainingsperms;Theylieoutsidetheabdominalcavitytomakethem havelowertemperaturethanthenormalbodytemperatureformaximum productionofsperm;Theystartproducingsperm cellsduringadolescencefrom age11-16yearsEpididymis:itisalongcoiledtubewhichstoresandthencarriessperms.Sperm duct:Itisanextensionoftheepididymisanddeliversthespermstotheurethrawherethey passandgoout.Prostrategland:produceafluid(seminalfluid)whichhelpstoneutralize(make
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harmless/theacidinurineintheurethra.Italsokillgermswhichareinsperms.Seminalvesicles:itstoresexcesssperms.Erectiletissue(penis):itisaspongytissuewhichwhenfilledwithblooditerects(stands)toejaculatesperms.
OvulationThisiswhenmatureovaarereleasedfrom theovary.Anovaryreleasesanovum everymonthi.e.thereleaseofovaisdonealternately.
MenstruationThisistheperiodicreleaseofbloodfrom uterusasaresultofraptureoftheuteruswallswhenfertilizationhastakenplaceThishelpstowashandcleantheuterusinpreparationtoreceiveafoetus.NB:Thefirstmenstruationcalledmenarebestartsingirlsbetweentheageof9-15years.Thelastmenstruationperiodendataround45yearsandiscalledmenopauseNormalmenstruationtakes3-4days.Ittakesplaceafterevery28daysifallconditionsarenormal.Itmaybeinterruptedbyconception,strongfever,oranyabnormalitiesinthebody.
Careduringmenstruation· Topreventinfectionandavoidgerms,diseases,onemustbeclean.· Usesanitarymaterialssuchastampax, tampons,always,cotton.· Visithealthworkersincaseabnormalitiesarenoted.
Fertilization· Fertilizationtakesplaceintheoviduct/fallopiantube.· Immediatelyafterfertilization,thezygotemovestotheuterus.· Thezygoteattachesitselfontotheplacentawiththehelpofanumbilical
cord,thisprocessiscalledimplantation.· Theplacentasuppliestheembryowithfoodnutrientsandoxygenatthesame
timeitremoveswasteproducts.· Theumbilicalcordtransportsfoodtothefoetusandwasteproductsfrom the
foetustotheplacentatobecarriedawaybyblood.· Theperiodofpregnancyfrom conceptiontobirthiscalledgestationperiod
andlastsfor9monthsinhumans.· Developmentofthefoetustakesplaceintheuterus.· Theammoticfluidactasshockabsorberandprotectthefoetus.· Theamnion/amnioticmembraneprotectsthebodyandhadthefluids.
Thestagesofdevelopmentare;Fertilization - Zygote - Foetus -babyDiagram showingdevelopmentofthefoetusinuterusSexdetermination
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Sexofachildisdeterminedbychromosomesfoundonthegametes/sexcells,thereareXandYchromosomesXXchromosomesareforgirlsandXYforboys.SpermscarryXXandXYchromosomes
Signsofpregnancy(goodandBad)· Morningsickness· Vomitingandnausea· Swollenlegs· Generalbodyweakness· Swollenbelly· Frequenturination· Fasterbreathing
Requirementsofanexpectantmother(pregnantmother)· Gooddiet(balanceddiet)forpropergrowthofthebaby.· Shouldavoidtakingdrugsliketobaccoandalcohol.· Shouldvisitantenatalclinicformedicalcheckupandadvice.· Shouldrakevaccineagainsttetanus(texonustoxed)· Enoughrestandsleep.· Wearmaternitydressestohavecomfort· Perform lightphysicalexercises
BIRTHANDLABOURAfterninemonthsofpregnancy,themotherwillgointolabourandproduceachild.Thisiscalledgivingbirthorparturition(childbirth).Labourreferstotheeffortofchildbirthshownbycontractionsoftheuterus.
