Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and poverty reduction strategies in
Zimbabwe: The case of the Catholic Development Commission (CADEC) in the
Binga district.
By
WALTER M MHAKA (200808111)
A Dissertation Submitted to the University of Fort Hare, Department of Sociology
in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Social Science in Sociology
January 2014
SUPERVISOR: DR F H NEKHWEVHA
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Abstract
The main objective of this study was to explore non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
and poverty reduction strategies in Zimbabwe through an assessment of the activities of
the Catholic Development Commission (CADEC) in the Binga district in the Matabeleland
North province. The research method used was triangulation and the theoretical
framework combined insights of both the Basic Needs Approach and the Capability
Theory. The core argument which has emerged is that despite criticisms levelled against
NGOs that they cater for immediate relief and basic needs, the operation of CADEC in
Binga shows in contrast that NGOs can operate in such a way that the capabilities of the
participants can be enhanced or expanded such that the Binga district can be capable of
independently engaging in sustainable livelihoods and development. This study argued
that participation in projects has enabled CADEC to realise and expand people’s
capabilities and participation was identified as a means of gaining a sustainable
livelihood. To achieve the objectives of the study the researcher collected data using a
survey questionnaire and in-depth interviews. The study was framed within the concept
of Fundamental Human Needs by Manfred Max-Neef and the Capabilities Approach of
Amartya Sen. The concept of Fundamental Human Needs argues that human needs do
not change but the ways of satisfying the needs do change and unsatisfied needs results
in poverty. The Capabilities approach on the other hand, sees poverty as caused by the
deprivation of human capabilities. These theories were utilized for this study because they
complement each other. Max-Neef believed that development should focus on promoting
community agency where beneficiaries are the primary actors for development.
Development for him is people-centred, participatory and environmentally sound whilst
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the Capability Approach of Sen is of the view that development is about developing or
expanding human potentials. Being anchored on these two theories this study found out
that CADEC use supplementary feeding, sustainable projects such as gardens and
livestock production, educational initiatives, the provision of shelter and participatory
development as strategies to alleviate poverty in the Binga district. CADEC’s long term
projects that focus on farming practices and sustainable livelihoods have enabled Binga
people to respond to their poverty. Thus, the results of this study substantiated the views
on Max-Neef and Sen since CADEC does not only provide for basic needs but also
enhances the capabilities of the people in Binga. However, even if the majority of the
respondents believed that CADEC has managed to reduce poverty in Binga, a lot still
needs to be done since poverty is still the main problem in the district.
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Declaration
I, Walter Mugove Mhaka (200808111), the undersigned do hereby declare that the
content of this dissertation is my original work and has not been previously submitted to
any other university for an award of a degree either in part or in its entirety
Signature……………………………………………………………….
Date………………………………………………………………………
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FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES
Plagiarism declaration
1. I am aware that it is forbidden to plagiarize. Plagiarism is using one’s work without
acknowledging that it is not your own ideas.
2. This study utilised the Harvard referencing style. Every section, sentence and
quotations from other scholars used in this study have been acknowledged, well cited
and referenced.
3. I have never allowed and will never permit someone else to replicate my work with the
intention of pretending that it is his or her own original work.
4. I, Mhaka W M (200808111), admit that it is prohibited to plagiarize the whole, parts and
pieces of another person’s work, therefore, I declare that this dissertation is my own
original work.
Signature (Student)…………………………………………… Date………………………
SUPERVISOR’S CONFIRMATION
This is to confirm that as per the Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities’
recommendation, the plagiarism detection software was utilised and it was found that this
dissertation was not plagiarized.
Signature (supervisor)……………………………………. Date………………………..
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Acknowledgements
I would never have been able to complete my dissertation without the guidance of my
supervisor, help from friends, and support from my family.
First and Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Dr F H
Nekhwevha for the continuous support, for his serenity, motivation, enthusiasm, and
immense knowledge. His guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of
this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better supervisor, and mentor for my
Masters Study.
Besides my advisor, I would like to thank Roselyn Tshuma, for her encouragement,
insightful comments, and helpful questions. I thank my fellow classmates Devane Nzima
and Roselyn Tshuma for the stimulating discussions, for the sleepless nights we were
working together before deadlines, and for all the fun we have had in the last six years.
Also, I thank my friends: William, Blessing (Couzie), Credy, Wishy, Aby, Shorty (Solo),
She-Marange, Martin and Windy for always supporting me and encouraging me with their
best wishes. I am grateful to Addmore Muruviwa for enlightening me about the quality
of work at this level of study.
My sincere thanks also go to Mr Siakenga and Mrs Daka, for offering me the opportunity
to collect data from the beneficiaries of CADEC, Hwange dioceses, and to visit their
diverse exciting projects in different wards.
I would like to acknowledge the financial, academic and technical support of the University
of Fort Hare and its staff, particularly in the award of a Postgraduate tuition waiver and
supervisor linked bursary that provided the necessary financial support for this research.
Last but not the least, I would like to thank my family especially my parents Mr C E Mhaka
and Dr N Mhaka, for giving birth to me in the first place and supporting me spiritually
throughout my life.
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Contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................................................... i
Declaration ................................................................................................................................................ iii
Plagiarism declaration ........................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. v
List of tables ............................................................................................................................................. xi
List of figures .......................................................................................................................................... xii
List of acronyms and abbreviation ....................................................................................................xiii
Chapter 1: General Introduction and Overview ............................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Situational analysis of Zimbabwe ................................................................................................. 3
1.3 The research problem ...................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Preliminary literature review .......................................................................................................... 7
1.4.1 NGO landscape ....................................................................................................................... 7
1.4.2 CADEC ...................................................................................................................................... 8
1.4.3 Causes of poverty in Zimbabwe ......................................................................................... 9
1.4.4 Contextualizing poverty in Binga..................................................................................... 10
1.5 The research questions ................................................................................................................. 12
1.6 Research aim and objectives ....................................................................................................... 12
1.7 Theoretical framework ................................................................................................................... 13
1.8 Research methodology and design ............................................................................................ 16
1.9 Research Instruments .................................................................................................................... 17
1.10 Population ....................................................................................................................................... 19
1.11 Sampling .......................................................................................................................................... 19
1.12 Data analysis .................................................................................................................................. 20
1.13 Significance of study ................................................................................................................... 20
1.14 Delimitations of the study ........................................................................................................... 21
1.15 Ethical considerations ................................................................................................................. 21
1.16 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 22
2.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 23
2.2 Development ..................................................................................................................................... 25
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2.3 Failures of traditional development theories to seriously address the praxis of
development. ........................................................................................................................................... 26
2.4 Max-Neef’s Fundamental human needs .................................................................................... 29
2.5 Capabilities approach by Amartya Sen ..................................................................................... 31
2.5.1 Ends and means ................................................................................................................... 32
2.6 The sustainable livelihoods approach ....................................................................................... 33
2.7 Livelihood .......................................................................................................................................... 34
2.8 Sustainable livelihoods as an integrating concept ................................................................ 35
2.9 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 36
Chapter 3: The concept of poverty and macro perspectives of poverty in Zimbabwe and
Binga ......................................................................................................................................................... 38
3.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 38
3.2 Definition of terms ........................................................................................................................... 40
3.3 Poverty in the world an overview ................................................................................................ 42
3.4 Measuring poverty .......................................................................................................................... 45
3.5 Absolute poverty ............................................................................................................................. 46
3.6 Relative Poverty ............................................................................................................................... 47
3.7 Understanding Poverty: A Political stand on its definition .................................................. 48
3.8 The meaning of poverty ................................................................................................................. 52
3.9 Poverty in the African context ..................................................................................................... 54
3.9.1 Mismanagement of land ..................................................................................................... 55
3.9.2 Corruption .............................................................................................................................. 55
3.9.3 Diseases ................................................................................................................................. 56
3.9.4 Hygiene and sanitation ....................................................................................................... 57
3.10 Individualistic theory of poverty ............................................................................................... 57
3.10.2 Cultural theory of poverty ................................................................................................ 58
3.10.3 Structural perspective of poverty .................................................................................. 60
3.11 Poverty in Zimbabwe .................................................................................................................... 63
3.12 Causes of poverty in Zimbabwe ................................................................................................ 64
3.13 Poverty in Binga district .............................................................................................................. 65
3.14 Contextualising poverty in Binga ............................................................................................. 68
3.15 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs and poverty reduction strategies (PRS) ........ 69
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3.16 International organisations and the PRSPs ........................................................................... 70
3.17 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 71
Chapter 4: The role of NGOs in poverty alleviation in Zimbabwe ............................................. 72
4.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 72
4.2 Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) ................................................................................ 73
4.3 Why NGOs in development? ........................................................................................................ 76
4.4 The emergence and expansion of NGOs in development .................................................... 77
4.5 Classification of NGOs in Zimbabwe ......................................................................................... 79
4.6 The role of NGOs in Zimbabwe .................................................................................................... 80
4.7 NGOs as service providers and developers in Zimbabwe ................................................... 81
4.8 Criticisms of NGOs ......................................................................................................................... 84
4.8.1 NGOs and Donor agencies ................................................................................................ 84
4.8.2 NGOs and the State ............................................................................................................. 86
4.8.3 Scaling up of NGOs ............................................................................................................. 88
4.8.4 Participation .......................................................................................................................... 89
4.8.5 Organisational praxis .......................................................................................................... 91
4.9 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 93
Chapter 5: Theoretical Framework. ................................................................................................... 95
5.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 95
5.2 Max-Neef’s human-scale development model ......................................................................... 95
5.2.1 Max-Neef’s fundamental human needs .......................................................................... 96
5.2.2 Objectives of human scale development ...................................................................... 98
5.2.3 Postulates of human scale development..................................................................... 100
5.2.4 Development is about people and not about objects ............................................... 100
5.2.5 Needs and satisfiers .......................................................................................................... 100
5.2.6 Fundamental human needs are finite, few and classifiable, what changes both
over time and through cultures, is the way or the means by which the needs are
satisfied. ......................................................................................................................................... 102
5.2.7 Poverty and poverties ....................................................................................................... 103
5.2.8 Categorization of human needs ..................................................................................... 104
5.3 Capability approach ...................................................................................................................... 106
5.3.1 The capability approach and education for sustainable development ................ 109
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5.4 Shortcomings of the capability approach............................................................................... 110
5.4 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 112
Chapter 6: Research methodology.................................................................................................. 114
6.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 114
6.2 Research methodology and design .......................................................................................... 115
6.2.1 Quantitative Research design ........................................................................................ 117
6.2.2 Qualitative research design ............................................................................................ 117
6.3 Research Instruments .................................................................................................................. 118
6.4 Population ....................................................................................................................................... 120
6.5 Sampling .......................................................................................................................................... 120
6.6 Pilot study ....................................................................................................................................... 121
6.7 Gaining entry .................................................................................................................................. 122
6.8 Data analysis .................................................................................................................................. 123
6.9 Significance of study .................................................................................................................... 123
6.10 Limitations of the study ............................................................................................................. 124
6.11 Ethical considerations ............................................................................................................... 125
6.12 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 125
Chapter 7: CADEC, poverty alleviation and the satisfaction of the Basic Needs of the
Binga people ......................................................................................................................................... 127
7.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 127
7.2 CADEC’s target ...................................................................................................................... 129
7.3 Gender composition of CADEC’s beneficiaries ............................................................ 131
7.4 Age groups of CADEC’s beneficiaries ............................................................................. 132
7.5 Pressing human needs in Binga ....................................................................................... 133
7.6 Assistance from CADEC...................................................................................................... 136
7.7 The nature of assistance from CADEC ............................................................................ 137
7.8 Did you get any aid in the last 3 months? ...................................................................... 140
7.9 The anti-poverty interventions utilized and strategies operationalized by CADEC
to fight poverty in Binga ............................................................................................................. 141
7.9.1 Supplementary feeding .................................................................................................... 141
7.9.2 Educational initiative ......................................................................................................... 144
7.9.3 Sustainable projects.......................................................................................................... 146
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7.9.4 The extent to which CADEC’s strategies contribute to the basic needs of the
people in Binga ............................................................................................................................. 148
7.9.5 The perception of the Binga people about CADEC’s poverty alleviation
programme. ................................................................................................................................... 150
7.10 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 153
Chapter 8: Enhancement of capabilities and sustainable development of the activities of
CADEC .................................................................................................................................................... 155
8.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 155
8.2 The enhancement of capabilities in Binga ............................................................................. 158
8.2.1 Community gardens as an integral strategy to sustainable livelihoods ............. 159
8.2.2 Water Point Committees .................................................................................................. 161
8.3 The effectiveness of CADEC’s facilitation in development ............................................... 161
8.4 Socialisation of skills through crop and livestock production ......................................... 165
8.5 Enskilling through educational initiatives .............................................................................. 166
8.6 Possibilities for the projects to continue operation without CADEC in Binga ............. 167
8.7 Has CADEC’s goal of poverty alleviation been achieved? ................................................. 169
8.8 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 170
9.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 173
9.2 Core argument of the dissertation ............................................................................................ 174
9.3 Recommendations ........................................................................................................................ 182
9.4 Limitations of the study ............................................................................................................... 184
9.5 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 184
Appendix 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 205
Survey questionnaire on NGOs and poverty reduction strategies in Binga, Zimbabwe .. 205
Appendix 2: ............................................................................................................................................ 213
Interview guide for CADEC beneficiaries ...................................................................................... 213
Interview guide for CADEC officials ................................................................................................ 217
Appendix 4 ............................................................................................................................................. 220
Interviews and documents ................................................................................................................ 220
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List of tables
Table 1: Matrix of needs and satisfiers………… ..………..……………..………….…101
Table 2: CADEC’s target………………………………………………….……………...131
Table 3: Gender composition of CADEC beneficiaries……………..…………………132
Table 4: Age………………………………………………………………………………..133
Table 5: Assistance from CADEC…………………………………………….………….137
Table 6: Aid in the last 3 months………………………………………………………....141
Table 7: Educational achievement of the Binga people……………………………….145
Table 8: Performance of CADEC in poverty alleviation……………………………….151
Table 9: If CADEC stops operating in Binga……………………………………………153
Table 10: The satisfaction of people by the way their potentials are enhanced…...159
Table 11: Effectiveness of the facilitation process of CADEC……………………….164
Table 12: Has CADEC’s goal of poverty reduction has been achieved…………….170
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List of figures
Figure 1: Zimbabwe overview map…………..………………..……..……..…..……..4
Figure 2: Administrative map of Zimbabwe..……………….………………………...5
Figure 3: Basic needs of Binga………………………………….………..……………135
Figure 4: Nature of assistance from CADEC………………....................................139
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List of acronyms and abbreviation
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
CADEC Catholic Development Commission
DGD-DEV Directorate General for Development
DCD-DAC Development Cooperation Directorate and Development Assistance
Committee
ESAP Economic Social Adjustment program
EC European Commission
EU European Union
FPL Food Poverty Line
G7C Group of 7 Countries
HDI Human Development Index
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GNP Gross National Product
GDT Geographic Discrepancy Theory
HDR Human Development Report
HIV Human Immune Virus
HPI Human Poverty Index
IDA International Development Association
IFI International Financial Institutions
IDB Inter-American Development Bank
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
NPI National Poverty Line
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PST Progressive Social Theory
PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers
PPP Purchasing Power Parity
PRS Poverty Reduction Strategy
SLA Sustainable Livelihoods Approach
SPSS Statistical Package of Social Sciences
TCPL Total Consumption Poverty Line
UFH University of Fort Hare
UNDP United Nations Development Program
USA United States of America
UN United Nations
WB World Bank
WSSD World Summit of Social Development
USD United States Dollar
UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
ZWD Zimbabwean Dollar
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Chapter 1: General Introduction and Overview
1.1 Introduction
The principal argument emanating from this study is that although non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) are criticised for catering for immediate relief and basic needs
(Treasure, 2009:7-10), the operation of CADEC in Binga shows in contrast that in addition
to providing for immediate relief and basic needs, NGOs can enhance the local people’s
capabilities through participating in different activities and thus enabling a district to
independently engage in sustainable development. This is evidenced by the findings of
this study that proved that apart from providing for immediate relief and basic needs, this
study identified community participation, gardening, livestock production, funding
sustainable projects and educational initiatives as strategies used by CADEC to reduce
poverty in the Binga district. In other words CADEC is encouraging people to work by
themselves.
This study explored non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and poverty reduction
strategies in Zimbabwe through an evaluation of the activities of CADEC in the Binga
district. Poverty is a worldwide phenomenon that affects people differently in different
nations and continents. It upsets individuals in different depths and levels, at different
eras and stages of life. Poverty differs in concentration and prevalence (Oyemomi,
2003:16). South Asia has the highest number of poor people in the world and about 32%
of the world’s poor live in South Asia. Similarly, sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America
have the highest concentration of poverty and have very low socio-economic
development levels (Oyemomi, 2003:16-17). Madzingira (2007:1) reports that 45% of
about 590 million people in sub-Saharan Africa live below the National Poverty Line
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(NPL). Thus, the saddle of poverty is spread unequally amongst the regions of the
developing world, amongst countries within those regions, and amongst localities within
those countries.
Zimbabwe is one of the poorest countries in the world which ranks 151 out of 177
countries in the human development index. Poverty in Zimbabwe is very high with about
62% of all Zimbabweans living in households with income per person below a level
sufficient to provide for basic needs (Madzingira, 2007:2). Binga, a district located in the
western Zambezi Valley, is the 3rd least developed in terms of Human Development in
Zimbabwe. Thus, a number of NGOs operate in the district, for example, CADEC has
been operating there for over 25 years, carrying out long-term projects in poverty
alleviation. It assists communities that live in marginalised rural areas to have better lives
through programs that are designed and geared towards meeting the needs of concerned
communities that are left behind in development (Redekop, 2000:145-148). However, on
the basis of the findings of this study, it shows that CADEC has crossed the border from
the criticisms levelled against NGOs by Treasure (2009:7-10) that they cater for
immediate relief and basic needs to activities that enhances people’s capabilities and
enables the Binga people to gain a sustainable livelihood through long-term development.
CADEC is a limb of the Catholic Church which deals with community based work in terms
of social welfare and socio-economic development (Finger, 2004 and documents 1, 2, 3,
4, 5 and 6). CADEC believes that development is not limited to economic growth but
rather it is holistic, covering all areas of life, be it economic, political, cultural, personal
and spiritual. This study found out that CADEC targets marginalized groups in society
regardless of their faith, political affiliation or gender. It offers services that are meant to
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address the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of poverty eradication and food
security (Clark, 1994: 29). Thus, CADEC’s vision is “to see a society in which the dignity
of the human being is paramount and in which exclusion, discrimination, violence and
dehumanising poverty are no more” (Documents 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). In other words,
CADEC uplifts the standard of living in Binga through development processes that lead
to self-reliance and this is achieved by participatory identification of people’s basic needs
and enhancing their capabilities. Its mission is “to improve the quality of life of the deprived
families by promoting, supporting and sustaining the development of the whole human
being as part of the evangelisation mission of the church” (Documents 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and
6). Accordingly, one can believe that CADEC is trying to make a difference in people’s
livelihood through facilitating development processes and appropriate training that lead
to social, physical, spiritual and economic self-sustenance (Jerie, 2010). Although much
has been documented on NGOs, this study focused on the activities of CADEC, whether
it provides for the basic needs, whether it enhances human potentials and whether the
projects it runs are sustainable in Binga. This chapter outlines the situational analysis of
Zimbabwe, preliminary literature review, research problem, research questions, research
aims and objectives, theoretical framework and research methods, among others.
1.2 Situational analysis of Zimbabwe
The republic of Zimbabwe is a wholly landlocked country in Southern Africa. On the North
and North West there is Zambia, Botswana at the South West, Mozambique at the East,
South Africa at the South and Namibia’s strip touches its western border at the connection
by Zambia. Zimbabwe is on the high highlands between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers
and these rivers are her main drainage systems. An overview map of Zimbabwe is
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provided below. (Encyclopedia of the nations accessed on 01/05/13
http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Africa/Zimbabwe.html)
Figure 1: Zimbabwe overview map
Source: http://abendkleider-abendmode.de/geschichte-der-kleider/zimbabwe-map
The Zimbabwe administrative map below indicates that Zimbabwe has 8 provinces,
namely, the Mashonaland West, Mashonaland Central, Mashonaland East, Manicaland,
Midlands, Masvingo, Matabeleland North and Matabeleland South. Binga district is
located in Matabeleland North. Binga is an isolated district on the South Eastern shore of
the lake Kariba. The district was constructed to rehouse the Ba Tonga people whose
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homelands were flooded by the reservoir. Thus, this is the focus research site of this
study.
Figure 2: Administrative map of Zimbabwe
Source: http://english.freemap.jp/map.php?area=africa_e&country=zimbabwe
1.3 The research problem
The study examined NGOs and poverty reduction strategies in Zimbabwe through an
evaluation of the activities of CADEC in Binga. Binga is very poor and marginalized and
its people require humanitarian aid every year. Accordingly, a number of NGOs have
been working to reduce poverty in Binga. NGOs are perceived to be efficient, effective
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and flexible (Lee, 2004, Mpofu, 2011 Nyathi, 2012). However, regardless of the rising
status that NGOs have earned for themselves and their work for the past years, their
contribution to development remains limited (Edwards et al., 1992:14). This is in spite of
the fact that various evaluations of the achievements of NGOs view them as instigators
of development wherever they are located. NGOs play a significant role in poverty
reduction and provide services in the various communities in which they operate (De Beer
et al., 2000). Nevertheless, these successes have not translated into a thoroughgoing
developmental breakthrough and therefore there must certainly be something erroneous
somewhere. Maybe the projects are not good or they are good but poorly executed
(Suharko, 2007:17). Specifically the study was mainly concerned about whether CADEC
provides for the basic needs, whether it enhances people’s capabilities and whether its
projects are sustainable. Therefore, it is against this framework that this study was
motivated and the findings of this study proved criticisms levelled against NGOs that they
cater for immediate relief and basic needs wrong.
In contrast the findings of this study indicate that the operation of CADEC in Binga proved
that NGOs are able to enhance the capabilities of individuals and communities and to
facilitate the gaining of sustainable livelihoods. However their freedom of choice of the
capabilities is limited (Gasper, 2002). This study’s results indicate that participation in
projects has enabled CADEC to recognise and develop people’s capabilities. As for Sen
(1998) livelihood means gaining a living whilst capabilities are both an end and means of
livelihoods. Additionally, the livelihood provides the support for the enrichment and
exercise of capabilities (an end) and capabilities (a means) enable a livelihood to be
achieved. As a result, it is argued in this study that sustainability is both an end and
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means, that is sustainable stewardship of resources is an end in itself and it provides a
means for livelihoods to be sustained for future generations. The section below discusses
the preliminary literature review for this study.
1.4 Preliminary literature review
Despite a relative dearth of literature in the area of study, this section however was
directed at a bird’s view on the various available literatures dealing with NGOs and
poverty reduction strategies generally and in Zimbabwe in particular. The section took as
a point of departure the NGO landscape in Zimbabwe (i.e. the history of the NGO
phenomenon in the country and how these NGOs are categorized), CADEC, the internal
and external causes of poverty in Zimbabwe and the contextualization of poverty in the
Binga district.
1.4.1 NGO landscape
Tsolmon (2004:7) argues that NGOs have been involved in various value-based activities
since the eighteenth century. NGOs developed from slave trade opposition and labour
unions to groups lobbying within international organisations like the United Nations
agencies (UN). The history of NGOs dates back to as early as the thirteenth century and
Africa’s NGOs emerged in the latter days of colonial rule as ethnic welfare associations.
They are categorised by orientation as charitable, service and participatory and by levels
of operation as Community and city based organisations, National and International
NGOs (Davids, 2005:67-68). In Zimbabwe, NGOs play a complementary role to the
government. This is in harmony with the findings of this study since CADEC at some
instances uses the facilities of the government to ensure that a service reaches the
intended destination. NGOs such as CADEC help to get goods and services into the areas
that are inaccessible to the government. These areas are inaccessible due to the lack of
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government transport to reach distant areas and this consequently resulting in lack of
access to goods and services and hence poverty.
1.4.2 CADEC
CADEC is also known as Caritas and it is found in more than 35 countries and has more
than 195 programs around the world. The organisation started in 1897 in Freiburg,
Germany. CADEC is an international aid and development organization which helps to
end poverty, promote justice and uphold the dignity of the poor people in the world. It is
an international charitable organisation of the Catholic Church that support societal
development and fosters the custom of charity and social work (Wagner, 2007: 99). Its
operation is guided by respect of human dignity, assisting people in need to overcome
the difficulties in life so as to become full societal members. Thus, CADEC advocates for
love, mercy, charity and sympathy. It is also dedicated to helping poverty ridden countries
all around the world. In other words, CADEC takes action not only in Third World countries
that are suffering, but also assist countries which have been hit by natural disasters and
are short on resources and support (Wagner, Ibid).
The great thing about CADEC’s support is that it does not reduce their suffering only, but
also teaches them how to support themselves through farming, cooking, gathering and
building in order to overcome their poverty. The organisation also focuses on giving
resources like water wells, farms and education to develop the community to be a better
place to live. CADEC’s mission statement indicated that it works towards the creation of
a world that God desires to be just and compassionate. It also works for the freedom of
those who are oppressed by injustice, assisting both the powerless and powerful, and
proclaiming to the poor the good news of their human dignity. This work is undertaken
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principally through the life-giving activities of aid and development. Furthermore,
CADEC’s mission statement speaks of building a better world, especially for the deprived
and oppressed. This is done through partnerships with other NGOs that are autonomous
and carry out local activities independently. For example, in the event of an emergency
or other major environmental disasters CADEC together with other local organizations
stand ready to help. Based on the social teachings of the Catholic Church, CADEC’s
mandate includes integral development, emergency relief, advocacy, peace building,
respect for human rights, and support for proper stewardship of the earth’s environment
and resources. Additionally, CADEC works to promote the globalization of solidarity
through advocacy. The primary purpose is to have an effect on policy makers at the local,
national, regional, and international levels. Its current advocacy issues relate to
Zimbabwe, Israel, the Palestinians and Iraqi sanctions. CADEC disapproves of American
efforts to effect regime change in Zimbabwe and Iraq. The organisation is also against
poverty caused by the existing European Union (EU) sanctions on Zimbabwe (Larrivee,
2011:51-60 and document 7).
1.4.3 Causes of poverty in Zimbabwe
The causes of poverty in Zimbabwe can be grouped into internal and external factors.
Internal factors causing poverty in Zimbabwe include conflicting economic and social
policies, corruption, political violence and oppression in the country (Chinake, 1997:1). In
addition, Chinake argues that poverty reduction strategies put in place during the early
independence period failed to address the root causes of poverty and the Economic
Structural Adjustment Programme (ESAP) introduced in the 1990s intensified poverty.
The removal of subsidies on social services also increased costs of social services and
reduced access to these services among Zimbabweans. Thus, blame for the slow
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progress in achieving MDGs is put on a number of problems, such as, the weakening in
the living standards due to the decrease of real incomes and rising unemployment;
increased food insecurity among the poor because of the decline in agricultural
production, caused by land reform; a sharp decline in the quality of social services and
infrastructure remarkably in the education and health sectors caused by lack of sufficient
resources and the mass departure of professionals (Chinake, 1997:1-3).
External factors causing poverty in Zimbabwe include persistent drought, removal of
donor aid from the public sector following the hotly contested parliamentary and
presidential elections and the sanctions imposed by the European Union (EU) and the
United States of America (U.S.A). In other words, the Zimbabwean economy failed to
support its social and productive sectors due to reduced levels of aid, foreign investment,
trade opportunities and travel sanctions against leading Zimbabwean politicians by
countries annoyed by the situation prevailing in the country (Basilwizi trust, 2010:13).
Hence the rising levels of poverty in Zimbabwe and in districts such as Binga.
1.4.4 Contextualizing poverty in Binga
Binga district suffers from high levels of poverty, food shortages and lack of basic socio-
economic services. About 90% of the population in Binga are poor and require
humanitarian aid every year. The dilemma of the Binga people is largely due to the
involuntary displacement in 1957 to make way for the Kariba Dam. This displacement
remains a scar of cruelty to the Binga communities since no reparation was made either
at community level through the provision of basic infrastructure and services or at
household level for loss of entitlements, livelihoods, disrupted social networks, lands and
natural resources (Chege, 1999:2-8). Thus, the lives of the Binga people have been hard,
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painful and a struggle year in and year out since they were taken away from their land,
sanctuaries and the graves of their ancestors. Today, 56 years after the invasion of the
Tonga territory, poverty and disaster risks have increased in both pace and magnitude
(Gugerty, 2008).
Exclusion and marginalization of these communities by the colonial, post-independence,
unity governments and post unity governments are another major cause of the
vulnerability of the Binga communities. Successive prohibitive legal and policy
frameworks have been used to exclude the communities from access to both internal and
external resources to meet their basic needs. Lake-based industries which are at their
proximity exclusively serve national rather than local interests. Increased control and
access by local groups to fishing rights, water resources and wildlife revenues remains
one of the strategies for reducing persistent poverty and vulnerability in Binga
communities (Suharko, 2007:17-19 and Gugerty, 2008).
Since the 1960s, affected communities in Binga have made a number of initiatives to get
rid of their situation but were not successful. The government continued to treat displaced
people in the same way as communities that remained undisturbed in their localities.
However, churches and NGOs intervened but only succeeded in aid efforts that
addressed the results of the problem and not the problem itself (Oyugi, 2004 and Chinake,
1997:4). Binga is characterised by droughts, low rainfall, tsetse flies and tick-borne
diseases. These natural hazards can trigger humanitarian crises such as malaria,
diarrhoea and malnutrition (Redekop, 2000). Nevertheless, focusing on natural hazards
as a complete explanation for humanitarian crises causation is myopic and diverts
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attention from major issues located in the social, economic, and political development
arenas.
1.5 The research questions
What are the anti-poverty interventions utilized by CADEC and how are they
implemented in Binga?
To what extent do these anti-poverty interventions contribute towards catering for
the basic needs of the people in Binga?
What are the perceptions of people in Binga about CADEC’s poverty alleviation
programme?
To what extent are the capabilities of the Binga citizens improved through
CADEC’s poverty alleviation praxis?
1.6 Research aim and objectives
The main aim of this study was to explore NGOs and poverty reduction strategies in
Zimbabwe through an assessment of the activities of (CADEC) in the Binga district in
Matabeleland North province. The objectives are listed in synchrony with the research
questions as follows:
To identify anti-poverty interventions utilized by CADEC and investigate their
implementation in Binga.
To find out the extent to which these anti-poverty interventions contribute to
addressing the basic needs of people in Binga.
To determine the perceptions of people in Binga about CADEC’s poverty
alleviation programme.
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To ascertain the extent to which capabilities of Binga citizens have been improved
through CADEC’s poverty alleviation praxis.
1.7 Theoretical framework
This study adopted a theoretical triangulation method. The study utilized and was framed
within the Max-Neef theory of fundamental human needs which falls under the overall
School of Human Scale Development and the Capabilities approach by Amartya Sen.
The underlying principle behind using these theories was that Max-Neef’s theory provides
some background information on the understanding that human needs are classified and
variant and Sen’s theory argue that humans can lead their own lives through advancing
different capabilities (Sen, 1979, Robeyn 2003:7 and Max-Neef, 1999:30). These two
theories were chosen to underpin this study because they are concerned about the
human condition. Basic needs are the essentials of life and specifically these refer to food,
water, shelter, clothing, sanitation and health care among others.
These needs can be satisfied differently. Some people cannot satisfy individual needs on
their own and hence they are in need of aid and some require the support and guidance
to expand opportunities to lead the lives that they have reason to value (Sen, 1979). For
Gasper (2002) this take away people’s freedom of choice. This aid comes from either
state or from NGOs. Considering the case of Binga, aid comes from NGOs. However,
man is a wanting animal and rarely reaches a state of complete satisfaction except for a
short time. As one desire is satisfied, another pops up to take its place. When one need
is satisfied, another comes into the foreground. It is a characteristic of the human being
throughout his whole life that he practically always desires something (Maslow, 1970: 24).
Therefore, the basis of Max-Neef’s theory is that human needs do not change but the
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satisfiers of those needs do change. As a result unsatisfied needs create poverty, which
can generate a destructive pathology. Hence the crucial premises for building sustainable
well-being and resilience to poverty and disaster in Binga are community organisations,
participation and involvement in decision making processes. For Max-Neef and Sen,
development should focus on promoting community agency where beneficiaries are the
primary actors for change; this is because they believed that development is people-
centred, participatory and environmentally sound. It does not involves economic growth
only but also fair distribution, enhancement of people’s capabilities and the widening of
their choices. Similarly, Sen (1985:78) argues that the solution to poverty is expanding
human capabilities such as education and skills so as to meet basic human needs.
However, for Tom (2010), the principal route out of poverty is employment and a good
job is made possible by quality education. Accordingly, Max-Neef and Sen are of the view
that development is giving top priority to poverty elimination, integrating people into the
growth process, encouraging the self-reliance of people and protecting the rights of the
local people as well as enhancing human potentials. However, choosing to realise some
capabilities may involve huge opportunity costs, which implies that people should focus
on sets of co-realizable capabilities (Williams, 1987:98-100.
Max-Neef theory further suggests that communal policies and societal innovation oriented
towards satisfying basic human needs are crucial in shaping a sustainable future. For this
reason external interventions are required to reduce poverty (Max-Neef, 1999:32-33).
With regard to the assessment of NGOs and poverty reduction strategies in Zimbabwe, if
the needs of the people are not met their rights will be violated and this is likely to bring
about a destructive pathology.
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However, Max-Neef’s theory is criticised for putting all needs at the same level. Max-Neef
should have listed the needs according to their importance in the same way that Abraham
Maslow did in his hierarchy of needs (Burns, 2000:22). The capabilities approach was
criticised for not offering a predefined list of capabilities and this makes it difficult for
scholars to operationalize capabilities (Nussbaum, 2000:75-80). The basic needs theory
do not attempt to prescribe or proscribe specific responses to drives of needs. Thus, the
Max- Neef framework cannot be used prescriptively or proscriptively at all. Rather it is
employed as a tool for reaching inter-subjective agreement on which kinds of satisfiers
might best be employed to meet the range of underlying motivations (Max-Neef 1992,
Again, Max-Neef asserts that the central feature of well-being is to achieve valuable
functionings, he provides little guidance in interpreting what valuable means in this
context (Dodds, 1997). Thus, this makes the capabilities approach merely a normative
tool, which can help to frame discussions about lifestyle choices, but it does not allow
people to derive goals and criteria directly. The capabilities approach also suffers from
one of the other criticisms of needs theory, namely that it places considerable emphasis
on individual functioning, but fails to unravel for us the social logic of consumption choices,
and provides few clues how people might proceed in escaping from hedonic treadmills
and creating sustainable development. Within the space of capabilities there are three
major issues which the individual cannot readily see and which are seldom clearly
discussed. First and in any event, human beings cannot be free from their dependency
upon other human beings. Second and third, under capitalist social relations of
production, individuals can be free neither from hegemonic controls over their
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participation in the public realm, nor from the direct or indirect consequences of the
exploitation of human labour.
Despite these criticisms, the study utilised Max-Neef theory because it brings us closer
to a concern for the human condition. Similarly, Sen’s capabilities approach was utilised
because it argues that a sustainable livelihood provides the support for the enhancement
and exercise of capabilities and capabilities enable a livelihood to be gained. Hence the
intervention of NGOs is necessary in the alleviation of poverty that has now become a
societal, national, continental and global disaster.
The theory of fundamental human needs by Max-Neef was not enough to explain the
remedy to poverty in Binga since it argues for the satisfaction of basic human needs and
widening their choices. Thus, Sen’s capabilities approach complemented Max-Neef’s
ideas by advocating for the enhancement of people’s capabilities. Therefore, the core
argument of this study rest upon the idea that CADEC in Binga does provide for the basic
needs alone but also expands Binga people’s capabilities and enables them to earn a
sustainable livelihood.
1.8 Research methodology and design
This study investigated the strategies used by CADEC to alleviate poverty in Binga by
assessing whether it provides for the basic needs to the Binga people, enhances local
people’s capabilities and whether the projects run are sustainable. This study utilized both
quantitative and qualitative research designs. The quantitative method was used to
measure variables that are linked to the research problem in the case study area, such
as the perceptions of CADEC’s beneficiaries about the NGO performance with regard to
poverty alleviation, to ascertain the extent to which capabilities of the Binga citizens have
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been improved through CADEC’s poverty alleviation praxis and to find out the extent to
which the strategies utilised by CADEC contribute to addressing the basic needs of
people. On the other hand, the rationale behind using the qualitative methodology in
addition to the quantitative methodology was that qualitative research strategies are
mainly suitable when gathering social dynamic information related to human behaviour
and the interaction of people. That is, how people make sense of their lives, experiences
and their structure of their world (Baker, 1994). For this study in particular the qualitative
design aspect of this triangulation research strategy was geared at gathering information
on the poverty alleviation strategies, their operational mechanisms and their utility in
addressing the basic needs and in enhancing capabilities of the Binga people. It was also
used for finding out about the sustainability of projects in Binga. In addition, qualitative
research design aspect of this triangulation was utilised so as to increase the credibility
and validity of results. Thus, a survey questionnaire and in-depth interviews were the two
research instruments utilised in this research process.
1.9 Research Instruments
Since the study adopted both quantitative and qualitative methodologies it also utilised
two research instruments, which are the survey questionnaire and in-depth interviews. A
survey questionnaire was used to collect data on variables that are linked to the research
problem in the case study area, such as the perceptions of CADEC’s beneficiaries about
the NGO performance with regard to poverty alleviation, to ascertain the extent to which
capabilities of the Binga citizens have been improved through CADEC’s poverty
alleviation praxis and to find out the extent to which the strategies utilised by CADEC
contribute to the basic needs of people in Binga. Accordingly, the findings of this study
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indicate that the capabilities of the Binga people are being enhanced to a greater extent
through participating in different sustainable developmental projects.
The survey was divided into six (6) parts and all questions were meant to answer the
research questions. The first part elicited data on respondents’ socio-demographics (age,
gender, education and marital status among others). The second part sought to answer
the first research question by asking about the needs and the type of assistance offered
by CADEC. The third part aimed to find out about the level of satisfaction of the Binga
people with the services of CADEC. The respondents were asked to rate statements
ranging from very satisfied, satisfied, neutral, dissatisfied and very dissatisfied and the
positive answer was given the highest value (very satisfied). The fourth part measured
the performance of CADEC and the benefits derived from its activities and respondents
were asked to rate statements on a Likert scale where 5 = very effective; 4 = effective; 3
= neutral; 2 = ineffective; and 1 = very ineffective. In the firth part, the questionnaire aimed
to measure how effective the strategies used by CADEC to reduce poverty were in Binga
and respondents were required to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement
by marking with an X where 5 = strongly agree; 4 = agree; 3 = neutral; 2 = disagree; and
1 = strongly disagree. Lastly the last group of questions on the questionnaire was about
how helpful was CADEC in Binga and respondents were to rank statements ranging from
very helpful to very unhelpful and neutral. Raw figures were analyzed using the Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Descriptive statistics were calculated
for the sample and are provided in the sections that follow. While quantitative data
provided information about the facts, qualitative data added a narrative which provided
meaning to the empirical information that emerged.
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On the other hand, in-depth interviews gathered information on the poverty alleviation
strategies, their operational mechanisms and their utility in addressing the basic needs
as well as in enhancing capabilities to ensure the sustainability of projects in Binga. The
researcher used two separate in-depth interview guides to collect data, one aimed to
collect data from the beneficiaries of CADEC and the other to collect data from CADEC
officials. The researcher had tested the instruments and this was important because it
enhanced the process of adaptation and development of the research instrument to make
it suitable for the purpose it was to achieve, and to enhance the researcher’s familiarity
with his tools and tactics. Appropriate adjustments were made before the actual survey
was conducted (Oppenheimer, 1992).
1.10 Population
According to De Vos (2005), a population is a set of entities where all the measurements
of interest to the researcher are represented. This study focused on the estimated
population of 138074 people in 21 wards in Binga where there are 11 NGOs.
1.11 Sampling
A sample is a small portion of the total set of objects or persons that comprise the focus
of the study (De Vos, 2005). The study focused on CADEC in Binga because it is one of
the NGOs involved in poverty alleviation programs in the district. The logic of selecting
CADEC was in that it is the most prominent NGO dealing with poverty alleviation in Binga.
A sample of 382 was calculated based on the estimated population size of 138074 using
the Raosoft sample size calculator online at (@http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html)
at a margin of error of 5%, confidence level of 95% and response distribution of 50%. On
the other hand 22 in-depth interviews were conducted.