Whatmakesababyafterbirthcry?Itisduetosuddenchangeintemperature(environmentchange).Cryinghelpstostartthenormalfunctioningofthelungsi.e.breathingstartsatbirth.NB:incaseababyfailstocry/breatheartificialbreathingshouldbedoneimmediately.Singlechildbirth:thisiswhenonechildisnormallyborntomother.Multiplebirth:thisiswhentwoormorebabiesarebornatthesametime.Twin:whentwobabiesarebornatthesametimebythemother.
TwinsIdenticaltwinsThisiswhenonefertilizedovum dividesnormallyandgrowsintotwoseparatebabies.IdenticaltwinsareusuallysamesexAlltheirphysicalaspectsarethesame.
Siamesetwins
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Thesearetwinswhosebodyremainedjoined/fusedatonepoint.
FraternaltwinsThisiswhentwoovaarereleasedandfertilizedandthendevelopintotwinsfraternaltwinsarenotalwaysthesamesex.
MultiplebirthIftherearethreeormoreovareleasedandfertilizeditresultsintomultiplebirth.
ExamplesofmultiplebirthsTriplets:ThreechildrenarebornQuadruplets:Fourchildrenareborn.
BirthControlContraceptionThisisamethodofavoidinggettingmanychildrenyoucannotcareforproperlyi.e.havingthenumberofchildrenyouwantandwhenyouwantthem.
FamilyplanningThisistheuseofbirthcontrolmethodstogetthenumberofchildrenyouwantandwhentohavethem infamily.
ChildspacingThisistheprovisionofenoughtimebetweenthebirthofthedifferentchildreninfamily.
Functionsoffamilyplanningassociation· Iteducatespeopleaboutchildspacing· Educatespeopleaboutqualityoflifewhenchildrenarefew· Providespeoplewithfamilyplanningcontraceptives.
Reasonswhypeoplehavemanychildren· Ignoranceoffamilyplanningmethods.· Highinfantmortalityrare· Traditionalpracticesandvalues(customs)· Prestigeorfameandsecurity.
ProblemsofhavingmanychildrenIfafamilyhastoomanychildren,therewillbe;
· Inadequatefinancialresources.· Lackofenoughfoodforthechildren· Pooreducationforchildren· Lackofpropermedicalcare· Highinfantmortalityrare
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· Motherssicknessasaresultofhavingtoomanychildrene.g.miscarriage,maternalanemia,fatigue,lowbirthetc.
Howtoavoidinfantmortalityrate(death)· Immunizationagainstinfantkillerdiseases.· Participatinginhealthcareservicese.g.healtheducation· Practicefamilyplanning.
Advantagesoffamilyplanning· Immunizationagainstinfantkillerdiseases· Itreducesriskofseriousdiseaseandmaternaldeath.· Itreducescasesofabortion/miscarriages· Itimprovesthehealthandwellbeingofthefamily.· Controlspopulationgrowth.
MethodsofbirthcontrolTherearetwomethodsusedforbirthcontrolnamely;
i) NaturalMethodsii) Artificialmethods
Naturalmethods· Abstainingfrom sex· Withdrawal/pullingoutbeforereleasingspermsduringsex· Bedseparationbycouples· Prolongedbreastfeeding· Themucusmethod(testingJell)· Usingcalendarormoonbeads.
Artificialmethods· Useofcondoms· Useofcontraceptivepills· Birthcontrolinjectionse.g.injectaplan,· Intrauterinedevicese.g.coils,spirals,diaphragm.· Useofjelliesandfoams· Sterilizationbyvasectomyinmenandtubeligation· Usingnorplant
MYTHSANDMISCONCEPTIONABOUTADOLESCENCEANDREPRODUCTIONHEALTH
- Amyth isatraditionalbeliefthatisnottrue- Misconceptionsarefalseideasorbeliefs
Mythsandmisconceptions TruthFamilyplanningcontraceptivemakewomenpermanentlybarren
Whenawomanfeelssheshouldbecomepregnant,shejuststopsusingthecontraceptivesandbecomepregnantagain
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Familyplanningincreasesteenagepregnancy Instead teenagersareprotectedagainstunwantedpregnanciesandSTDs /STIs
Useofcontraceptivecauseshighbloodpressureandkillswomenduringbirth
Oncethewomenuse therightdrugsasadvisedbythetrainedworker.Complicationsarereduced
Useofcontraceptiveleadstoproducingbabieswithabnormalitiessuchashavingoneeye,earbeingblindorlame
Thisisnottrue
Familyplanningisagainsttheteachingofthechurch Atleastthechurchsupportsthenaturalfamilyplanningmethod.