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1.12 Data analysis
Qualitative data were analysed through the form of content analysis where information
gathered through in-depth interviews was broken down into different themes and
categories. Content analysis allowed the researcher to identify and analyse the
relationship between themes emerging from the data. The information collected was
synthesized and used to make valid and necessary inferences on the provision of basic
needs, the enhancement of capabilities and on the sustainability of projects run by
CADEC. On the other hand, quantitative data was analysed using the Statistical Package
of Social Sciences (SPSS) software which describes, categorizes, order, manipulates and
summarizes the features of the sample data (Bogdan et al., 1998).
1.13 Significance of study
This study pointed out poverty reduction strategies used by CADEC in Binga such as
funding of sustainable projects, livestock production, gardening and educational
initiatives. The study also identified the provision of direct food stuff, and up-bottom
decision making as obstacles that hinders the achievement of the NGO’s objective of
sustainable growth and/or development. In addition, it suggested possible measures that
can help the organisation to work on better strategies to achieve its goals, such as
community involvement in projects that benefit them. The study sensitizes the Binga
people about the contribution CADEC is making in poverty alleviation and their role in
participating in these programmes. Furthermore, the study revealed that the continued
growth of beneficiaries of CADEC has consequently made it hard for the NGO to achieve
its major goals, such as, the development of the poverty-stricken people of the Binga
district. For this reason stakeholders should work out follow-up poverty alleviation
turnaround strategies. Planners, managers, coordinators, the public and private sector,
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agencies of poverty reduction and the public in general may benefit from the results and
information from this study with regard to issues relating to the funding of sustainable
projects, community participation and livestock production within development
framework. Lastly, as this work has social scientific relevance it is hoped that its findings
has added to the body of knowledge we have, empirical or theoretical, and that other
scholars might find new research questions worth further investigation from it.
1.14 Delimitations of the study
As far as this study is concerned, there are many limitations that the researcher
encountered. Being a case study which focuses on a small area with few NGOs, it may
be difficult to draw conclusions that can be generalised across several areas and
organisations dealing with the reduction of poverty. In addition, there was little information
documented in primary, secondary and all the available sources in the case study area.
Hence, this study utilised the limited information available on the Binga district. This being
the case, the researcher found it difficult to present a complete history of the
organisation’s contribution to poverty reduction in Binga. Another limitation was getting
interviewees within stipulated time. The language was also an issue given that the
researcher did not understand Tonga language, as a result the researcher used an
interpreter to facilitate the collection of data. In addition, the challenges with regard to cost
of transportation also became an issue, considering the long distance the researcher had
to travel to the community.
1.15 Ethical considerations
The information that was gathered in the Binga district was used solely for academic
purpose and was treated with strict confidentiality. Additionally, respondents were
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guaranteed anonymity and their rights were respected, that is, they were questioned only
if they were willing. Lastly this study observed the University of Fort Hare (UFH) ethical
protocols and respondents were required to sign a consent form before the
commencement of the fieldwork.
1.16 Conclusion
All in all, this chapter has presented the main purpose of the study which was to assess
the strategies utilized by CADEC in poverty alleviation. The chapter has presented the
aim and objectives of the study together with the theoretical framework adopted by this
study. Two theories underpinned this study, namely, the Fundamental Human Needs and
the Capabilities Approach. This is due to the fact that the fundamental human needs
theory was not enough for this study and the capabilities approach was brought in to
complement it and to cover the issues of capabilities and sustainable development. The
theoretical framework of this study contends that the enhancement of people’s
capabilities reduces poverty and a need can be satisfied by different satisfiers. Hence,
the thesis of the study is that CADEC does not provide basic needs and relief services
only but also enhances the capabilities of the people in Binga in order to ensure that
sustainable development takes place. As a result, CADEC has raised the bar from giving
people mere food stuffs to teaching them how to get food stuffs for themselves. For this
reason NGOs are argued to put the interest of the people first if they need to reduce
poverty. Having introduced the study in this chapter, the following chapter will focus on
the issues of development, basic need, capabilities enhancement and sustainability.
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Chapter 2: Basic needs, capabilities and sustainable development
2.1 Introduction
This study explored NGOs and poverty reduction strategies in Zimbabwe through an
evaluation of the activities of CADEC in Binga district of the Matabeleland North province.
This dissertation was anchored on the Fundamental human needs approach and the
Capabilities Approach and found out that despite the criticisms levelled against NGOs
that they cater for immediate relief and basic needs only (Treasure, 2009:7-10), the
operation of CADEC in Binga evidenced that NGOs can operate in such a way that
enhances human capabilities and promotes sustainable development through financing
sustainable growth projects and community participation. This is owing to the fact that
human beings need a number of prerequisites to survive which include physical and non-
physical essentials needed for human growth and development, as well as all those things
humans are intrinsically driven to attain. This is in line with the findings of this study
because CADEC provides more than just immediate relief and basic needs to the Binga
people. CADEC is implementing sustainable projects that are meant to reduce poverty by
providing for the basic needs of the local people and enhancing their potentials that
enables them to attain sustainable livelihoods.
Thus, the basic needs approach is one of the major approaches to the measurement of
absolute poverty in developing countries. It attempts to define the absolute minimum
resources necessary for sustainable physical well-being, usually in terms of consumption
of goods. The poverty line is then defined as the amount of income required to satisfy
those needs. Human needs are based on consumption and Max-Neef believed that they
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stem from the well-being and condition of human beings and are few, finite and
classifiable. They are also distinct from the conventional notion of monetary needs that
are infinite and insatiable. Human needs are also constant in every human culture and
throughout historical time periods. The only difference is the approaches of satisfying
those needs over time and between communities (Max-Neef, 1989:15-19). Moreover,
Max-Neef (1989:19) argues that development is about people and not about objects.
Therefore, the objective of development is not only about production and consumption,
but also the gratification of human needs as well as the needs of being. Consequently,
CADEC is empowering the Binga people by financing sustainable projects and working
alongside the people in its projects. Its encouragement is done through the “don’t give me
fish, but teach me how to fish” aphorism used by CADEC. As a result Max-Neef’s
assumptions were that:
“The society should serve people, not the other way around.
Development is about people (quality of life) not objects (material wealth).
Development does not require growth and growth is not the same as
development.
No economies are possible without the eco-systems of the world.
The society is a subsystem of the greater system of the biosphere, and has to
be adapted to suit it” (Max-Neef 1989:19-25).
Accordingly, the above named assumptions are in harmony with the central argument of
this study because CADEC’s operation in Binga shows that it is providing more than just
basic needs and immediate relief. It is serving the people’s interests by allowing them to
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make initiatives and projects that concern their livelihood and empowering them through
inclusion in decision making about matters of their development. Thus, the objective of
development is the promotion and expansion of valuable capabilities (Alkire 2004: 2).
Hence, Sen based his work on the enhancement of capabilities instead of consumption.
For Sen (see Alkire 2004:1-4), people are the real wealth of nations and certainly, the
fundamental purpose of development is to enlarge human freedoms. The process of
development can expand human capabilities by expanding the choices that people have
to live full and creative lives. Furthermore, people are both the beneficiaries of such
development and the agents of the progress and change that bring it about. This process
must benefit all individuals equitably and build on the participation of each of them. The
results of this study show that CADEC is implementing developmental projects which are
run by the local people in Binga. These projects are meant to benefit the Binga people
since they are the ones who own the projects. This approach to human development has
been advocated by every Human Development Report since the first in 1990 (Alkire 2004:
3). This chapter will discuss theoretical issues of basic needs, capabilities, sustainability,
livelihood and development since these concepts are encompassed in the theoretical
framework of this study (the fundamental human needs by Max-Neef and the capabilities
approach by Sen). However, to understand these concepts the researcher provided a
brief history of the issues behind development namely modernisation and dependency
theories.
2.2 Development
Development is a confusing concept but often defined as the act or process of growth.
However, presently development seems to refer to anything seen as positive social
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change, for example, economic development, sustainable development and women's
development. There are various indicators used to measure development, such as, inter
alia poverty prevalence and literacy rate among others (Ferraro, 1996:58-64). However,
for development to take place, modernisation was proposed as an alternative and
dependency theory came as a response to modernisation. To start with, modernisation
came as a prescription for development. In other words, it was a developmental
alternative for Third World countries to follow so as to reach the same development that
was achieved by the First World countries. However, it is the failure of the developmental
alternative that brought about the issue of satisfying basic needs, enhancement of
capabilities and sustainable development. Accordingly, CADEC as shown by the findings
of this study is following the alternative development of providing for the basic needs and
enhancing Binga people’s capabilities as well as enabling them to gain a sustainable
livelihood. Thus, the failure of traditional development theories brought about new
alternatives to development.
2.3 Failures of traditional development theories to seriously address the praxis of
development.
Modernization theory was seen as the underpinning touchstone of the evolutionary
recommendation for development. However, being a pathway for development, the theory
was criticised for focusing on shortages in the poorer countries and its proposed ways to
get rid of these deficiencies. This theory sees traditional society as characterised by
negative things, in particular, stagnation in terms of development, lack of innovative ideas
and the absence of commitment to the capitalistic profit motif. The theory argued that
people were poor in the traditional societies and were characterised by subsistence social
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arrangements. However, what prompted change was the desire for profit maximization
through economic growth and the capitalistic economic system. As a result, this capitalist
economic system brought about modernization and technological growth in Western
Europe. This urged capitalists to compete for profit maximization and these profits were
pursued by re-investing so as to make huge profits. It was this profit that resulted in Third
World countries being exploited and underdeveloped by Western countries. (Tipps,
2012). Hence according to the Modernization theory, there is a need for the Third World
to transform itself from the primitive stage to modernity. This means that Third World
countries were to follow the route that was used by the West towards development.
However, the theory also does not consider such factors as the existing inequalities and
sees no conflict of interest between the rich and of the poor. It also ignores the fact that
the resources in the world may be limited and the accumulation of wealth by some
capitalists may actually reduce the chances of other people to get rich. However,
dependency theory sees the theory as a-historical and too Eurocentric (Wayne, 2006:5-
8).
Dependency theory was a response to the modernization theory and it was motivated by
the fact that economic growth in the advanced industrialized countries did not essentially
lead to development in the poorer countries. The dependency theory argues that
economic activities in the richer countries often led to serious economic problems in the
poorer countries. The problems are created by exports of primary commodities to rich
countries by poor countries who then manufacture products out of those commodities and
sell them back to the poorer countries. The bone of contention is that, value added goods
always cost more than the primary products used to create those products. Therefore,
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poorer countries are not earning enough from export earnings to pay for imports (Ferraro,
1996:1-2).
In other words, the world cannot be understood without reference to the entire
international economic system. From this viewpoint, underdevelopment is a dynamic
progression of poverty interconnected to development and as a result, some parts of the
world are underdeveloped because others are developed. This applies to a greater extent
to the Binga community, their suffering was due to their displacement from their land in
1957 to make way for the establishment of the Kariba dam. The Binga people were not
compensated in any way and the resources in their proximity including water industries
that were supposed to first benefit them were taken away. As a result the suffering of the
Binga people brought NGOs into the development agenda of Binga.
Underdevelopment and development are two sides of the same coin because they are
aspects of the same process. To be more precise, economic growth in advanced
countries created Third World poverty in its wake. The Third World countries are poor
because they were exploited by the West (Wayne, 2006: 5). In other words, the Third
World is poor because the development of the industrial system in Western Europe and
North America transformed and underprivileged many societies of Africa, Asia, and Latin
America, through colonization, imperialism and unfavourable terms of trade (Ferraro,
1996: 58-60).
For the above-mentioned reasons, dependency theory was viewed as a possible way of
explaining the persistent poverty of the poor countries (Ferraro, 1996: 3-4). Whereas
modernisation theory perceives capitalism as a creative force behind development and
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progress, dependency theory perceives capitalism as the cause of the devastation of the
developing world. Similarly, modernisation theory perceived the First World countries as
helpers of poor countries whilst dependency theory perceived them as detrimental to the
welfare of the Third World countries. However, not all of the dependency theorists’
remedies are anti-capitalism (Tipps, 2012). A number of them see some good in using
capitalism owing to the fact that it enhances national economies (Ferraro, 1996: 60-64).
Since the modernisation cannot be applied to communities like Binga, this study argued
for the enhancement of capabilities and sustainable projects as alternatives to
development in small communities. Similarly, Suharko (2012) proposed self-initiated
projects that enable attainment of a sustainable livelihood as a strategy to reduce poverty
in rural areas. This is in line with the argument of this study which is based on the belief
that the provision for fundamental human needs and immediate relief are not adequate
to help people. Hence, for authentic development to take place there is a need for the
enhancement of people’s capabilities and enabling them to attain sustainable
development.
2.4 Max-Neef’s Fundamental human needs
Max-Neef et al (1987:12) argue that human scale development is based and focused on
the satisfaction of fundamental human needs, on the generation of growing levels of self-
reliance and on the construction of organic articulations of people with nature and
technology, of global processes with local activity, of the personal with the social, of
planning with autonomy and of civil society with the state. The fundamental human needs
are discussed in this study because CADEC provides aid to people in Binga, thus
necessitating the understanding of fundamental human needs. The views of Max-Neef
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supports the findings of this study since CADEC is facilitating the satisfaction of
fundamental human needs through development projects that are aimed at reducing
poverty in Binga
The main contribution that Max-Neef made to the understanding of the human needs was
the distinction that he made between the needs and satisfiers. Moreover, Max-Neef is of
the view that basic human needs are perceived as limited, finite and classifiable whilst
wants are infinite and insatiable. Once more, fundamental human needs are endless in
every human culture and across historical time periods. Max-Neef believed that what
changes over time and between cultures is the way these needs are satisfied. The needs
of the Binga people were being satisfied through the provision of immediate relief and the
catering of the basic needs. In fact CADEC is now running community projects that benefit
the local people. On the other hand, unsatisfied needs results into pathologies and
poverty. Furthermore, fundamental human needs should be understood as a structure
meaning that they are interconnected and interactive. This means that human needs are
not in a hierarchy in the process of needs satisfaction (Max-Neef et al., 1987:15-17).
Furthermore, the economic structure measured in gross domestic product (GDP) is not
sustainable. Max-Neef concedes that the structure cannot be sustained because it does
not include the economic and ecological loss of natural resources spent daily. He also
argued that the structure does not embrace the economics bound up in charitable work
(Max-Neef, 1985). As a result, Max-Neef developed an alternative to the GDP called the
Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) that includes inter alia the costs of unemployment,
environmental degradation.
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Max-Neef (1983) in his theory of fundamental human needs came up with an alternative
explanation of how people prioritize human needs. He developed a non-hierarchical theory of
basic human needs which presents a linked and interactive system. Max-Neef et al (1987:17-19)
argues that, if all nations were to implement the fundamental human needs theory when
developing and meeting the needs of people, the world would positively attain the same levels of
GPI with less materialism. However, it is not enough to ease the suffering of people by providing
for their immediate relief and basic needs only. Hence, this study argued for the enhancement of
people’s capabilities so as to attain sustainable development. However the capabilities approach
places emphasis on individual functioning and fails to loosen for us the social logic of
consumption choices, and provides roadmaps on how we might proceed in escaping
poverty and creating sustainable development.
2.5 Capabilities approach by Amartya Sen
The capabilities approach arose as a result of growing criticism of the monetary approach
of the 1980s and is much more than the rise or fall of national incomes. The belief is that
development is about expanding the choices people have to lead lives that they value,
and this is not limited to economic growth alone (UNDP, 2009). Bu this, Sen was referring
to a positive vision of the human good which must be specified to be useful. Unfortunately
his approach is questioned on what guidance the capabilities gives without a clear
description of what kind of life people have reason to value or a roadmap to follow.
Many studies on the strategies used by NGOs to reduce poverty have placed much
attention on the provision of immediate relief and basic needs. However, this study looked
beyond the provision of immediate relief and basic needs by investigating the
enhancement of people’s capabilities and the sustainability of the projects run by CADEC
in the Binga district. This enhancement is ensured through participatory development.
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This study argued that participation in projects has enabled CADEC to expand people’s
capabilities. In addition participation was identified as a means of gaining a sustainable
livelihood. Sen (1985:43) defines capabilities as what people are able to do or able to be.
Capabilities are the opportunities they have to achieve various standards of living and as
a result the ability to live a good life. Sen distinguishes this from what he calls functionings;
the things a person actually does and experiences. Functionings may vary from the basic
needs for survival such as being adequately nourished and being free from avoidable
disease to complex activities or personal states such as community participation and self-
respect. Thus, capability refers to the feasible alternative combinations of these
functionings. Sen (1999, in Anand et al., 2005:4) differentiates the capabilities approach
from the more traditional practical and economic policy analysis which to him has an
economic concentration on the primacy of income and wealth rather than on the
characteristics of human lives and substantive freedoms. However, the approach robs
people their freedom of choice (Gasper, 2002). The capability approach should focus on
mental satisfaction rather than on creative discontent and a libertarian preoccupation with
procedures for liberty with deliberate neglect of consequences that stem from those
procedures (Anand et al., 2005:4).
2.5.1 Ends and means
An essential strength of the capability approach is clarity about the objective. According
to the capability approach, the objective of both justice and poverty reduction should be
to expand the freedom that deprived people have to enjoy valuable beings and doings.
They should have access to the basic helpful resources, and they should be able to make
choices that matter to them. The significant point about the capability approach is that it
goes beyond the persistent criticism of income to propose an alternative to conceptualize
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both poverty reduction and justice. This alternative includes multiple functionings and
freedoms. The optimism is that further explanation of this objective will build into an
alternative paradigm, a substitute way of identifying and assessing intermediary actions
for instance development, social investment and participation that might contribute to the
objective of enhancing valuable capabilities (Sen, 1988:8-11).
The capability approach and human development argue that human beings and their
flourishing, rather than an increase in economic growth, should be the “end” or objective
of development. In Sen’s work, “The Concept of development” stated what appears to be
his continuing position. For Sen, welfare economics and development should not vary at
all in so far as their objective is concerned. The enhancement of living conditions must
clearly be the essential objective of the entire economic exercise and that enhancement
is an integral part of the concept of development (Sen, 1988: 11). Thus, the status of
human beings as ends of development must be recapped, since Sen (1990:41) argues
that human beings also happen to be directly or indirectly the primary means of all
production. The production by human being should always be sustainable so as to
continue providing for their basic needs.
2.6 The sustainable livelihoods approach
The Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA) puts people at the heart of development just
like what Sen proposed in his capabilities approach. It recognizes that the poor are the
bosses of multifaceted assets. Thus, this study argued that CADEC is enhancing people’s
capabilities so as to enable people to have sustainable livelihoods. The approach search
for an understanding of the numerous livelihoods that people follow and the changes
occurring over time, the resources used in livelihood activities, the constraints faced and
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available opportunities. In Binga livelihood depends on agriculture, hunting, fishing and
trade. The opportunities of people living in this area are very limited since the resources
in their proximity are used to benefit the whole country not only the Binga people. The
approach aims to build the capacity of the local people so that they can be able to develop
or propose their own livelihood strategies. The sustainable livelihoods approach involves
action in enhancing the participation of people in planning their livelihood intervention
options and adopting people-centred strategies; raising the human capital status of
households and communities; promoting formal and informal employment; and ensuring
appropriate utilization of natural resources (UNDP, 2001: 24). In the case of the projects
initiated by CADEC, the interests of Binga people are being put first. The people of Binga
participate in development because they know their real situation and they are aware of
what they really need. Development in this case is a bottom-up approach. Nyerere (1967)
suggests participatory development as a means of developing people. Participatory
development is the active involvement of people in planning, development,
implementation and evaluation of projects and activities that affect them (Ibid).
Accordingly, the Binga people are being given the opportunity by CADEC to realize their
potential, be the authors of their own history and to achieve sustainable livelihoods from
their own efforts.
2.7 Livelihood
The meaning of livelihood differs according to situations. This concept is extensively used
on poverty as well as rural development. In Binga it can be seen as an easy way of living
by meeting needs for shelter, food, clothes, health, education and the environment which
could provide substantial degree of local needs and self-reliance. However, livelihoods
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are more than consumption and income. Ellis (2000) believes that a livelihood is
comprised of assets such as natural, physical, human, financial and social capital. The
activities to access these assets by institutions and social relations together determine
the living gained by the individual, household or community and should be sustainable.
2.8 Sustainable livelihoods as an integrating concept
A sustainable livelihood combines the concepts of sustainability, equity, and capability.