Contraceptivesmakewomentoloosehairontheheadandgrowbeards
Thereisnoscientificproofaboutthis
ChangesduringadolescenceandpubertyAdolescenceAdolescenceisaperiodofdevelopmentchangesbetweenchildhoodandadulthood.Apersonatthisstageiscalledanadolescent.
PubertyThisistheperiodofphysicalmentalandsexualmaturityi.e.whenbecomesayoungadultcapableofproducing.Changesinadolescentsatpubertyarecalledsexcharacteristics
Therearethreetypesnamely;i) Primarysexcharacteristicsii) Secondarysexcharacteristicsiii) Emotional/psychologicalsexcharacteristics
Primarysexeducation(Basic)Thisinvolvesthedevelopmentofsexualorgansforreproduction.
PrimarysexcharacteristicsinboysPenisandtesticlesenlarge(increaseinsize)Thetesticlesstartproducingsperms(boysbeginexperiencingwetdreams.Internalorgansbeginproducingfluidlikesemen.
PrimarysexcharacteristicsingirlsThickeningofuteruswallsMenstruationbeginsOvariesdevelopandstartreleasingeggs(ovulationstarts)
Secondarysexcharacteristics(physical)Theseinvolvethephysicaldevelopmentofthebodyparts.
Secondarysexcharacteristicsinboys
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· Voicebreaksanddeepens· Hairgrowsondifferentpartsofthebodye.g.penis,armpits,chest,aroundthe
mouthandanus.· Bonesandmusclesenlargei.e.aboybecomesmuscular.· Sweatglandsbecomemoreactive.
Secondarysexcharacteristicsingirls· Breastsenlargeandlookstenderandattractive· Sweatglandsbecomeactivemakingthefacelooksmooth· Thehip(pelvis)enlargeandagirlputsonalotofweight.
AIDSTheterm AIDSstandsfor;AcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndromesAcquiredmeansgotfrom outsidethebodyImmunemeansprotectedagainstorsafefrom disease,thebodyisalwaysprotectedbywhitebloodcells.DeficiencymeanslackorshortageorAIDSvirusdestroyswhitebloodcellsandthebodyhasshortageorshem.Syndromesmeanacollectionorgroupofdiseasesandsignswhichshowthepresenceofadisease.AIDSisapatternofdiseasesymptomswhichattachanddestroywhitebloodcellsleavingthebodyunprotectedagainstinfections.
CausesofAIDSAIDSiscausedbyaviruscalledHIV(HumanImmunodeficiencyVirus)commonlycalledAIDSvirus.
TransmissionofAIDSvirus· AIDSviruscanonlysurviveinthehumanbody.· Thediseasecanbespreadwhenbodyfluidsofaninfectedpersongetinto
contactwith thatofthehealthyperson.· Bodyfluidscanbeexchangedinthefollowingways;· Sexualcontactswithaninfectedperson.· Bloodtransfusionfrom aninfectedperson.· Sharingorusingsharpcuttinginstruments· From aninfectedpregnantmothertohernewlybornbabyatbirth.· From themothertothebabythroughbreastfeeding.
AIDSviruscannotspreadby;· Normalshakingofhands· Bitesfrom mosquitoesandbedbugs· CaringforAIDSpatients· Sharingcutleryandcookingutensils
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· HuggingorembracingAIDSpatients· Cleaning,washingbeddingsandclothingofpeoplewithHIV/AIDSSignsandsymptomsofHIV/AIDSSigns· ThemajorsignsofAIDSare;· HerpeszosterlocallycalledKisipiwhichinflamestheskinmakingitappear
asscalded.· Chronicdiarrhoeawhichmaylastformorethanaweek· Suddenlossofabout10%ofthenormalbodyweight.· SkincancerwhichisalsocalledKaposisscarcomer,itcausesitchingand
leadstoscratchingthatleavesblackspots.· Swollenlymphglandsespeciallythoseoftheneckandarmpits· Oralthrushwherebythetongue,gums,lips,andinsideofthemouthplusthe
alimentarycanal· Chroniccoughwhichlastslong.
Symptoms· Tirednesswithoutanypropercause· Generalbodyweakness· Persistentfeverwhichisonandoff· Lossofappetite
PeoplewhoareatriskofgettingHIV/AIDS· Sexuallyactivepeoplebetweentheagesof15-45years· Rapeanddefilementvictims· Longdistanttruckdriversandtraderswhooftenhavecasualsexwhenaway
from theirmarriedpartnersforalongtime.· Prostituteswhosellthemselvesforsextomanypartners.· Barattendants.
EffectsofAIDS/HIV· ThesearemanyeffectsofHIV/AIDSoninfectedperson,familyand
community.· Theysufferpersonalpainfrom thedisease.· Thefamilyspendsalotofmoneyontreatment,careandfeeding.· Theyarestigmatizedorisolatedinthesociety.· Lossoffamilyincomeifthebreadwinnerdies.· Manychildrenareorphanedandbecomechildparents.
PreventionandcontrolofHIV/AIDS· ThereiscurrentlynocureagainstAIDS,sopeopleneedtoguardthemselves
againstthediseaseby;· ABCapproach· Havingonefaithfulsexualpartner· Abstainfrom sexualintercourseuntilmarriage
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· AvoidpracticeswhichinvolverisksofgettingAIDSliketattooing,earpiercing.· Useofcondomsduringsex.· Screeningbloodbeforemarriageandtransfusion· Sterilizingmedicalinstruments.· Disposingsyringesandneedlesafteruse.
HowcanwemanageAIDSpatients· PeoplewithAIDSneedsupportinmanyways..· Eatingabalanceddiet.· Joingoodsocialgroupstorelaxandavoidheavywork.· Shouldgiveupbadhabitslikesmokinganddrinkingalcohol
DISORDERSOFTHEREPRODUCTIVESYSTEM· Impotenceistheinabilityofamanspenistobecomestifforerect· Lowsperm count· Istheinabilityofthetestestoproduceenoughsperms· Penilecancer· Thisisthegrowthofabnormalcellsthatform onthepenis
EnlargementoftheprostateglandsThisdisorderiscommoninelderlymenover50yearsofage
FibroidsTheseareswellingscalledcyststhatdeveloponthewalloftheuterus.
EctopicpregnancyThisisaconditionwhenafertilizedeggimplantsitselfintheoviduct
OvariantumoursThesearemassesofabnormalcellsthatform ontheovary
Cervicalcancer (cancerofthecervix)Thisistheconditioninwhichthecervixdeveloptumours
Inflammationoftheoviduct.· Counseling,isaspecialform ofcommunicationthroughwhichapersonis
helpedtocontrolhis/herfeelingsbyacounselor
Typesofcounseling· Pre-HIVantibodytestcounseling· Pest-HIVantibodytestcounseling· CounselingHIV/AIDSpatients
Importanceofcounseling
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· ItpreventsAIDSvictimsfrom committingsuicide· Avoidsspreadofthediseasetoothersknowingly.· Toencouragepeopletocontinuetolivelongeranduseful.
OrganizationinUgandathatofferscounselingservicesInUganda,therearemanygovernmentalorganizationswhichoffercounseling.TASO:TheAIDSSupportOrganization.Italsoprovidefood supplementsfoodforpatients.AIC:AIDSInformationCentreACP:AIDS ControlProgrammeofministryofhealth.ItalsoprovidesHIV/AIDStesting.