Livelihood means gaining a living. Capabilities are both an end and means of livelihoods:
a livelihood provides the support for the enhancement and exercise of capabilities (an
end) and capabilities (a means) enable a livelihood to be gained. Equity is both an end
and a means and includes adequate and decent livelihoods. The results of this study
indicate that in the struggle to eradicate poverty CADEC’s operation aim to ensure
sustainability of projects, equity among participants and enhancing their capabilities
through working together. All these are encompassed in the vision and mission statement
of the organisation which is to see a society in which the dignity of the human being is
paramount and in which exclusion, discrimination, violence and dehumanising poverty
are no more and to improve the quality of life of the deprived families by promoting,
supporting and sustaining the development of the whole human being as part of the
evangelisation mission of the church respectively.
In this sense, sustainability is both an end and means. That is, sustainable stewardship
of resources is an end in itself and it provides conditions or means for livelihoods to be
sustained for future generations. Therefore, livelihood can be defined as adequate stocks
and flows of food and cash to meet basic needs. A household may be enabled to gain
sustainable livelihood security in many ways for example through ownership of land,
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livestock, right to grazing land, fishing, hunting or gathering and employment with
adequate remuneration among others. Sustainable livelihood is an integrating concept
because it is a precondition for a stable human being, a prerequisite for good agriculture
and sustainable management. A sustainable livelihood becomes a means of serving the
objective of equity and sustainability and providing the resources as well as conditions for
the enhancement and exercise of capabilities. In simple terms a livelihood comprises the
capabilities, assets and activities required for the means of living. It is sustainable since
it can cope and recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and
assets and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation. Moreover
it contributes net benefits to other livelihoods and local and global levels in the short and
long term (Anand et al., 2005:4, Ellis, 2000, Max-Neef et al., 1987:17-20, Sen 1988: 8-
14, UNDP, 2001:24).
2.9 Conclusion
All in all this chapter has discussed the model of human scale development by Max-Neef,
the capabilities approach by Amartya Sen, livelihoods approach and sustainable
livelihood as an integrating concept. These theories complement each other in such a
way that the concepts of basic human needs (Max-Neef), sustainability, equity, and
capability (Sen) are combined the notion of by sustainable livelihood. Livelihood means
gaining a living whilst capabilities are both an end and means of livelihoods. A livelihood
provides the support for the enrichment and exercise of capabilities (an end) and
capabilities (a means) enable a livelihood to be achieved but. In addition sustainability is
both an end and means. That is, sustainable stewardship of resources is an end in itself
and it provides conditions or means for livelihoods to be sustained for future generations.
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Hence, livelihood is argued to be adequate stocks and flows of food and cash to meet
basic needs. Accordingly, Binga households are enabled to gain sustainable livelihood
security through ownership of land, livestock, right to grazing land, fishing, participating
in development projects hunting or gathering and employment with adequate
remuneration among others? Furthermore, poverty is necessitated by the geographic
location of a place, thus wealth attracts wealth and poverty attracts poverty and the faulty
economic system for example discrimination, racism and crime among others. However,
the following chapter discusses the concept of poverty and macro perspectives on
Poverty in Zimbabwe and Binga district.
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Chapter 3: The concept of poverty and macro perspectives of poverty in
Zimbabwe and Binga
3.1 Introduction
The results of this study indicate that despite the criticism levelled against NGOs that they
cater for immediate relief and basic needs only (Treasure, 2009:7-10) is wrong because
the operation of CADEC in Binga showed that it can enhance people’s capabilities, fund
their sustainable projects so as to have sustainable livelihoods. The theoretical framework
combined Max-Neef’s and Sen’s ideas. Max-Neef advocates for the satisfaction of human
needs as a way to end poverty. However, for this study the provision of basic needs was
not adequate to end poverty since CADEC believes in teaching people to do things for
themselves. Thus, the capabilities approach was utilised to fill in the gap of enhancing
people’s capabilities as a way of long term provision of basic needs. Therefore, this
chapter discussed the earlier work done by others on the concept of poverty and its
reduction. A lot has been done and documented on the strategies used by NGOs to
alleviate poverty, this study focused on the strategies used by CADEC to reduce poverty
and their implementation in Binga district. This chapter discussed the concept of poverty
because CADEC in Binga deals with poverty reduction so there is a need to understand
poverty, its types and how it is measured. As a result, the literature presentation approach
is selective, not exhaustive.
In Zimbabwe the failure of development programs aimed to reduce rural poverty and
promote equality in remote areas like Binga distorted the imagined free Zimbabwe by the
year 2000 (Chinake, 1997:39). Thus, this lead to unsuccessful development efforts since
the market-based economic reforms, famine and other interplaying factors, the poor and
disadvantaged sections of the population become more marginalised. As a result
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development is perceived to be a dreadful story of hopes, disappointment, pains, anguish
and conflicts of the majority of African people (Harrison in Osei-Hwedie, 1995:93). Thus,
indeed, the story of people-based development in Zimbabwe can safely be equated to a
development crisis, especially after 33 years of costly failures to reduce poverty. This
avowal can be confirmed by the fact that rural and urban poverty is on the increase
regardless of oratorical commitments to rural development. This miserable scenario is
occupied by other social indicators such as homelessness, high rates of unemployment,
increasing crime, poor water supply, poor transport, poor health and other forms of
deviant behaviour. Again, the poverty of developing countries has been made worse by
the HIV/AIDS epidemic and the unfriendly macro-economic environment (Kamidza, 1996
in Chinake, 1997:39). Thus, 62% of Zimbabweans are said to be living in households with
an individual income insufficient to provide the basic needs of food, shelter, clothing,
education, and access to health and other social amenities. The distribution of poverty is
high in communal areas (81%), resettlement areas and small scale farms (67%),
commercial farms (51%) and in urban areas is low (46%). These statistics should help
the government and NGOs in their efforts to change the suffering of the majority of
Zimbabweans (Chinake, 1997:39-40).
Nonetheless, we can no longer afford to be shameful about the past since NGOs are
complementing the work of the government so that poverty reduction strategies can be a
success. This study therefore seeks to provide the missing link by finding out the
strategies used by NGOs to alleviate poverty, their implementation in Binga district, the
enhancement of capabilities and sustainability of projects run in Binga by CADEC. The
research also investigated whether CADEC is enhancing people’s capabilities and
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whether its projects are sustainable. The results of this study confirm that CADEC is
implementing sustainable development projects like gardening, livestock production and
participation besides providing immediate relief and basic needs to reduce poverty in
Binga. This chapter is going to provide the definition of terms, overview of poverty in the
world, reconceptualise the definition of poverty, and contextualise African concept then
to the Zimbabwean situation.
3.2 Definition of terms
Poverty can be defined as a situation whereby a person is unable to provide adequately
for his or her basic needs such as food, clothing and shelter. It also includes people who
are unable to satisfy social and economic responsibilities, lacks gainful employment,
skills, assets and self-esteem; and have limited access to social and economic
infrastructure. For example, education, health, potable water, and sanitation; and
consequently. Poverty also include those who has limited chance of progressing their
welfare to the limit of his or her capabilities (Sen, 2001 and Max-Neef, 1987:12-13).
Poverty stricken people do not have the means to obtain the recommended diet, to take
part in the activities and to be at par with other community members (Townsend, 1979).
Indicators of Poverty: are the measures of economic performance, standard of living of
the people and it includes the measures of income or purchasing power or consumption
with social indicators, which shows the availability and access to the basic necessities of
life (Household income and expenditure survey 2009/10:1-4)
Poverty Reduction Strategies Paper (PRSP): these are development plan borne out of
joint exertions of a broad range of participants’ poverty reduction that was introduced by
the World Bank. It is normally designed and implemented by the participants and all those
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involved in one way or the other in poverty, poverty alleviation and its related issues. In
other words, the Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) are now a prerequisite by
the World Bank (WB). Countries seeking debt reduction or seeking to borrow money at
especially low International Development Association (IDA) rates must present PRSPs to
the World Bank for approval before the debt forgiveness or loan will be extended. The
PRSP requirement was born as a result of widespread criticism of damage done by World
Bank policies, especially Economic Structural Adjustment Programs in the 1980’s in sub-
Saharan Africa and other places. Acknowledging that development had to be approached
differently, leaders of the Group of 7 (G7) countries decided at a meeting in September,
1999 to implement PRSPs (International Monetary Fund Factsheet, 2013).
Gross Domestic Product (GDP): is the dollar value of all the goods and services
produced within a country but excluding net income from abroad (Sebhendu, 2010:3).
Gross National Product (GNP): is the market value of all the goods and services
produced in Zimbabwe over a specific period of time usually a year at factor cost (Lozano-
Ros 2003:7).
Human Development Index (HDI): this is referred to as the measure of prolonged
existence (longevity), knowledge and income. Prolonged existed is measured by life
expectancy at birth. One’s knowledge is measured by the literacy rate (reading ability)
and the average number of years of schooling. For income, purchasing power parity
(PPP) (based on real GDP) per capita adjusted for the local cost of living is used (Kelley,
1991:314-16).
Globalisation: is a process of creating a global marketplace in which, increasingly, all
nations are forced to participate based on the following key elements: the interconnection
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of sovereign nations through trade and capital flows, harmonization of the economic rules
that govern relationships between these nations; creating structures to support and
facilitate dependence and interconnection (Nesadurai, 2002:2-3).
These definitions of poverty and its related concepts is useful as a preparation for the
overview of global poverty which follows below
3.3 Poverty in the world an overview
Poverty is everywhere in the world and it affects continents, nations and individuals
differently. It upsets people in various magnitudes and levels and at different times and
stages of life. There is no state that is absolutely free from poverty. The main difference
is the concentration and the prevalence of this malaise. Nations in sub-Sahara, South
Asia and Latin America have the highest level of poverty and low level of socio-economic
development (Oyemomi, 2003:16). These nations are also characterised by high level of
political violence, social insecurity, unrest and undesirable standard of living (Oyemomi,
2003:16-17). As a result poverty is perceived to be state whereby people are unable to
provide sufficiently for the basic needs of food, clothing and shelter; are incapable of
meeting social and economic responsibilities, lacks employment, skills, assets and self-
esteem. Again, social amenities such as education, potable water, health and sanitation
are not easily accessible to the poor. Thus, this limited the expansion of the capabilities
of the poor. (Central Bank of Nigeria, 1999:1). This explains the situation of the Binga
people because they are unable to produce basic needs as a result of harsh climatic
conditions such as high temperatures and low rainfall and animals that attack their crops.
Again there are no formal industries in Binga and even if there were industries lack of
skills make the Binga people unemployable in decent job, thus, they remain poor. Again
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this study identified portable water as the main stressing basic need in Binga and CADEC
is fixing boreholes in the district so as to help the needy people. The results of this study
show that the greater chance of advancing capabilities was dealt with by introducing
participation, community projects and training in different activities like fixing boreholes
where people realise and exercise their potentials.
The World Bank (2000:1) exposed the several dimensions of poverty that include well-
being, psychological, basic infrastructure, illness and assets. Thus, for the World Bank
(2000) poverty is a lack of what is necessary for material well-being particularly food,
shelter, land, and other properties. In other words, poverty is the dearth of a number of
necessities of life that results in starvation and physical deprivation. Furthermore, poverty
stricken people do not have voice, power, and autonomy and are subjected to
mistreatment and manipulation. Therefore, being poor leads the poor to be vulnerable to
disrespect, humiliation, and inhumane treatment by the private and government or State
from whom they seek help. With regard to Zimbabwe it is among the 25 poorest countries
in the world. In the 1980s Zimbabwe’s poverty was about 15% of its population, however,
now it is struggling to reduce it from about 70% of its current population of about 13.5
million. In Zimbabwe about 73% of the poverty stricken people are mainly found in the
rural areas where illiteracy is high, there is no potable and clean water and health facilities
are hardly available, road and electricity infrastructures are unavailable or ill-maintained
just like in Binga district.
The World Bank (2000) indicated that the Human Development Index (HDI) of Zimbabwe
was 0.461 which appropriately indicate the miserable state of the countries’ level of
poverty and low human development despite being rich in mineral and agricultural
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resources. The percentage of the poor people in Zimbabwe of the poor has doubled over
the last two decades, during which time the country received over USD300 billion in
agriculture and mineral revenue. However, the level of Zimbabwe’s revenue and her
poverty are illogical since more money is used to benefit the rich leaving the poor poorer.
While the revenue profile of Zimbabwe rose from $4 billion in 1975 to $26 billion in 1980,
and GNP per capita rose from $360 to more than $1000 in the same period, the
percentage of the population that was poor grew from 15% in 1960 to about its present
80%. Zimbabwe used to be ranked 6th and 7th in tobacco and gold production respectively
but unfortunately it is ranked the 195th in GNP per capita and is now unpleasantly ranked
among the 25th underprivileged nation in the world (World Bank, 2000).
Nevertheless, the discussed case above did not come as a result of mere ignorance of
the problem at hand, it was triggered by the land reform policy. It did not come by as a
result of lack of response to the hunger of the poor people who needed freedom from
their awful and miserable state of hopelessness (Chinake, 1997). Thus, through the
Millennium Declaration and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) the world is
addressing the many dimensions of human development, such as halving by 2015 the
proportion of people living in extreme poverty. Developing countries are working to create
their own national poverty eradication strategies based on local needs and priorities.
UNDP advocates for these nationally-owned solutions and helps to make them effective
through ensuring a greater voice for poor people, expanding access to productive assets
and economic opportunities. Additionally, linking poverty programs with countries’
international economic and financial policies. At the same time, UNDP contributes to
efforts at reforming trade, debt relief and investment arrangements to better support
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national poverty reduction and make globalization work for poor people (UNDP, 2002 and
World Bank 2000). One challenge however, is that there is no agreement on how poverty
can be measured.
3.4 Measuring poverty
Poverty can be measured at the level of countries as well as on a global level. Different
methods have been used to measure poverty across countries. For instance, Woolard
and Leibbrandt (1999) use private consumption expenditure as a way of measuring
poverty and they also identify other ways by which poverty has been measured. These
include; Per capita consumption, household consumption, per capita income, per capita
food expenditure, and per capita caloric intake, budget share of food expenditure or food
ratio and average educational level of adult household members. A common method used
to measure poverty at country level is based on incomes or consumption levels. A person
is considered poor if his or her consumption or income level falls below some minimum
level necessary to meet basic needs. This minimum level is usually called the poverty
line. Thus, the poverty line is defined as the minimum level of income that is deemed
necessary to meet basic needs in a certain country. Thus, Max-Neef (1991) tried to have
a better development process and he contended that in the traditional paradigm, there
were poverty indicators such as the Gross National Product (GNP). This was indicator
about the qualitative growth of objects. However, now for him, there is need of an indicator
about the qualitative growth of people. Thus, the best developmental process will be that
which allows the greatest improvement in people’s quality of life. The quality of human
life is determined by the way their capabilities are enhanced and the way their
fundamental human needs are satisfied (Sen, 2001). However, Sen (2001) advocates for
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the enhancement of human capabilities as a way of reducing poverty. If all organisations
focus on the qualitative growth of people, the world will be a better place. What is
necessary is the satisfaction of basic needs across time and societies. But, the way of
satisfying needs vary in time and place. Each country uses lines which are appropriate to
its level of development, societal norms and values (World Bank, 2007). However,
according to the World Bank (2007), poverty satisfaction should be done with similar
poverty lines, expressed in a common unit across countries and in absolute and relative
terms
3.5 Absolute poverty
This is described as a lack of basic security, the absence of one or more factors that
enable individuals and families to assume basic responsibilities and to enjoy fundamental
rights. It is a situation where people’s total earnings are insufficient to acquire the
minimum necessities for the maintenance of merely physical efficiency (Kinwa, 1994: 8).
Triegaardt, (2006: 3) also postulates that absolute poverty implies that households are
unable to meet the basic needs for survival. They are continually hungry, unable to access
health care, lack the amenities of safe drinking water and sanitation. Again, they cannot
afford education for some or all children, lack basic shelter and basic piece of clothing
like shoes. For Max-Neef unsatisfied human needs results in poverty. On the other hand
Sen, (2001) believed that suppression of human capabilities results in poverty.
However, an alternative and more multi-dimensional definition of absolute poverty was
given at the World Summit for Social Development (WSSD) in Copenhagen in 1995 as a
condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe
drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends
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not only on income but also on access to social services (Noble et al., 2004). A measure
of absolute poverty computes the number of people below a poverty threshold. This
poverty threshold is independent of time and place. The poverty threshold or poverty line
is the minimum level of income deemed necessary to achieve an adequate standard of
living. The World Bank (2007) has identified this poverty line and classifies it to be less
than $1 per day for those living in extreme poverty and less than $2 per day for those in
moderate poverty. The Absolute poverty line is fixed in terms of the standard of living
indicator being used over the domain of poverty comparison. Being fixed, comparisons
can be made across the entire poverty domain over time (Mlambo, 2000: 7). Basing on
the theoretical framework of this study (Fundamental human needs and Capabilities
Approach) the operation of CADEC in Binga indicates that it is trying to reduce the
absolute poverty not only by catering for immediate relief and basic needs but also by
enhancing the capabilities of people and increasing the capacity to attain a sustainable
livelihood. However, poverty can be measured better in relative terms than in absolute
terms.
3.6 Relative Poverty
Relative poverty is used in terms of particular groups or areas in relation to the economic
status of other members of the society. Poverty results from and even consists of a lack
of basic securities, which include financial resources, as well as education, employment,
housing, health care and other related aspects. Education is seen as an end of
development in itself and was identified by Sen (1999) as an ability to meet basic needs.
As for Unterhalter et al., (2003) education is seen in this respect as either facilities or
arrangements that facilitate freedom, as well as a hard set of outcomes, capabilities as
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particular skills acquired. In other words, for education to fully enhance freedom and
development it is required that the learning needs of all are met through equitable access
to an education of such quality that leads to learning outcomes that ultimately enhance
individual freedoms to be and to do (Bakhshi et al., 2003). When the consequences of
this insecurity are severe they lead to deprivation of life (Abiche, 2004: 30). With relative
poverty, people might be able to afford basic necessities but are unable to maintain the
standard of living considered normal in the society. The relative poverty line sets a
constant proportion of the national mean of the standard of living measure being used as
the poverty line. Any person whose standard of living falls below this measure is
considered poor (Mlambo, 2000: 7). Thus, this being the case it shows that the majority
of the Binga people are poverty stricken since the majority require humanitarian aid every
year. Because of this CADEC is helping the Binga people by enhancing their capabilities
so that they will continue to benefit from those initiatives even in the absence of NGOs’
assistance. Due to the complexity of the concept of poverty, there is need to understand
it from a political viewpoint as discussed underneath.
3.7 Understanding Poverty: A Political stand on its definition
The meaning, causes and strategies of alleviating poverty are conceptualised differently
by academics, politicians, policy makers and the poor themselves. Therefore, Chinake
(1997:40) is of the view that the difficulty in defining and fighting poverty is more of a
political and technical problem rather than a normal activity. Furthermore, Alcock (1993:3)
blames politicians on the prevalence of poverty since they are the ones who run the
country and are therefore responsible for the problems within it. For, Max-Neef (1991) we
should talk about poverties not poverty since poverty is not restricted to a singular
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situation. This is to avoid the traditional concept of poverty which is limited and restricted
because it wholly refers to the plights of people who may be classified below a certain
income threshold. The traditional concept is too economistic, thus, Max-Neef suggests
that we speak of poverties not poverty. For him, unsatisfied fundamental human needs
leads to poverty, for example, poverty of subsistence is as a result of insufficient income,
food and shelter among others, poverty of protection is caused by bad health systems
and violence among others. Poverty of affection is due to oppression, domination and
manipulative relations with the natural environment among others, poverty of
understanding is as a result of poor quality of education; poverty of membership is as a
result of marginalization and discrimination of women, children and minorities and poverty
of identity is due to imposition of alien values upon local and regional cultures, forced
migration and political exile among others.
However poverties are not only poverties, much more than that unsatisfied poverty
generates pathologies (Max Neef, 1991:16&17). Binga district suffers from the poverty of
subsistence, poverty of protection, poverty of membership and poverty of affection. Thus,
a number of NGOs are working in developing countries to satisfy some of the poverties
identified by Max-Neef. In Binga CADEC focuses mainly on the poverty of subsistence
(food security), understanding and sometimes the poverty of freedom. In other words
CADEC in Binga is working towards the satisfaction of the poverty of subsistence,
understanding and independence.