Gonorrhea· Itisavenerealdiseasecausedbyabacterium calledgonococci(sing
gonococcus)· Itisspreadthroughunprotectedsexualintercoursewithaninfectedperson.
Signsinmen· Painwhenurinating· Dischargeofpusfrom thepenis· Painfulswellingonthetesticles· Rashandsoresonthegenitalareas
Signsinwomen· Slightpainwhenurinating· Sometimesverypainfulmonthlyperiods.· Vaginaldischargeofsmellypus· Paininthelowerabdomen.
Signsinbabies· Redandswolleneyes· Puscomesoutofthebabyeyes· Blindness.
Effectsofgonorrhea· Itleadstopermanentdamageofmaleandfemalereproductiveorgans.· Leadstosterilityinbothmenandwomen.· Causeblindnessinbabies.· Blockstheurethramakingurinationdifficultandpainful.
Controlandpreventionofgonorrhea· UsingtheABCformulaforpreventingAIDSandotherSTDs.· A-Abstainfrom sexualintercourse· B-Befaithfultoyourpartner· Condomsshouldbeusedduringsexualintercourse
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· Seekearlymedicaltreatment· Stopplayingsexuntilyouarecompletelytreated.
SyphilisSyphilisisachronicanddangerousvenerealdiseasecausedbyabacteriumcalledSpirochereItisspreadbyhavingsexualcontactwiththeinfectedperson.
Signsandsymptomsvarywithstages· Painfulsorescalledchancreappears2-5weeksafterinfection.· Insecondstageanumberofsignsandsymptomssuchassoresinmouth,
throat,itchingskin,rashesappear.· Inthethirdstagethebacteriacauseheartdisease,paralysis,blindnessand
insanityormadness.PreventionandcontrolofsyphilisItispreventedbypracticingABCapproachInfectedpeopleshouldseeadoctorimmediately
Otherurinarytractinfection· Pelvicinflammatorydiseases(PID)· Infectedpeopleshouldseeadoctorimmediately· Itaffectstheabdominalandpelvicarea.
EpididymisSeriousinfectionoftheepididymisleadingtoswellingtendernessandpaininthetesticles.
GenitalherpesThesearesores(inflammation)ofthegenitalscausedbyviruscalledherpessimplex.
TrichomoniasisVaginalisItiscausedbyprotozoacalledtrichomonasThediseasecausesinflammationofthevagina
GenitalwartsThesearesoresinthesexualpartsandaroundtheanus.Theyarecausedbyavirus.
HydrocellItisanincreaseinquantityoffluidsinthesacaroundthetestisandepididymis.
OrchitisInflammationofthetestisduetoinjuryorinfectionoftuberculosis
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CandidasisItisalsocalledthrashandiscausedbyafungus
SterilityInabilityofamantoimpregnantawomenorawomanfailingtoconceiveLymphglandcomaThisreferstoenlargelymphnodesspreadbysexualcontact.
UrethririsAdiseasethatcausetheurethratobecomesoreandswollen.
Prevention· UsingABCapproach· Seekingmedicalattention· Personalhygieneespeciallyofthegenitals.
PIASCYMESSAGESABOUTADOLESCENCEANDREPRODUCTIVEHEALTHPIASCY STANDSP — PresidentialI— IntitiativeonA — AidsS— StrategyforC — CommunicationtotheY— YouthThefollowingmessagesarepassedtousthroughPIASCYactivities
- Abstainingfrom sexuntilmarriage- LearnhowHIVistransmitted- HIVdamagestheimmusesystem- PeoplelivingwithHIVandAIDSneedcareandsupport- TestingforHIV- Managingmenstruation- Youneedtounderstandhowyourbodychangesatpuberty- SexuallytransmittedinfectionsmakeiteasierforHIVinfections- SayNotosexforgifts- Lifeskillshelpstoprotectyoufrom HIV.- Usingviolencetogetsexiswrong- YouhavetherighttosayNotoforcedmarriages.- SayNotobadtouches- Choosetodelaysex
- Avoidriskyplacesandriskybehaviours