This implies that the problems encountered in implementing poverty alleviation strategies
and the failure of some development efforts in Zimbabwe can largely be attributed to
factors including a wrong definition of poverty and development, weak political backbone
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to undertake radical change, inadequate resources for valuable jobs and lack of
community participation in the development process by the poverty-stricken in projects
that affect their wellbeing (De Graff, 1986; Alcock, 1993:3-6. UNPD (2001:24) advocates
for the sustainable livelihoods approach since it involves action in enhancing the
participation of people in planning their livelihood intervention options and adopting
people-centred strategies; raising the human capital status of households and
communities; promoting formal and informal employment and ensuring appropriate
utilization of natural resources. In the case of CADEC, Binga people are being made their
own bosses in terms of the projects they run, for example in Simatelele ward people are
now doing their own projects without the directive of CADEC and in Manjolo ward people
were given livestock and now they are breeding them on their own for themselves. They
should be put first and participate in development because they know their real situation
and they are aware of what they really need. Thus, development in this case should be a
bottom-up approach. Nyerere, (1967) advocates for participatory development as a
means of developing people which are the active involvement of people in planning,
development, implementation and evaluation of projects and activities that affect them.
Therefore, the Binga people are being given an opportunity to realize their potential and
be the biographers of their own history and accomplish self-actualization.
Nevertheless, the problem lies in the quantification of basic needs in monetary terms, and
as a result poverty has often been defined in economic issue. As a result, the poverty of
Zimbabwe is attributed to the deprivation of welfare, social power and lack of expanded
human capabilities (World Bank, 1995:2). So as to break the culture of poverty, good
strategies that aim to empower the poor are needed to give them voice and power. So
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we cannot blame the poor because poverty is a multi-dimensional phenomenon with
multifarious linkages. Similarly, Streeten (1981) supported that poverty is multi-
dimensional since for him, poverty is not a single phenomenon. Poverty in Zimbabwe can
also be attributed to other people’s arrogances, a lack of access to credit, and a lack of
real choice over family size, drought and structural adjustment. It is sad to know that
woman and children, aged and disabled are the ones who suffer a lot from poverty since
they don’t have means to run away from it. This means that the effect of poverty on
women and men is different. Women’s discrimination is due to the nature of their sex and
this affects every aspect of their lives, including their participation in community
development activities (Chinake, 1997:41).
Furthermore, the poor also lack the power to make decisions on matters that intimately
affect their welfare. Again, the mechanisms of poverty are at a local level but also interlink
in complex ways with national and international factors. Such factors may include
government policies, international commodity prices, debts, unequal trading practices
and conditional aid. Among the factors that cause poverty, geographical and climatic
considerations also play an important role, since some natural conditions do no favour
the production of people’s basic need for example high temperatures and low rainfall.
All what is needed is to come up with poverty intervening strategies that work effectively
with the poor. NGOs, government and other stakeholders need to have a deep
understanding of the causes of poverty. As a result in the bid to reduce poverty special
focus should be directed towards the perception of the poor concerning poverty and
solutions they dream of. Chinake (1997:41) believed that lack of understanding of poverty
takes away the dignity and self-confidence from those with little or no knowledge of the
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situation. Therefore, the aforementioned analysis for the understanding of poverty help to
untie some of the meanings of poverty in Binga, Zimbabwe, Africa and in the world at
large.
3.8 The meaning of poverty
Since poverty has many causes it becomes multi-dimensional in nature and as a result it
can best be understood from the poor themselves. The poor have their own perception
about poverty Narayan et al., (2002:10) and it looks quite different through their eyes.
Thus, this is unfolded by the various definitions that see poverty in relative terms. For
them, “… poverty is humiliation, the sense of being dependent, forced to accept rudeness,
insults and indifference when they seek help”... They also went on to define poverty from
the perspective of the poor thus he described poverty by the situation he was in, saying:
“...Don’t ask me what poverty is because you have met it outside my house. Look at the
house and count the number of holes. Look at my utensils and the clothes that I am
wearing. Look at everything and write what you see. What you see is poverty....”
Furthermore, poverty can be defined as not having enough for subsistence, a high rate
of infant mortality, low life longevity, high illiterate levels, lack of potable clean water,
inaccessible health care, lack of shelter and a lack of active participation in the decision
making process (Oyemomi, 2003). Poverty is thus a depravation caused by lack of basic
needs of food, clothing and shelter (Aluko 1975). The above definitions focuses on only
the features of poverty. Thus, one can conclude that defining poverty seems to be very
difficult since poverty is easily recognized than defined. The best definition of poverty
should include all the most important capacities in which both man and woman are
deprived and perceived undermined in different communities and societies.
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Accordingly, a good definition of poverty should encompass the relationship between
fundamental magnitudes of poverty and the central importance of gender and
environmentally sustainable development. Specifically the fundamental magnitude of
poverty should take into consideration the economy, humans, political issues, socio-
cultural and human capability emancipation. On the same note Narayan et al., (2000: 29-
30) argues that the definitions of poverty and its consequences vary according to age,
beliefs, gender and other socio-economic contexts because of its multi-dimensional
nature. So after acknowledging the multi-dimensional nature of poverty, they defined
poverty considering the categories they identified as the lack of voice, power,
independence, wellbeing or ill-being, regional and gender inequality among others.
Again, poverty has elements such as lack of voice and power which are explained
differently in various countries. They also explained their experience with a Ghanaian in
1995 who said “… the poor knows what should be done but have no means of
production...” However, implementation of the classification system on the definition of
poverty creates more disagreements on what constitutes poverty at different levels of
society such as the individual, household, community, district, province and country.
However, identifying the poor is difficult since there are inconsistences on the measures
of poverty (OECD, 2000:33). The poor understand and perceive their poverty in terms of
a wide range of non-material and intangible qualities such as uncertainty, lack of self-
esteem and status or a lack of power and opportunity (World Bank, 1999:10). Therefore,
poverty is assumed to be either relative or absolute on one hand. On the other hand,
poverty is seen as everlasting or passing or a dearth of basic necessities and facilities
like food, housing, education, social and environmental service, medical care,
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recreational opportunities, consumer goods, neighbourhood amenities and transport
facilities (Aliyu, 2003:2 and Aboyade, 1987:7). However, due to different situations in
different countries what is considered poverty level in one country or community may well
be the height of well-being in other so same poverty alleviation strategies cannot be
utilised in different areas.
This study therefore concludes that poverty may be seen in relative terms since the Binga
people are comparably poor for the majority of the Zimbabweans. Furthermore, relative
poverty can occur when incomes fall drastically behind that of the community average
(Aboyade, 1987:7). In short relative poverty occurs in comparison with other communities
or other people in the same community thus, being poor means living below the category
deemed adequate by the community. Therefore, it can be concluded that poverty is
deprivation of needs where the poor are unable to satisfy the minimum basic human
needs of food, shelter and clothing to ensure a decent life. Poverty also includes the
incapacities to partake fully in the political and socio-cultural events in one’s community.
In simple terms, poverty is powerlessness (Yaqub, 2002:218). The section below has
narrowed down poverty in the African context so as to have an understanding of poverty
in Africa.
3.9 Poverty in the African context
Poverty in Africa is as a result of lack of basic human needs. Despite the natural resources
in Africa she still falls at the bottom in terms of development. Sub-Saharan countries were
found to be the ones under the lowest human development. This can be attributed to the
mismanagement of land, corruption, diseases, hygiene and sanitation among others.
Accordingly, poverty for Sen is a failure to meet the basic human needs; or to remain
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deprived from such needs is a state of poverty. The basic human needs include not only
food, clothing and dwelling, but also health and education (Sarshar, 2010). Poverty in
African is ascribed to mismanagement of land, corruption, diseases and hygiene and
sanitation among others.
3.9.1 Mismanagement of land
Africa is mainly a rural setting and its land is subject to tribal ownership. In other countries
most of the land is often in the hands of descendants of European settlers of the late 19th
century and early 20th century. For example, about 82% of the arable land in South Africa
is in the hands white settlers (Nelson et al., 2009). Many nations lack a system of freehold
landowning. In others, the laws prevent people from disadvantaged groups from owning
land at all. Even though often these laws are ignored and land sales to poor groups occur,
legal title to the land is not guaranteed. As such, people in most rural Africans settings
rarely have clear title to their own land, so they survive as farm laborers. However, idle
land is plentiful, but is often private property. Most African nations have very poor land
registration systems, making squatting and land theft common occurrences. This makes
it difficult to get a loan, as ownership of the property often cannot be established to the
satisfaction of sponsors (Ibid). Again, African countries are still struggling to get out of
poverty because of corruption.
3.9.2 Corruption
Corruption is an endemic cancer that has contributed to the stunted development and
impoverishment of many African states. Of the top ten countries which are corrupt in
Africa, six are in sub-Sahara. Some scholars argue that African governments need to fight
corruption instead of relying on foreign aid. But anti-corruption efforts on the continent
have shown mixed results in recent years, and analysts fear that major international
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partners are unwilling to exert leverage over African governments. Some experts suggest
African interest in attracting foreign investment will serve to spur more substantive efforts
to fight corruption. Thus, native governments, market reforms and international aid had
a slight effect on the population (Nelson et al., 2009). This signifies that communities
have to solve their difficulties on their own, outside the system. However, the new
international policies, such as the United Nations’ Millennium Development Goal (MDG)
in Africa, have stopped overlooking the effect of politics on local economies on latter than
now. African governments are dishonest to an extent that transparency and
accountability, rule of law, management of public resources, free and fair election together
with an active civil society are now recognized as a vital factor of poverty alleviation. This
is what is known as good governance. Considering the level of corruption and violence of
local councils and governments, it is not shocking to know that the majority of the African
people fend for themselves most of the time, relying on a makeshift economic (Hanson,
2009). This makes them hard to reach by international aid but at least they have an
alternative system to fall back upon i.e. coping through sharing. Not only farmers in rural
areas but African urbanites as well succeed in avoiding the hooks of the law. Thus, this
makes many development policies totally unsuccessful together with the dilemma of
deadly diseases.
3.9.3 Diseases
HIV-AIDS is a diseases that has affected Africa and made it hard to attain economic
development. This disease deprives individuals, households and communities and this
has further established the roots of poverty in Africa (Whiteside, 2002). This is a malicious
cycle by which poverty boosts the spread of HIV which in turn increases poverty. The
case of the poor in South Africa shows that despite the country’s substantial growth that
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wealth is still too concentrated in the hands of an uninfected minority especially whites
and blacks in power. As a result the gap between the rich and the poor only gets bigger
and bigger. This makes it harder for the disadvantaged people to catch up with the well-
off. Some of the diseases like cholera are a result of poor hygiene and sanitation.
3.9.4 Hygiene and sanitation
The issue of basic sanitation and hygiene is attributed to educational issue. Hygienic
habits have regularly stopped millions of deaths worldwide in the past decades. Just like
in all the countries where it happened, massive full-scale educational campaigns are
needed to significantly alleviate poverty in Africa (Hanson, 2009). Below are the
theoretical foundations that explain poverty and its causes.
3.10 Individualistic theory of poverty The individualistic theory explains poverty as a result of the characteristics that are inborn
in the individual which includes the personality of the person as well as his or her personal
abilities in life such as intellect. This theory is of the view that people are poor in life
because of their inabilities to compete with others for resources. As a result of this, they
end up being caught up in poverty and its related effects (Bradshaw, 2006:6). For example
disabled people cannot compete with able bodied people over resources and as a result
they remain poor. Thus, this theory sees the cause of poverty as something that the
individual is born with and for that reason cannot do anything about the situation and as
a result, his or her life is being determined by his contemporary condition. However, the
theory fails to identify the abilities of people who are born with disabilities of doing
something that can push them out of their poverty situations. Disabilities will only result in
poverty when the individual concerned is not willing to do something to improve upon his
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or her condition and for that matter becomes comfortable with his condition (Paul, 2007).
With regard to the Binga situation the majority are born poor but CADEC and other NGOs
are helping people to escape poverty through providing basic needs and enhancing their
capabilities so as to have a sustainable livelihood.
Furthermore, another interpretation of this theory sees poverty as a result of acquired or
developed personality traits such as the character of an individual. Some people are born
with the personality of being lazy and as a result of that, they are not willing to participate
expressively in life and for that matter they depend on others for assistance in life. Thus,
it is people’s choices they make in life as well as their characters such as laziness always
that results poverty (Bradshaw, 2006:6-7). In other words the individualistic theory of
poverty explains and blames the individual for their poverty but it fails to recognize the fact
that, these factors in themselves cannot lead to poverty but it serves to establish causal
links that may in effect trigger and promote factors that can push the individual into poverty
(Pete, 2006). The idea of blaming the person for his or her own poverty based on morality
is often considered as an ideology and is not applicable in helping to shape the discourse
on poverty in relation to development because it lacks evidence. Also the theory is
criticised on the basis that, people who might appear to have inherited the characteristics
associated with poverty do not themselves become poor (Paul, 2007). Furthermore,
poverty can be attributed to result of cultural influences.
3.10.2 Cultural theory of poverty
This theory of poverty explains the persistence of poverty as a product of the culture of
poverty. The culture of poverty became a strong idea in the war on Poverty with the
writings of Oscar Lewis and Oliver La Farge in 1959 on their study of poor Latin American
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families in an effort to explain the similarities between lower class families in Mexico
and Puerto Rico. The culture of poverty presupposes that the poor have unique patterns
of behaviour and priorities of values that distinguish them and these unique
characteristics always cause them to be trapped by poverty. That is a set of values
are transmitted from generation to generation through the process of socialization
and have become the subcultural determinants of the lower socio-economic status of the
poor and this leads to a vicious cycle of poverty and is only a few who are able to get out
of the poverty cycle. An analysis of this theory to the explanation of poverty is very
important in development because it helps us to know how culture influences the
development because culture is a constitute part of development (Bradshaw, 2006:8).
This theory gives an understanding of how poverty can be undertaken by changing the
value system and motivations in a given society. Consequently, people are poor because
their values are embedded in personality characters which were acquired through the
process of socialization (Bradshaw, 2006: 7-80). Thus, in order to tackle poverty in such
an environment, there is the need to change the whole values of the people and
incorporate into them, a new set of values and motivations. In spite of the usefulness of
the culture of poverty model, it also has some weaknesses in the sense that the
application of the model was only limited to developing countries. Lewis and La Farge
(1959) assert that the culture of poverty is mostly likely to be found in developing
economies. This assumption does not hold since poverty is also widespread in developed
countries as well. Poverty is a global phenomenon and therefore it is not limited to 3rd
World or developing countries alone but also some developed countries are still battling
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with the issue of poverty. Poverty in some places can be attributed to societal structural
arrangements.
3.10.3 Structural perspective of poverty
As of the structural perspective, the poor manifest certain patterns of behaviour which are
not internally generated as a result of their unique values but their actions are influenced
by external factors as a result of their occupying an unfavourable position in a restrictive
social structure. Thus, the poor behave differently not because they have adopted the
dominant values but they do not have the opportunity to realize these values through the
socially sanctional avenues. The life courses and chances of people are usually
determined by the social forces and circumstances that surround them. Economic growth,
labour market opportunities, educational facilities in a country provides a framework in
which the standards of living as well as the social relations of people are always created
and recreated (Bradshaw, 2006:9 & 10). The structures that are inherent in the society
including the organisation of social relations such as race, gender, class and power
determines the destiny of people. In other words, it is the failure of the structures in the
society that causes poverty among people (Chaim, 1983).
In reinforcement of the above argument, failures resulting from government policies and
programmes can also result in poverty through cuts in government spending and welfare
programmes as well as inefficiencies and corruption in the administration. For instance,
the introduction of the Structural Adjustment Programme as a condition for loans and
repayment by the International Monetary Fund in most developing countries resulted in
cutbacks in vital social services, education and health and thus pushing more people in
poverty. Chinake (1997:41) believed that the structural adjustment programmes
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worsened poverty in many African countries including Zimbabwe. The structural theory
sees poverty as resulting from capitalism. In a capitalist economy, profit is the main
motivation for production. A capitalist wage labour market produces poverty in order for it
to operate efficiently through exploitation. A large number of the poor are usually not
employed on a full time basis and also the use of capital intensive methods of production
such as the use of machines and technology causes joblessness and as a result the poor
end up experiencing periodic unemployment and therefore creating a poll of excess
labour. This makes it possible for the capitalist to enjoy higher profits by way of reducing
wages of the labourers at the expense of the poor. In order to explain the dynamics of
poverty, there is the need to go beyond the level of the individual and community agents
and focus on political action. MacGregor (1981) in his book “Politics of Poverty” argued
that, policies to combat poverty are the products of political decisions. Poverty is seen as
a result of political failure. Poverty is also seen as resulting from the biases in the structure
of the society in the form of social exclusion and disadvantage. These biases usually tend
to work against people such as those with learning disabilities, the disabled as well as
those older people making them to be vulnerable in the society. Vulnerability is a result
of discrimination. In explaining poverty by the use of the structural approach, it helps to
address factors in the society that perpetuates poverty by not changing the poor
themselves but rather changing the situation of the poor by way of correcting the
restrictive social structures that perpetuates poverty. This helps in analysing deprivation
by looking at the broader view of the mechanisms and institutions in the society that
causes poverty rather than concentrating on the individual (Bradshaw, 2006:9-11).
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Therefore, an exploration of the individualistic, cultural and structural perspectives of
poverty is very important to efforts aimed at reducing poverty in the sense that, these
theories provide a framework for legislators in the field of development. The individualistic
theory helps to inform policy makers on poverty that giving the poor a better chance in
competition with others does not help in eradicating poverty but rather it improves the
individual prospects. These strategies will only reduce poverty in so far as it has a
collective impact rather than focusing on the relative positions of individuals and therefore
the need to focus on policies that aims at reducing poverty on a collective basis. The
structural aspect of poverty helps to address the issue of economic growth and
development being taken as a poverty reduction strategy (Ruth, 2004). Economic growth
is often perceived to lead to improvement in the living standards of people but an analysis
of the structural perspective has revealed that, it has rather pushed people into poverty
through displacement of work of people in a changing economy making people to be
unemployed. Economic growth is not a guarantee of human development. Meaning that
promotion of economic growth is sometimes done at the expense of inequality. For growth
to promote equality, there is the need to reduce poverty and create employment, it has to
be an inclusive growth rather than just an economic growth. Thus, the conclusion that can
be drawn from the theories of poverty in so far as development is concerned is that they
explain the causes of poverty rather than finding practical solutions to reduce poverty.
However, they provide a framework upon which poverty reduction strategies may be built
in that it addresses poverty from different perspectives and one’s perspective of poverty
determines the kind of strategies used in alleviating it (World Bank, 2000). Having looked
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at different concepts and theories of poverty there is need to provide a discussion on
poverty in Zimbabwe so as to have an overview of the study area.
3.11 Poverty in Zimbabwe
Poverty and unemployment are both prevalent in Zimbabwe, driven by the shrinking
economy and hyper-inflation. Poor economic growth, high unemployment and unequal
distribution of income and wealth are the roots of poverty in Zimbabwe. Thus, the
populaces living below the Total Consumption Poverty Line (TCPL) in Zimbabwe rose
from 55% of the total population in 1995 to 72% in 2003 (Mbiriri, 2010). This state was
intensified when the country experienced a 40% decline of GDP between 2000 and 2008.
The level of structural unemployment in Zimbabwe was 63% with the highest amongst
females (70%) than males (56%) in 2003. Rural areas had higher structural
unemployment rate (62%) than urban areas (35%). In general, the Human Poverty Index
(HPI) declined from 0.654 in 1990 to 0.513 in 2005. This was mainly due to the
deteriorated macroeconomic situation characterized by a hyperinflation, unemployment
and declining economic output as well as a rapidly shrinking manufacturing sector. Thus,
both unemployment and poverty rates run near 80%. As of January 2006, the official
poverty line was ZWD 17,200 per month which was equal to US$202. However, as of
July 2008 this had risen to ZWD 13 Trillion per month, thus US $41.00. Most general
labourers were being paid under ZWD 200 Billion which was equal to US 60c per month.
As of September (2006) a nurse’s salary was Z$12, 542 (12 US cents), less than the cost
of a soft drink. The current account balance of the country was negative, standing at
around US -$517 million. However the situation under the unity government was so hard
because the country did not have its own currency, it was using other countries’
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currencies like the South African Rand, United States dollar and Botswana Pula. In reality
this is not a healthy situation for a country (Ibid).
Furthermore, the proportion of people living below the Food Poverty Line (FPL) increased
from 29% in 1995 to 58% in 2003, and an estimated 1.3 million people were food insecure
at the peak of the lean season in February and March 2011 (World Bank, 2012).
Again, the percentage of half-starved under-fives rose from 13% in 1999 to 15% in 2010.
This indicates that undernourishment remains a serious problem in Zimbabwe, upsetting
a considerable number of children under the age of five. However, supportive land reform
policies, tailing pro-poor and inclusive growth, promoting governance reform,
strengthening the social protection system and strengthening consensual and
multidimensional partnership for adequate resource mobilization to support economic
recovery were some of the steps to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger in Zimbabwe.
The section underneath provides the causes of poverty in Zimbabwe.
3.12 Causes of poverty in Zimbabwe
The causes of poverty in Zimbabwe can be grouped into internal and external factors.
Internal factors causing poverty in Zimbabwe include contradictory economic and social
policies, corruption, political violence and oppression in the country (Chinake, 1997:42).
Chinake argues that poverty reduction strategies put in place during the early
independence period failed to address the root out causes of poverty and Economic
Social Adjustment Programme (ESAP) introduced in the 1990s worsened poverty in
Zimbabwe. Additionally, the exclusion of subsidies on social services also increased costs
of social services and reduced access to these services among Zimbabweans. As a
result, blame for the slow progress in achieving MDGs is put on a number of problems,
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such as, the weakening in the living standards due to the decrease of real incomes and
rising unemployment; increased food insecurity among the poor because of the decline
in agricultural production, caused by land reform; a sharp decline in the quality of social
services and infrastructure strangely in education and health sectors caused by lack of
sufficient resources and the mass departure of professionals (Chinake, 1997:39-40).
External factors causing poverty in Zimbabwe include persistent drought, removal of
donor aid from the public sector following the hotly contested parliamentary and
presidential elections in 2000, 2002, 2008 and 2013, the sanctions imposed by the
European Union (EU) and the United States of America (U.S.A) in 2000. In other words,
the Zimbabwean economy failed to support its social and productive sectors due to
reduced levels of aid, foreign investment, trade opportunities and travel warnings against
leading Zimbabwean politicians by countries bothered by the situation prevailing in the
country (Basilwizi trust, 2010:13). Hence the rising levels of poverty in Zimbabwe and in
districts such as Binga. However, CADEC came in to complement the role of the
government in alleviating poverty in remote areas like Binga by providing basic needs
and enhancing people’s capabilities as well as enabling the sustainability of projects that
benefit the poor. Thus, the findings of this study show that poverty in Binga is decreasing
because of the sustainable projects funded by CADEC, inclusion in decision making,
community gardens and participation in the projects.
3.13 Poverty in Binga district
Binga is one of Zimbabwe’s fifty-seven administrative districts. It is located in the north-
western part of Zimbabwe, bordering Zambia, and has an estimated population of over
138074. There are a few migrants from other parts of the country in the extreme eastern
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and south-western parts of the district; the vast majority of the population belongs to the
Tonga ethnic group, which is one of Zimbabwe’s ethnic minorities. Binga is one of the
country’s most isolated districts. The district headquarters is over 400 kilometres from
Bulawayo (the provincial headquarters and nearest major urban centre) and considerably
further from the national capital, Harare. Most parts of the district are not well suited to
agriculture, since temperatures are high, rainfall is generally low and very erratic, much
of the terrain is hilly and, except in the river valleys and the soils tend to be poor.
Furthermore, there is a large wildlife population, both within and outside protected areas
(Zimbabwe, 1996). Thus, it was because of this isolation and poverty concentration that
prompted CADEC to assist the Binga people.
The Binga district’s history and economy is dominated by the Zambezi River, which
constitutes the 150-kilometre-long border between Binga District and neighbouring
Zambia (see figures 1 and 2 on page 4 and 5). Until fewer than fifty years ago, most
people lived near the river, where they enjoyed a life of relative subsistence affluence,
cultivating in the fertile flood plain, fishing in the river and hunting wild game. The Tonga
people in Binga, Zimbabwe had close social ties with the Tonga people on the Zambian
side of the river. However, in 1957 the Kariba Dam was constructed 130 kilometres
downstream and the river was engulfed by the 5,200-square-kilometre span of water,
known as Lake Kariba, created by the dam. The people living along the river were forced
to move to escape the floodwaters but also because most of the land along the shores of
the new lake was designated for other purposes, including wildlife and forest reserves
and tourist development (Zimbabwe, 1996). The areas where they were resettled are too
dry for reliable dry land cultivation and floodplain cultivation is no longer possible, partly
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because the resettled areas are far from the lake. Once more, cultivation along the
lakeshore and stream banks is prohibited in order to prevent soil erosion and siltation.
Every chiefdom resettled was allocated a fishing camp on the lakeshore; however,
permanent residence in these camps was prohibited until recently and fishing is strictly
controlled. Moreover, and of particular significance to this study, wild animals frequently
attack both crops and people. Nevertheless, killing animals either for food or to defend
people or crops is strictly prohibited. Last but not least, the people’s social life was
disrupted since the graves of their ancestors were flooded and they lost contact with
relatives and friends on the Zambian side (Scudder, 1962).
However, the construction of the dam has brought some benefits to the district.
Commercial fishing and tourism industries have developed along the lakeshore, a tarred
road now links the district headquarters to Bulawayo and other parts of western
Zimbabwe. The district headquarters and a few other centres now have electricity.
However, since the fishing and tourism industries are dominated by outsiders, the local
people have not benefited as much as they might in terms of income or employment.
Furthermore, access to economic infrastructure and social services to the Binga people
continues to be poor as compared to other districts. As a result of all these factors, the
people of Binga are among the poorest and most disadvantaged in the country. For
example, in the only nationwide survey of household poverty undertaken in Zimbabwe
(Zimbabwe, 1996), Binga together with Buhera district ranked highest in terms of the
percentage of households considered to be living in poverty. Thus, for a clear
understanding of the suffering of the Binga people, one needs to contextualise poverty in
the district.
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3.14 Contextualising poverty in Binga
Binga district suffers from high levels of poverty, food shortages and lack the basic socio-
economic services. About 90% of the population in Binga are poor and requires
humanitarian aid every year. The predicament of the Binga people is largely due to the
involuntary displacement in 1957 to make way for the Kariba Dam. This displacement
remains a scar of cruelty to the Binga communities since no reparation was made either
at community level through the provision of basic infrastructure and services or at
household level for loss of entitlements, livelihoods, disrupted social networks, lands and
natural resources (Chege, 1999:2-8). Thus, the lives of the Binga people have been hard,
painful and a struggle year in and year out since they were taken away from their land,
their shrines, and the graves of their ancestors. Even now after the invasion of the Tonga
and Korekore territory, poverty and disaster risks have increased in both pace and
magnitude (Gugerty, 2008).
Furthermore, exclusion and marginalisation of these communities by the colonial, post-
independence and unity governments are another major cause of the vulnerability of the
Binga communities. Again, successive prohibitive legal and policy frameworks have been
used to exclude the communities from access to both internal and external resources to
meet their basic needs. In addition, lake-based industries which exclusively at their
proximity serve national rather than local interests. Increased control and access by local
groups to fishing rights, water resources and wildlife revenues remains one of the
strategies for reducing persistent poverty and vulnerability in Binga communities
(Suharko, 2007:17-19 and Gugerty, 2008).
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Since the 1960s, affected communities in Binga have made a number of initiatives to get
rid of their situation but were not successful. The government continued to treat displaced
people in the same way as communities that remained undisturbed in their localities.
However, churches and NGOs intervened but only succeeded in aid efforts that
addressed the results of the problem and not the problem itself (Oyugi, 2004 and Chinake,
1997:4). Binga is characterised by droughts, low rainfall, tsetse flies and tick-borne
diseases. These natural hazards can trigger, rather than cause humanitarian crises
manifest in malaria, diarrhoea and malnutrition (Redekop, 2000:145-148). Nevertheless,
focusing on natural hazards as a complete explanation for humanitarian crises causation
is myopic and diverts attention from major issues located in the social, economic, and
political development arenas. CADEC’s vision and mission of focusing on poverty of was
triggered by the first millennium development goal which is to eradicate extreme poverty
and hunger.
3.15 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs and poverty reduction strategies
(PRS)
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) brought poverty onto the global development
agenda and encouraged all nations to renew their commitment to the battle against
poverty. As a result, governments and development agencies all over the world are now
paying more attention than ever before to measures to improve the quality of life by
reducing poverty. The need to formulate Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRS) also brought
the issue of poverty to the fore in almost all socio-economic and political debates in
developing countries. The PRS process presents a range of challenges, from facilitating
and managing effective participation in identifying policies for pro-poor growth. By making
its PRS its main development policy instrument, the governments of developing countries
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are showing their commitment to poverty reduction and wealth creation, especially in rural
areas.
PRSs first emerged in 2000 as country strategies for addressing poverty. They act as
road maps, by setting out priorities for poverty-focused domestic policies and
programmes as well as for development assistance. They are developed under the
leadership of national governments, with the coordinated support of the International
Financial Institutions (IFIs), bilateral donors and the UN. PRSs are results-oriented,
containing targets and indicators. Most are set within a three to five year rolling time frame
(UN, 2011:1-4). Below is the discussion of international organisations that adopted the
PRSP and placed poverty reduction at heart.
3.16 International organisations and the PRSPs
This section considers how different international organisations and agencies have
adopted the PRSPs and placed them at the top of the global agenda on development and
fighting poverty. Four (4) international actors, and specifically their directorates concerned
with development and the fight against poverty: the European Union (Directorate General
for Development DG DEV), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (Development Co-operation Directorate and Development Assistance
Committee DCD-DAC), the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). The European
Union and the PRSPs. The European Union (EU) is a major actor in the global
architecture of development aid. Since the mid-nineties the European Commission (EC)
has become the largest multilateral donor in the world, surpassing the leading role of the
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World Bank specifically the International Development Association (IDA) (Lehtinen, 2003
and IDA, 2007). The EU’s development policy has expanded gradually by enlarging the
countries, thematic areas and mechanisms by which development aid is provided. It now
covers developing countries all over the world; it addresses sectorial development
policies in a wide variety of areas.
3.17 Conclusion
This chapter has discussed poverty as a multifaceted phenomenon viewed by different
people to mean different things. The causes of poverty are as numerous and complex as
the way it is viewed. This is the case as has been discussed with the use of the different
theories. The diversity of its causes also explains the diversity of how it is measured. It is
measured either as absolute or relative yet each country has its own poverty lines. This
only goes a long way to explain the diversity of this concept of poverty. The concentration
of poverty in Zimbabwe, in Binga to be specific, encouraged NGOs to chip in to help
reduce the plights of poverty. Due to political, economic and structural causes of poverty
in Zimbabwe, individuals and NGOs are focusing on developing themselves through
different projects. Similarly this study argues that the suffering of the Binga people cannot
be eased by provision of direct aid only, but by community participation and funding of
sustainable projects. This lines up with the views of Sen (1985:42-44) who believed that
human capabilities should be expanded so as to earn a sustainable livelihood. However,
will the NGOs succeed in reducing poverty in Binga district? The next chapter is going to
discuss the role of NGOs in poverty alleviation in Zimbabwe.
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Chapter 4: The role of NGOs in poverty alleviation in Zimbabwe
4.1 Introduction
This study investigated the strategies used by NGOs to reduce poverty in Zimbabwe and
used the case study of CADEC in Binga district. Being anchored on the Human Need
theory and the Capabilities Approaches, the core argument emanating from the study is
that although NGOs are criticised for focusing on immediate relief and the provision of
basic needs only (Treasure, 2009:7-10), CADEC’s operation in Binga shows that it can
operate in such a way that can enhance people’s capabilities and provide them with a
sustainable livelihood. As a result the NGOs’ desire to work in third world countries
emerged as a result of the MDGs. In the year 2000 the United Nation (UN) members
signed the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) so as to end poverty.
They agreed on 8 MDGs and the first one was to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
In order to achieve this a target to reduce by half the proportion of people living on less
than a US dollar a day by the year 2015 was set. However, if the target can be followed,
there will be an opportunity to end the extreme poverty by 2025 (Sach, 2005: 25).
This shows that poverty is the greatest challenge of global societies. Nations are working
hard to eradicate poverty by all means. In developing countries the efforts of the state are
not good enough to help every citizen. As a result, NGOs chip in to complement the efforts
of the state (Suharko 2007:1). Thus, this study found out that the criticisms levelled
against NGOs that the cater for immediate relief and basic needs is wrong since NGOs
like CADEC in Binga are enhancing the capabilities people so as to have better lives
through programs that are designed and geared towards meeting their needs and the
needs of communities that are left behind in development. Again, from the results of this
study, it can be deduced that the enhancement of capabilities empowers people and
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promotes equality and reduces inequality and as a results participants are integrated by
working in different projects that benefit them. Therefore, NGOs are playing a crucial role
in poverty reduction in developing countries such as Zimbabwe.
4.2 Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
Social scientists define NGOs as organizations which possess four defining
characteristics that distinguish them from Civil Society (CS). Rohman (2013) defined
NGOs as societies that are regarded as self-governing, non-profit and with a clear social
mission and vision. They are voluntary, dependent, non-profit making and self-serving
(Edwards and Hulme, 1996). The World Bank (1995) defines Non-Governmental
Organisations as private organisations that pursue activities to relieve suffering, promote
the interests of the poor, protect the environment, provide basic social services, or
undertake community development. In another dimension, Liebenberg (2000) refers
NGOs to autonomous, privately set up, non-profit-making institutions that support,
manage or facilitate development action by providing socio-economic activities for the
needy. NGOs can have their origin from outside the country (international) or within the
country (local).
Although the term NGO remains conceptually vague, in this study it refers to
organizations existing apart from governments, operating on a nonprofit basis with an
emphasis on voluntarism, pursuing a directive of providing developmental services and
complementing the role of the government in development. These organisations also
referred to as NGOs, Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), Private Voluntary Organizations
(PVOs), charities, non-profit charities or charitable organizations and third sector
organizations among others (Anheir, 1990).
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However, in the 20th century issues of poverty reduction in developing countries,
principally in Zimbabwe, have been mostly related with the successes of NGOs.
Nevertheless, regardless of the rising status that NGOs have won for themselves and
their work for the past years, their contribution to development remains limited (Edwards
et al., 1992:14). This is in spite the fact that various evaluations of the achievements of
NGOs view them as instigators of development wherever they are located. They play a
significant role in poverty reduction and provide services in the various communities in
which they are (De Beer et al., 2000). Nevertheless, these successes have not translated
into a thoroughgoing developmental breakthrough and therefore there must certainly be
something erroneous somewhere. Maybe the projects are not good or they are good but
poorly executed (Suharko, 2007:17).
Thus, the above criticisms are in contrast with the findings of this study since this study
argues that NGOs can operate in such a way that the capabilities of the participants can
be enhanced in a way that districts like the Binga can be capable of independently
engaging in sustainable livelihoods and development. The success stories of NGOs are
unseparated from their roles in reducing poverty itself, providing immediate relief services
and manipulating the government policies affecting the poor. Thus, as a new actor and
an autonomous organization, which is well-known for its participatory approaches, NGOs
have prospered in closing the gap left by the government’s and the market’s failure to
provide basic social services and reduce poverty. Furthermore, the credence that NGOs
represent the voices of poor people has made it much easier for them to work with the
poor people at the grassroots level which the government has found difficult to do. This
supports the findings of this study since CADEC works with the poor people in Binga so
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as to know their real situation. Therefore, this leads to the overall supposition that NGOs
always do good things and the over generalization that all NGOs are good. However,
people nowadays are more sceptical, realistic and objective in observing NGOs in the
context of their roles in poverty alleviation based on some cases which have shown a
decrease in NGOs’ performance (Rohman, 2013).
There are certainly thousands of either governmental or private organisations involved in
promoting or initiating development projects or programs in Zimbabwe. NGOs involved in
development activities provide direct employment for thousands of Zimbabweans. They
are found in both urban and rural localities throughout the country working across a range
of activities. They are a major source of foreign exchange to the national exchange. NGOs
deliver goods and services to a population that provides little feedback on the range or
quality of product delivered. Compared to usual market or political settings, beneficiaries
have a weakened ability to use market forces to penalize and reward NGOs. Citizens can
vote out an incumbent from office and consumers can choose not to purchase a product
from a for-profit provider, but the community may be captive to the particular development
scheme that happens to be funded by the designated local NGO (Banks and Hulme,
2012:5).
However, one consequence is that NGOs face more direct incentives to manage donor
satisfaction than beneficiary welfare. Indeed, donations are the only “market force” in the
non-government sector industry, where donors can be viewed as desiring to improve the
quantity and quality of the product of the NGO without having their donation expropriated.
Thus, looking at the donor and funding base of NGOs will reveal the primary set of
interests that an NGO is forced to manage (Anheir, 1990). Thus, this study’s findings are
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in harmony with (Nyathi, 2012:136) who recommends that for NGOs to prosper they
should move away from their role as service providers to that of facilitators and supporters
of development through the enhancement of people’s capabilities.
4.3 Why NGOs in development?
The failure of the developing countries’ government due to poor governance, corruption,
failure to lead fairly and to provide for their citizens triggered NGOs to chip in as a helping
hand to the government. Thus, it is within this context that alternative forms of
development have been pursued. CADEC decided to operate in Binga because it was
excluded from other districts and marginalised, the government does not intervene on the
dilemmas of the Binga people. Consequently, as from the 1980s, NGOs have been
increasingly supported as a means through which the gulf between citizens’ needs and
existing services can be bridged. Hulme (2012:2) believed that NGOs neatly fitted into a
gap created by the failure of the country to satisfactorily provide goods and services or
lack of a capacitating atmosphere that benefits inhabitants so as to gain meaningful
livelihoods. He went on to say that NGOs came into the development arena to help the
disadvantaged and marginalized groups who were excluded from the available state
organizations. As a result, one can say that NGOs came in the development arena to
back up the role of the government. In other words NGOs supplements the roles of the
government (Nyathi, 2012:5). However, NGOs are criticised for focusing more on service
provision than community development and empowerment (Treasure, 2009:7-10).
Nevertheless, this criticism was proved wrong by the results of this study since CADEC
is enhancing people’s capabilities and is implementing sustainable projects in Binga
district. The sustainability of projects brings long-term structural changes which lead to
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the acknowledgement of NGOs within the good governance agenda, given their strong
position for developing the state (Banks and Hulme, 2012:2-3). However, what triggered
the emergence of NGOs and their expansion in the development sphere?
4.4 The emergence and expansion of NGOs in development
The emergence of NGOs came as a result of the alleged calamities of state-led
development approaches during the 1970s and 1980s. Consequently, the calamities
together with the failure of the modernization and dependency theory brought about a
new development alternatives, which is NGOs that offer advanced and people-centred
approaches to service delivery, support and empowerment. Although, NGOs have won a
good status for themselves in the development arena, their classification is still a problem
(Vakil, 1997:2060). Some difficulty in classification is a result of their origin and levels of
formality (Lewis and Kanji, 2009). Usually there are different names that act like
classificatory elements namely NGOs and third sector and they help to understand a
diverse set of organisations. Consequently, Vakil, (1997:2060-2062) suggested that the
classification should be based on their functional areas, economic and financial
considerations, legal status and their organizational features that NGOs are both non-
state and self-governing. Furthermore, NGOs have been classified by what they are not,
for example, nor profit-making organisations. Some definitions specify that they aim to
meet the interests of poor and disadvantaged groups (Banks and Hulme 2012:3). Thus,
this study accepted the name Developmental NGO, although this classification still
embraces a diverse set of organisations, ranging from informal, small, community-based
organisations to large, high-profile, international NGOs working through local partners
across the developing world. For better understanding NGOs are defined and classified
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according to their type. NGOs based in one country and seeking development objectives
abroad are often referred to as International or Northern NGOs (INGOs or NNGOs).
These types of NGOs are very powerful and have huge sums of finance and resources,
but do not have grassroots knowledge of the countries they desire to assist. As a result
they work at the local level through local partners or Southern NGO partners (SNGOs),
who are in close proximity to poor communities that needs help. North-South
partnerships, tend to be unbalanced since the Northern NGOs exercises their power over
local NGOs and as a result the agenda of reducing poverty is lost (Banks and Hulme,
2012:3).
Accordingly, the unequal relationships make the strategies of reducing poverty ineffective
(Lewis and Kanji, 2009 in Banks and Hulme 2012:4). So the classificatory difficulties,
definitions and justifications for the emergence of NGOs have centred on their ability to
offer a development alternative, which is to fill in the gaps caused by the failure of the
country to provide for its people. However, NGOs’ strength is a result of their ability to
have grassroots linkages and the ability to influence community participation through
projects that aim to enhance the potentials of the disadvantaged groups and help them
gain a voice in the governance which they have so far been excluded (Bebbington et al.,
2008). Through the adoption of empowerment NGOs strive to meet the needs of the poor
through assist them in expressing their needs themselves through participatory, people-
centred, and rights-based approaches (Banks and Hulme, 2012:4-5). Thus, the central
argument of this study is in harmony with Banks and Hulme (2012) on the sense that
CADEC do not offer immediate relief and basic needs only to the Binga people, but it also
expands people’s capabilities through participation and facilitates the attainment of a
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sustainable livelihood. However, the modus operandi of NGOs in Zimbabwe is different
depending on their classification.
4.5 Classification of NGOs in Zimbabwe
NGOs working in Zimbabwe can be classified into seven groupings:
Foreign-based but locally-registered (international) NGOs
Independent Zimbabwean organisations, operating in more than one locality
Independent Zimbabwean associations, operating in only one locality
Church-based Zimbabwean organisations, operating in more than one locality
Church-based associations, operating in only one locality
Politically-linked Zimbabwean organisations, operating in more than one locality
Politically-linked Zimbabwean associations, operating in only one locality.
The seven listed classification distinguishes between formal organisations and loose
associations, between foreign and locally-based organisations, between associations
which are affiliated or linked to particular broader groups (mainly churches and political
parties) or which are independent and finally between groupings which are confined to
activities in one area and those whose geographical spread is wider - perhaps across a
district, throughout a particular province, or nationwide. Funding source differences are
often seen as important by the NGOs: foreign-based NGOs usually obtain all their funds
from outside Zimbabwe, while the range of domestic based NGOs receives varying
amounts of funds from abroad. In general, the more geographically dispersed and
therefore larger the NGO and the less it is linked to a major institutions such as a church
or a political party, the greater tends to be its financial dependence upon foreign funds
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(Banks and Hulme, 2012:4-7). Being given a classification of NGOs in Zimbabwe, their
role is of utmost importance to discuss.
4.6 The role of NGOs in Zimbabwe
In earlier years in Zimbabwe, almost all the NGOs were involved in some form of welfare
work especially during the war years (1964-1979) when emergency relief was of such
importance. However, since independence there has been a marked shift towards
development work, even if welfarism still plays an important and often prominent role in
the work of NGOs. Within the development category, one can also distinguish between
those for whom self-management membership is of central importance and those for
whom helping and assisting in a more paternalistic way is more the norm. The bulk of
NGO activities take place in the Mashonaland provinces, the least in the two provinces of
the Matabeleland North and South (De Graaf et al., 1991: 20).
In the development sphere, most NGO interventions in Zimbabwe are concentrated
around three broad areas of activity:
Designing and executing concrete projects for particular targeted groups
Imparting particular skills, usually on an individual basis
Organising or enhancing local groups, in order to increase their ability to take
responsibility and thereby to obtain better their more immediate requirements.
The NGOs’ insertion into development in Zimbabwe comes from marrying their particular
approaches to development to particular target groups within the country.
There have been some notable shifts in Zimbabwe over the past 33 years. At
independence in 1980, the country was emerging from war: basic rural infrastructure had
been destroyed and hundreds of thousands of people had been displaced. In this context
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the first major NGO’s effort was directed at the victims of the war largely through
immediate and direct relief activities rather than long term development approaches.
Furthermore, even at that stage, however, more emphasis was predominantly in the rural
rather than the urban areas. Thereafter, a variety of different paths were taken. A number
of NGOs, particularly those who had themselves been involved in relief have turned their
focus to the problems of rural development. In other words, NGOs are mainly involved in
delivering emergency relief or development services at low cost to many people in remote
areas. NGOs are innovative and flexible and they respond to financial and technical
needs at the grassroots level, development and poverty alleviation (Nyathi, 2012:62).
However, the role of CADEC in Binga proves that it goes beyond providing relief and
basic needs only. The organisation also enhances capabilities of people and enables the
Binga people to gain a sustainable development. Thus, NGOs in Zimbabwe are acting
mainly as service providers and developers.
4.7 NGOs as service providers and developers in Zimbabwe
According to Hulme 2008 in Banks and Hulme (2012:7, 8, 9) “the main two roles of NGOs
highlighted in this chapter are service providers and advocates for the poor. These roles
are called “ds”; big “D” and small “d”; where “Big-D” denotes development as a project-
based and planned accomplishments that include tangible project outputs with trim
objective to make fundamental changes that defy society’s institutional arrangements. On
the other hand, the small “d”, development views “development” as a continuing process,
highlighting fundamental, systemic alternatives that seek different ways of organising the
economy, social relationships and politics”. 90% of registered NGOs in Kenya, for
instance, are involved mainly in service delivery. In the process, NGOs and their actions
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have become professionalised and personalised (Brass, 2011, Kamat, 2004 and Banks
and Hulme, 2012:9).
Thus, the role of NGOs as service providers offer a wide range of services across multiple
fields, ranging from livelihood interventions, health and educational service to more
specific areas, such as emergency response, facilitating democracy, conflict resolution,
human rights, finance, environmental management and policy analysis. The contribution
of NGOs to service delivery did not rise only because of the enforced rollback of state
services, but also because of their perceived comparative advantages in service
provision. It rose because of their ability to modernise and investigate, their flexibility to
adopt new programs quickly and most importantly, their linkages with the grassroots that
offer participation in program design and implementation, thereby fostering self-reliance
and sustainability (Nyathi, 2012:62-63).
These strengths leads to more empowering and long term forms of development
(Bebbington, 2004). Again, grassroots linkages are the reason why NGOs work through
local partners. As a result, recognizing the objectives and priorities of international
organisations may not reflect those at the grassroots and closer propinquity at this level,
therefore, it is necessary for more effective participatory designs. Due to the death of the
top-down development approach, a new approach called bottom up approach should be
adopted by NGOs (Banks and Hulme, 2012:9). As a result donors started promoting a
second important role for NGOs, the role of organisational embodiments of civil society
that could support political change (Harsh et al., 2010:262-267 and Banks and Hulme,
2012:10). NGOs are known for promoting development through service provision but
sometimes participate in the political activities (Bebbington, 2005, Edwards and Hulme,
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1996). Clark (1998) believed that participating in political activities creates unfriendly
relationships between the state and the NGO and threaten prospects for sustainability of
projects and donors ignore the political agendas of NGO interventions. However, Banks
and Hulme (2012:11) believed that the role of NGOs as development assistances is a
priority over their role as political actors.
Furthermore, the role and contributions of NGOs in development and enhancement of
capabilities are difficult to define but their efforts can be looked at in a broad spectrum. At
one continuum NGOs that are involved in democracy-building and transforming state-
societal relations have their roots in Latin America. NGOs are massively labelled to be in
this sphere and they try very hard to convince governments that they are non-political.
On the other hand NGOs seek empowerment as an indirect outcome of their wider service
delivery activities. Thus, bottom-up and participatory approaches to development can
lead to grassroots capacity building in the long run (Banks and Hulme, 2012:11). NGOs
follow advocacy by secrecy through working in partnership with the state through which
they can prove strategies and methods for more effective service provision (Batley, 2011).
The incapability and unwillingness of NGOs to engage in political dimensions has forced
scholars to re-evaluate early claims that NGOs can promote democracy with a
forewarning that NGOs promote democracy only when they contribute to the
improvement of citizen participation (Hudock, 1999). However, NGOs have a strong
political dimension, even within service delivery and welfare provision. They advance their
and their clients’ interests in a highly political arena. Seeing NGOs as fighters for
democracy and civil society an important view because they embark on advocacy work
that result in transformation (Banks and Hulme, 2012:9-10).
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In the 20th century NGOs were viewed as civil organisations that intended to help in
difficult times but this was never a reality since they are not living up to their proposed
agendas (Banks and Hulme, 2012:9). However, NGOs are criticised for
misrepresentation, inefficiency, lack of empowerment and difficulties in sticking to specific
values. Again, the uncertainties of the NGOs weaken the innovative capability of the poor
(Lewis et al., 2009)
4.8 Criticisms of NGOs
The criticisms of NGOs are discussed below and they include NGOs and donor agencies,
the relationship between the state and the NGO, the scaling up of NGOs, participation as
a rhetorical flourish and organisational praxis.
4.8.1 NGOs and Donor agencies
NGOs have increased in number and have forged innovative and increasingly wide
ranging formal and informal linkages with donors and government agencies. The
relationships have deep paraphernalia on globalization and indigenous lives. Thus, the
embryonic of a new world order in which market and private organizations were expected
to play a greater role in economic activities led to a significant increase in official aid to
the NGO sector. Donor aid in promoting people-centred development is critical as far as
NGO development work is concerned. Zaidi (1999) argues that donor interest may be
more harmful than helpful to the NGO community. So as a compromise between funding
social programs through governments and a complete laissez-faire policy, NGOs became
an important vehicle for development funds with consequences that seriously undermined
their development potential. NGOs that received donor funding sometimes took a more
compromising, a political stance, if not an openly right wing one. However, there are
NGOs that meet the development agenda of their funders. Edwards and Hulme (1996)
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assert that NGOs become contractors implementing the funders’ agenda on the
economy. NGOs therefore become the provisional workers of development, useful to
national and international agencies for specific tasks, but easily discarded as situations
change and consequently limited in their ability to challenge the development practice.
NGOs are recommended for furthering the New Policy Agenda of efficient growth,
independent governance and sustainable poverty alleviation. However, from a critical
viewpoint, these goals are camouflage for policies that benefit a few. The major donor to
NGOs that is the World Bank, which had poverty elimination at heart now argues that it
does not have enough funds to contribute towards development, but can offer good
advice to poorer nations rather than contributing to satisfying poverty alleviation.
However, in spite of their efforts, NGOs have contributed to sustaining poverty at a
systematic level. Maintaining poverty and inequality is an integral part of the new policy
agenda of capitalism. The NGO phenomenon has supported this by contributing to the
deregulation of the state (Banks and Hulme, 2012:11).
The contribution of international donors in enabling the growth of NGOs has been widely
acknowledged. However, the support of donors has been a double-edged sword in so far
as organizational growth and the impact of programmes can be matched (Anheir, 1990).
Although donor aid has enabled the building up of a critical mass of civil society actors,
the over-reliance on external funding has forced organizations to refocus their activities
to address the programmatic interests of the funding agencies. One of the key results of
this is that many NGOs cannot claim independence in their choice of activities and focus.
Bebbington and Farrington (1993: 16) argued that by imposing an agenda and objectives,
the donors can distort the links between an NGO’s value base and development. This
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ultimately weaken the NGO whilst at the same time increasing its financial, technical and
human resources in the short term.
Furthermore, partnerships that are mediated by money are characterized by tension and
inequality. Nevertheless, inequality never builds capacity. Mnanji (1999) also argued that
as NGOs are always in horrible need of financial resources, it is easy for them to become
nominated by donors and consequently copy the agenda of the latter. To guard against
this, NGOs should be careful not to lend legitimacy to organisations and programs that
are, inherently, a part of the problem (Korten, 1987). NGOs should seek to secure positive
international assistance that does not threaten or weaken their voluntary care for the poor.
NGO donor cooperation is important in addressing the social and environmental problems
of development, and in meeting the basic objective of reducing poverty. In summary, the
donor and NGO relationship is criticized on the grounds that it diverts these agencies
from pursuing development as they strive to meet and satisfy donor priorities. The large
sums of money made available to them by donors gives rise to a patron-client relationship
which is donor-driven (Edwards and Hulme, 1992a:14-16). The other problem arises
when NGOs try to intervene in state affairs.
4.8.2 NGOs and the State
NGOs, have gained a reputation as leading practitioners of development in Africa. NGOs
have had a comparative advantage over the state, thus they tend to contribute to
institutional heterogeneity by complimenting the government. African governments have
responded ambiguously to the presence of these new agencies. Whilst on the one hand,
they value the economic resources that NGOs can raise but on the other hand, they resist
the political pluralisation implied by common development action. Traditionally, the
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relationship between NGOs and the state has been characterised by gentle neglect and
absolute hostility. The reason for this state of affairs is because African governments
perceive NGOs as a threat to their power and influence over the populace. According to
Edwards and Hulme (1992: 16), the nature of relations between NGOs and the state is
determined by regime type and the function served by NGOs. The NGO-State relationship
has been a major bone of contention in the area of development. In Zimbabwe, whatever
assistance these organizations might offer must be channeled through the relevant
government ministries. To that end, the government has to approve their projects before
they are allowed to operate on the ground. Thus, this requirement has been a source of
friction between the government and NGOs. This can lead to delays in the implementation
of projects since some NGOs do not have control as to when they revive funds. NGOs
have managed to work closely with department heads who then act as their link to the
relevant authorities who might be interested to know what they do on the ground.
On the other hand, NGOs see governments as corrupt and ineffective beyond any hope,
in terms of the development of the poor. McRobert (1991: 3), argued that the government
must keep out of the development field. However, there exists a need for NGO and
government collaboration to ensure effective development for poor people. Edward and
Hulme (1996:16) argued that there are sound reasons for NGOs to enter into a positive
and creative relationship with the institution of both the state and the government.
Governments remain largely responsible for providing health, education, agriculture and
other services on which people rely. NGOs ignore government structures at their threat.
Accordingly, if development is to be effective NGOs should work with the government and
challenge it when it drifted from its stated commitments. For example, the third generation
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that was referred by Korten (1987) to as development which occurs within national
borders and are subject to state control. Nevertheless, for Graff and Louw (1992) conflict
is unavoidable where different classes, interests, strategies and target populations are
represented by their state on one hand and NGOs on the other. Governments have found
ways of controlling NGOs’ involvement in development by formulating policies for the
registration and coordination of NGOs operating within their countries. Again, NGOs are
criticized for scaling up their operations in areas they operate
4.8.3 Scaling up of NGOs
The difficulty in scaling up activities is another criticism levelled against NGOs. Scaling-
up may take various forms (Uvin and Miller, 1996). Firstly, NGOs engages in quantitative
scaling-up when they increase the number of beneficiaries, either by servicing more
people in the same area, or by expanding the project to new areas. Secondly they also
undertake functional scaling-up by developing new activities and diversify the services
they provide. Thirdly, they may get involved in political scaling-up, to increase the
participation of the local populations in politics or influence policy on their behalf. Finally,
NGOs focus on organizational scaling-up when they try to increase their financial and
managerial autonomy by diversifying their funding sources, developing the skills of their
staff and maintaining accountability to their beneficiaries.
However, NGO’s strengths is their knowledge of local conditions, which makes them more
familiar with local problems and more responsive to local needs. If this claim holds, it
explains the difficulty in scaling-up. NGOs lose their privileged connections to locality if
they move to a new area or develop new activities with which they are not familiar. Critics
point out that if NGOs want to have a significant impact on development, they also cannot
confine their work to micro-projects (Sanyal, 1994). Whether NGOs can take up the
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challenge of scaling up without losing their specificity is an ongoing debate (Bebbington
and Farrington, 1993). In the case of CADEC, confining in one place (Binga) has enabled
the organisation to fully enhance people’s capabilities and enabling them to gain
sustainable development through community participation and financing development
projects.
4.8.4 Participation
Community participation is a dynamic process by which beneficiaries influence the
direction and implementation of their programme not than merely being consulted by
NGOs. NGOs organize people so that they are able to make better use of their own local
resources, promote equity, alleviate poverty and establish new instructional agendas that
will sustain people (Brown, 1990). This could be termed actor oriented development (Hart,
2000). This new direction in thought is a reversal of conventional approaches that focus
on technology or financial resources alone and it deals with development in a more
humanistic approach. Brown and Korten (1999) also recognize the centrality of people in
development and the importance of self-organization. They highlighted the vocalization
of the NGO developmental approach that reduces dependence on foreign charity. It
seems reasonable to suggest that NGOs aim to empower indigenous people through the
equitable distribution of political and economic power, so as to achieve broad based
development participation.
However, participation is more of a rhetorical show and is not reflected in the actual goals.
Chambers (1997) have noted that top down planning, top down funding and upwards
accountability work against participation. The pursuit of participation by development
agencies frequently fails to live up to the rhetoric surrounding it, which seems to promote
it and yet amounts to no more than the restructuring of control. However, Cooke and
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Kothari (2001:12-15) opposed that the design of these projects is supposedly directed
towards the development of ideas yet it is often far removed from genuine community
participation. NGO personnel might find it difficult to fully understand the realities of
poverty experienced by the intended beneficiaries. Similarly, they are unlikely to have
much contact with the poorest sections of those communities in which they do work
regardless of the stated aims of their organizations (Nyamugasira, 1998:298-300).
Grassroots involvement or participatory development might further exclude specific
groups. This does not mean that NGOs that work with the poor and excluded are
incompetent as there are documented examples of effective work in such contexts
(Kolbilla and Wellard, 1993:132,133). These include heavy report demands of donors,
which inevitably encourage NGOs to select educated field staff that are able to write fluent
and reports. For Vivian (1994), the myth of participation is exposed and NGOs are less
participatory than they are expected to be and their staff end up thinking for the anticipated
beneficiaries and often suspending overruling popular decisions.
However, in some instances the intended beneficiaries of these development programs
merely serve as passive recipients without much leverage to alter the content of this
agenda. Again, the lack of balance between the NGO’s agenda and the needs of the poor
shows that there is virtually no participation by the latter; this leads to a lack of ownership,
misdirection of resources, wrong choice of priority areas, lack of sustainability and poor
coverage. In many instances, this has created doubts about NGOs as self-seeking
organisations, instead of being perceived as caring for the interests of the poor. This may
also, explain why NGOs are regarded as proxies acting on behalf of their funders. Arnold
(1998) contends that, contrary to popular belief, NGOs do not do what they do for the
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reasons of humanity. They are not in the business of providing charity, even though their
activities may appear humanitarian and lead people to regard them as humane. These
developmental activities could be seen as a front which allows them to carry out their own
hidden agenda. Therefore, one can infer that some NGOs working with the poor have
their own interests which differ from those that intend to benefit the marginalised
populace.
Although NGOs are said to work with grassroots organizations that are often comprised
of poor and marginalized groups, the survival and sustainability of projects hinder them
from attaining the expected results. In some instances, the projects are successful. They
usually remain small, especially when compared to the scale of their challenges and they
are also attacked on their organisation praxis.
4.8.5 Organisational praxis
The assertion that development NGOs are clearly value-based organisations does not
hold any truth these days. There is no authentication that NGOs put these values into
practice in their organisational structures and behaviour, or even that they are clear about
what their principal values are (Edwards, 1998). This is a major weakness since it is the
relationship between values and actions that is crucial in generating legitimacy when
arguing the case for change. Institutions should implement values as the bottom line in
their own practice if they are to build a partnership in support of those values on the wider
stage. The best way that NGOs can use to foster the mass movement that has been
missing from the field of international development since the end of the Cold War is for
them to be exemplars of the society they want to create. This can be done to indicate that
it is possible to be an operational organisation which values its employees as it does its
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partners, fights discrimination, practices internal democracy and always use the
organisational power it has in liberating ways.
Unfortunately, few development NGOs have over relied on foreign aid and the limitations
of predetermined relationships make it very problematic to expand into real values-based
action because there are simply too many compromises that have to be made.
Furthermore, NGOs are not insusceptible to class, race, and gender problems nor the
oppression and sexual exploitation they breed. Behind the screen of progressive attitudes
toward social change in the world outside, the world inside the organisation can be an
ethical chaos. Such organisations cannot be the basis of far-reaching social change.
Fortunately, NGOs are beginning to take this point to heart. The link between personal
change and organisational effectiveness is increasingly being recognised (Kaplan, 1997;
Chambers, 1996), even though in the practice of the application remains weak. These
pioneers stress that is certainly possible to help others effectively, but only if they realise
that in doing so they help themselves to grow to a fuller, more independent knowledge of
themselves - closing the circle once more between personal change and change in the
wider world. If their own practice is autocratic, closed and chauvinist it is unlikely that they
will be able to encourage others to be democratic, open and egalitarian.
What remains is for NGOs to experiment more seriously with management practices,
organisational structures, and personnel policies that create the feedback loops between
personal change, institutional performance, and wider impact. A start has been made in
this direction, but a huge area remains unexplored (Fowler, 1997). Perhaps a re-visioning
of NGO strategy around values-based action in programme work, constituency building
and organisational praxis would be a useful place to start.
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All in all NGOs must return to their roots if they are to promote poverty reduction on a
mass scale. Thus, one can posit a number of questions. Could it be that many Southern
NGOs are so involved in service delivery that the local level associations they create
empower NGO personnel and leaders but not the poor and disadvantaged? This can
certainly be argued for some of the large NGOs in the South. Southern NGOs got so
involved in lobbying donors directly that they have neglected their role in creating active
citizenries that, through more diffuse political processes, can demand effective aid
policies and other policy changes (for example, in trade, debt relief and foreign affairs)
that will assist the poor in poor countries (Hulme and Edwards, 1997: 20)
4.9 Conclusion
All in all despite all the criticisms levelled against NGOs, they remain important actors in
the development processes in the future. CADEC in Binga proved to be operating beyond
the expected operation of providing for basic needs and relief services but it is now
enhancing human capabilities and enabling the Binga people to attain sustainable
development. Thus, this study confirms the views of Max-Neef and Sen (Basic needs
approach and capabilities theory) since CADEC is operating beyond the expected NGOs
operation by providing both basic needs and expanding human capabilities in Binga.
NGOs play a very important role in poverty reduction but they do not provide total
solutions to the problems. The key validation behind the growth of NGOs is state failure.
It is deduced that the state and the public sector have not been able to deliver
development to the supposed beneficiaries and NGOs, as a form of development remedy
stepped in to fill in the gap. However, having discussed the role of NGOs in poverty
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alleviation in Zimbabwe the following chapter discusses the framework that underpinned
this study.
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Chapter 5: Theoretical Framework.
5.1 Introduction
This study was about NGOs and their poverty reduction strategies in Zimbabwe and it
used CADEC in Binga district as a case study. The study adopted the Model of Human
Scale Development and the Capabilities Approach as its theoretical framework. Thus, this
study argues that it is within the premises of the Model of Human Scale Development and
the Capabilities Approach that this study has revealed that CADEC do not provide for the
basic needs and immediate relief only but it also enhances the capabilities of the Binga
people so as to have a sustainable livelihood. The main argument of this study is based
on the belief that Binga people’s capabilities are enhanced through participating in the
projects of CADEC such as gardening and livestock production. Therefore, it is the
enhancement of capabilities that proved that CADEC’s operation goes beyond the
criticisms levelled against NGOs that they cater for immediate relief and basic needs of
people only (Treasure, 2009:7-10). The study adopted these theories because the Basic
Needs Approach is concerned about the human condition and the Capabilities are
concerned about the enhancement of human potentials in development. All the aspects
of this research that are problem statement, purpose, literature review, methodology, data
collection and analysis are anchored on the Model of Human-Scale Development and the
Capabilities approach.
5.2 Max-Neef’s human-scale development model
Human-scale development is concerned about the satisfaction of fundamental human
needs, about development of self-reliance, and about the building of organic articulations
of people with nature and technology, of global processes with local activity, of the
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personal with the social, of planning with autonomy and of civil society with the state (Max-
Neef, 1991). For Max-Neef human scale development, geared towards meeting human
needs requires a new approach to understanding reality, the one that compels people to
perceive and assess the world that is humans and their processes in a manner which
differs completely from the usual one. Thus, his theory is for development and it focuses
on the development of human needs and this research is anchored on it.
Max-Neef distinguishes between needs and satisfiers. For him human needs are few,
finite and classifiable. Human fundamental needs are constant through all human cultures
and across historical periods, the only difference is the way of satisfying them over time
and between cultures. He believed that human needs are interrelated and interactive but
he did not support the hierarchical structure of need. However, for him simultaneity,
complementarity and trade-offs are features of the process of needs satisfaction (Max-
Neef et al., 1987:12). Below is a detailed explanation of the fundamental human needs
by Max-Neef.
5.2.1 Max-Neef’s fundamental human needs
Manfred Max-Neef’s fundamental human needs can be seen as a practical model of
human needs. It was developed as a practical tool for assessing the merits of international
aid programs. He is of the view that most interventions have multiple effects and meeting
one need normally undermines or enhances another. Therefore, the Max-Neef’s plan can
be readily transferred to needs analysis in a wide range of contexts. It can be a useful
framework for diagnosing the possible effects of an intervention in a community or in one’s
life. Thus, the Max-Neef’s study seeks to reorient development in terms of stimulating
local self-reliance, satisfying fundamental human needs and more generally advocating
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a return of the human scale. Therefore, human scale development places much emphasis
9on the role of human creativity in development (Max-Neef, 1991).
Max-Neef (1991) argues that in most third world countries the development style imposed
tend to increase marginalisation of the poor without generating alternatives for
employment. Again, the growing industrialisation of agriculture tends to destroy existing
traditional skills. Thus the final result is that the poor are left alone to design their own
survival strategies. This fits well the dilemma of the Binga people which was mainly due
to the involuntary displacement in 1957 to make way for the Kariba Dam. This
displacement is still a scar of cruelty to the Binga people since no compensation was
made either at community level through the provision of basic infrastructure and services
or at household level for loss of entitlements, livelihoods, disrupted social networks, lands
and natural resources (Chege, 1999:2-8). This made the lives of the Binga people to be
hard, painful and a struggle year in and year out since they were taken away from their
land, their shrines, and the graves of their ancestors. Today, many years after the invasion
of the Binga (Tonga and Korekore speaking people) territory, poverty and disaster risks
have increased in both pace and magnitude (Gugerty, 2008).
Exclusion and marginalisation of these communities by the colonial, post-independence
and unity governments are another major cause of the vulnerability of the Binga
communities. Successive prohibitive legal and policy frameworks have been used to
exclude the communities from access to both internal and external resources to meet
their fundamental human needs. Furthermore, lake-based industries which are at the
proximity of the Binga people exclusively serve national rather than local interests.
However, increased control and access by local groups to fishing rights, water resources
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and wildlife revenues remains one of the strategies for reducing persistent poverty and
vulnerability in Binga communities since they are left alone to design their own survival
strategies. (Suharko, 2007:17-19).
Moreover, since the 1960s, affected communities in Binga made a number of initiatives
to get rid of their situation but were not successful because they do not have the means
to develop themselves. Even the unity government continued to treat displaced people
in the same way as communities that remained undisturbed in their localities. However,
churches and NGOs intervened but only succeeded in aid efforts that addressed the
results of the problem and not the problem itself (Chinake, 1997:4). Binga is characterised
by droughts, low rainfall, tsetse flies and tick-borne diseases. These natural hazards can
trigger, rather than cause humanitarian crises manifest in malaria, diarrhoea and
malnutrition (Redekop, 2000). Nevertheless, focusing on natural hazards as a complete
explanation for humanitarian crises causation is myopic and diverts attention from major
issues located in the social, economic and political development arenas. Thus, this is
when the role of NGOs is eminent to help people through difficult times through different
activities. Therefore, the objective of the human scale development should be to ease the
suffering of the poor and disadvantaged groups in societies.
5.2.2 Objectives of human scale development
Human Scale Development for Max-Neef should focus on a new approach based on
human scale development. Such approach to development should be concerned about
the satisfaction of fundamental human needs, on the generation of growing levels of
independence, and on the construction of organic articulations of people with nature and
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technology, of global processes with local activity, of the personal with the social, of
planning with autonomy and of civil society with the state (Max-Neef, 1991:29).
Furthermore, human needs, organic articulations and self-reliance are the pillars that
support Human Scale Development is supported. These three pillars are sustained by a
firm foundation based on the belief that the poor are the bosses of their own development.
Again, if development is to take place people should be the actors in human scale
development and the diversity and freedom of their choices must be respected. Thus,
development for Max-Neef is aimed at transforming the “object-person” into a “subject-
person” (Max-Neef, 1991:29-30). Thus, NGOs all over the world are focusing on
sustainable development project for individuals to be their own bosses. Likewise, CADEC
is initiating sustainable development projects in Binga so that communities will be
independent rather than dependent on aid which is mainly seasonal or temporal. These
projects include crop and livestock production, development of craft for women,
gardening, education initiatives, agro-forestry projects and the installation of boreholes
and water harvesting techniques to reduce soil erosion. These efforts have resulted in the
reduction of biodiversity losses by 40% and implementation of relevant environmental
management policies by 40%. Thus, CADEC has lived up to the church doctrine of
keeping the lord’s earth habitable today and for future generations to come (Jerie, 2010),
therefore by preserving the environment the community will sustain itself even without the
assistance of NGOs (Berry, 1981). The human scale development is however advances
three postulates as discussed below.
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5.2.3 Postulates of human scale development
The There are three postulates of human scale develop namely development is about
people and not about the objects, fundamental human needs are finite, few and
classifiable and what changes both over time and through cultures, is the way or the
means by which the needs are satisfied and poverties not poverty. These postulates are
discussed below correspondingly.
5.2.4 Development is about people and not about objects
This is the basic postulate of human scale development and it states that development is
about people and not about objects. Max-Neef believed that developmental process was
dominated by traditional development paradigm that include the Gross National Product
(GNP) which focuses on the qualitative growth of objects. However, now there is a need
of an indicator about the qualitative growth of people. Thus, the best developmental
process will be that which allows the greatest improvement in people’s quality of life. The
potentials that the poor have should adequately satisfy their basic needs and determine
their standard of living (Max-Neef et al., 1987:12-15). Hence, if all organisations focus on
the qualitative growth of people, the world will be a better place. The issue of human
needs brings in needs and satisfiers into play.
5.2.5 Needs and satisfiers
Max-Neef et al., (1987), argues that the traditional beliefs which says human needs tend
to be infinite, that they change all the time, that they are different in every culture and
environment and that they are different in each historical period are wrong since they are
a result of conceptional shortcomings. The shortcomings are in the prevailing literature
and debates about fundamental human needs which is that the main difference between
needs and satisfiers of those needs is either overlooked or is not clearly defined. A
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clarification of the difference between the two perceptions is important and is made in the
paragraph below (Max-Neef et al., 1987:13-16).
Firstly, human needs should the understood as a system meaning that all human needs
are interrelated and interactive. With the sole exception of the need of subsistence, that
is to remain alive, no hierarchies exist within the system. Secondly, simultaneities,
complementarities and compromises are characteristics of the process of needs
satisfaction (Max-Neef et al., 1987). Max-Neef’s Human needs can be satisfied in many
ways and there are no specific criteria of satisfying them. Max-Neef’s satisfaction of basic
human need is non-specific meaning that human needs can be satisfied at different levels
and with different satisfiers at different intensities. In addition, human needs can be
satisfied at the level of the individual and of the social group, or of the community. Human
needs which are not adequately satisfied result in human poverty. In his own work with
groups, Max-Neef (1991) dedicates substantial attention to the notion that poverty
generates social pathology. Max-Neef’s set of needs is intended to be exhaustive that is
to indicate all dimensions of human need that are universal, even though they may not
be observed in all communities because there may be unmet needs or poverties. Max-
Neef identifies nine fundamental human needs which are further defined by the categories
of being, having, doing and interacting. From these dimensions, a matrix is developed
which can be filled with examples of satisfiers for those needs. However, Max-Neef’s list
remains provisional and open to modification (Max-Neef, 1982).
Max-Neef’s (1991:32) demonstrates the interaction of firstly the needs of Being, Doing
and Interacting and secondly the needs of Subsistence, Protection, Affection,
Understanding, Participation, Idleness, Creation, Identity and Freedom. The fundamental
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human needs categorisation, food and shelter should not be perceived as needs but
rather as satisfiers of the fundamental human need for subsistence. In the same way,
education either formal or informal, studying, investigating, early stimulation and
meditation are satisfiers of the fundamental human need for Understanding. In addition,
the satisfiers of the fundamental human need for protection are hospitalisation, defensive
system and health care systems.
Max-Neef distinguishes between needs and satisfiers by saying a satisfier contributes
concurrently to the gratification of different needs and conversely a need may require
various satisfiers in order to be met. This relationship is not a one on one situation and is
not fixed but varies according to time, place and circumstance, for instance, a woman
breastfeeding her child is simultaneously satisfying the baby’s needs for Subsistence,
Affection, Protection and Identity. The situation is very different if the baby is being fed
mechanically (Max-Neef, 1991:33). The second postulate is that human needs are finite,
few and classifiable, what changes over time and through cultures is the way to satisfy
them.
5.2.6 Fundamental human needs are finite, few and classifiable, what changes both
over time and through cultures, is the way or the means by which the needs are
satisfied.
Communities and societies adopt different criteria for satisfying same fundamental human
needs. In every system human needs are fulfilled through the non-generation or
generation of different types of satisfiers (Max-Neef, 1991:33). Thus, a culture is defined
by the type of its satisfiers and the only changes occur in the choice of the quantity and
quality of satisfiers. In other words what are societal determined are not the fundamental
human needs but the satisfiers of those needs. Societal change or development takes
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place then the community or society forego traditional satisfiers at the expense of modern
satisfiers (Max-Neef, 1991:33-34).
Additionally, every need is satisfied at different levels and with different intensities and
within three contexts that is with regard to oneself (Eigenwelt), with regard to the social
group (Metwelt) and with regard to the environment (Umwelt). Again, the quality and
intensity, not only on the levels but also of contexts, will depend on time, place and
circumstances (Max-Neef, 1991:34-36). With regard to Zimbabwe, Binga, human needs
are satisfied by CADEC with regard to all the context identified above (oneself or
Eigenwelt, social group or Metwelt context and in other cases with regard to the
environment or Umwelt. Thus, Max-Neef did not limit human suffering to single poverty
so he proposed that we should talk about poverties not poverty.
5.2.7 Poverty and poverties
Max-Neef argued that we should not talk about poverty but of poverties. Max Neef
(1991:31) believed that the traditional notion of poverty is limited and restricted because
it wholly refers to the dilemmas of people who may be classified below a certain income
range. The traditional concept is too economistic. Max-Neef suggests that we speak of
poverties not poverty. Thus, unsatisfied fundamental human needs lead to human
suffering as a result of poverty. For example poverty of subsistence is as a result of
insufficient income, food and shelter among others, poverty of protection is caused by
bad health systems, violence and the arms race among others. Poverty of affection is due
to oppression, domination and manipulative relations with the natural environment among
others, poverty of understanding is as a result of too poor quality education; poverty of
membership is as a result of marginalisation and discrimination of women, children and
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minorities and poverty of identity is due to the imposition of alien values upon local and
regional cultures, forced migration and political exile among others. However, poverties
are not only poverties, much more than that unsatisfied poverty generates pathologies
(Max-Neef, 1991:31, 34, & 36). As a result a number of NGOs are working in developing
countries to satisfy some of the poverties identified by Max-Neef. In Binga CADEC mainly
focuses on the poverty of subsistence (food security), understanding and sometimes the
poverty of freedom. In other words CADEC Binga strives to satisfy the need of
subsistence, understanding and freedom. For the satisfaction of needs to be effective
human needs should be categorised.
5.2.8 Categorization of human needs
The categorization must be comprehensible, that is, the needs listed must be
readily understandable and identifiable as one's own.
The categorization must merge scope with specificity, that is, it must arrive at a
limited number of needs which can be clearly yet simply labelled but, at the same
time, be comprehensive enough to incorporate any fundamental felt need.
The categorization must be operational, that is, for every existing or conceivable
satisfier, one or more of the needs stated must appear as a target-need of the
satisfier that is the classification analyse the relationship between needs and
satisfiers.
The categorization must be well planned, meaning that it is not sufficient for the
relate satisfiers to needs. It is essential to detect needs for which no desirable
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satisfier exists. Again, it is important to identify and confine those satisfiers which
inhibit the satisfaction of needs actualization of needs.
The categorization must be prepositional to the extent that it is critical and capable
of detecting inadequacies in the relation between the existing satisfiers and the
fulfilment of needs, this categorization should serve as a mechanism to work out
an alternative order capable of generating and encouraging satisfiers for the needs
of every human being as integral beings. The categorisation replaces non-inclusive
satisfiers by others of a more comprehensive nature, thus attempting to objectify
several needs (Max Neef, et al, 1986).
All in all, basic human needs are physical, psychological, social and spiritual needs
without which existence is impossible. Human needs are not transmitted by a particular
culture or implanted or taught by local institutions, they are universally expressed and
every human is aware of them. These human needs can be satisfied differently; their
satisfiers differ from context to context and person to person and are gendered in nature.
However, if they are not fully satisfied they result in poverty and that leads to pathologies.
Therefore, one can argue that Community organisations, participation and involvement in
decision making processes are crucial premises for building sustainable well-being and
resilience to poverty and disaster in Binga, Zimbabwe. Development should focus on
promoting community agency where beneficiaries are the primary actors for development;
this is because Max-Neef believed that development is people-centred, participatory and
environmentally sound. It involves economic growth together with equitable distribution,
enhancement of people’s capabilities and widening of people’s choices. Thus,
development gives top precedence to poverty reduction, integration of women into the
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development process, self-reliance of people and protection of the rights of indigenous
people. As a result, it is within the above basis that the capabilities approach complement
the ideas of Max-Neef.
5.3 Capability approach
According to the Capability Approach (Sen), human capability is about enabling people
to have substantive freedom so as to lead the lives they have reason to value and pursue
the real choices they have (Sen, 1999). The Capability Approach is a comprehensive
normative framework for individual wellbeing evaluation. The approach evaluates a
number of human wellbeing aspects, such as poverty, inequality, the wellbeing of an
individual or the well-being of a community (Robeyns, 2005). According to Fukuda-Parr
(2003) the capability approach also provided the theoretical foundations of the human
development paradigm). However, the capability approach is not a theory that can explain
poverty, inequality or well-being but provides a framework and tool by which to
hypothesise and evaluate these phenomena.
Therefore, one can argue that the core principle of the Capabilities Approach is its focus
on what people are excellently able to be and to do and. The mastermind behind this
approach is Amartya Sen (1980, 1984, 1985a, 1985b, 1987, 1990b, 1992, 1993, 1995,
1999a). However, it was developed more by Nussbaum (1988, 1992, 1995, 1998, 2000,
2003a, 2004). People’s evaluations and policies on development should focus on what
human beings are able to be and do, on the quality of their life and on removing obstacles
in their lives so that they can have more freedom to live the kind of life that they have
reason to value (Sen, 1999). However, Nussbaum advanced the approach as a
foundational partial theory of justice. Therefore, Nussbaum criticizes, diverges from and
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sometimes adds on to Sen’s work. Sen (1999) distinguishes between ends and means
whereby ends have intrinsic importance whilst means are helpful in reaching the goals of
increased wellbeing, development and justice. Nevertheless, in concrete situations these
distinctions often intertwined, whereby some ends are concurrently also means to other
ends (Sen, 1995). For instance, the capability of being in good health can be seen as an
end in itself and can play a role as a means to the capability to work.
According to Sen (1999) the Capability Approach, the ends of well-being, integrity and
development should be hypothesised in terms of human being’s capabilities to function;
that is their real prospects to assume the actions and activities that they want to engage
in so as to be whom they want to be. Capabilities also include beings and doings that Sen
referred to as functionings and they constitute a valuable life. Accordingly, functionings
are several things human beings prospers in doing or being such as working, relaxing,
being healthy being literate (poverty of Understanding in Max-Neef’s language) and
community participation among others. According to the capability approach, poverty is
the lack of basic human potentials. These potentials vary from simple ones such as being
well brought up, fully clothed and sheltered to more complex ones such as community
participation and being able to appear in public without shame. Sen suggested the notion
of the capability enhancement because he believed that the income measure on poverty
was not sufficient. Therefore, he argued that poverty should be measured according to
the capabilities that people possess. He believed that the capabilities are equally
important as income (Sen, 1995). This relates to the concept of direct and indirect
concepts of poverty where the direct concept is concerned about the decrease of the
standard of living below a certain level and assume that it is a result of a lack of resources.
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However, the indirect concepts of poverty is concerned on situations where resources fall
below a certain point and typically assume that it is because of a low standard of living
(Ringen, 1988).
However, such distinctions are of less significance if low income were a good substitute
for deprivation. Furthermore, the capability approach argues that this is improbable to be
the case because people have different and varying needs and they require different
levels of resources in order to achieve the same standard of living. Accordingly, Sen
(2009) believed that there are additional cost allied with disability since disabled people
require a larger amount of resources to reach the same standard of living as able-bodied
people. Moreover, Sen (2009) uses the term conversion factors to refer to this variability
in transforming means into the capabilities or ends. In this discussion of conversion
factors, Sen believed that the mismatch between indirect and direct measures of poverty
has been one of the primary empirical findings from poverty analysis in the field of Social
Policy (Rod, 2012). Thus, the capability approach supports the direct approach to poverty
analysis since it priorities the enhancement of capabilities. As a result the direct
conceptualisation of poverty, social exclusion and deprivation in the field of Social Policy
focus on what people are able to do and be; for example, whether they can participate in
the activities of a society. On the Bases of the above discussion, Townsend (1979)
believed that poverty is a lack of resources obtain the type of diet, participate in the
activities and have the living conditions and amenities approved by the society to which
people belong. Thus, this means that their resources are so poorly below those
commanded by the average individual or family that they are in effect, excluded from
ordinary living patterns, customs and activities (Townsend, Ibid and Rod, 2012). However,
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sustainability comes through enhancing capabilities like education that helps to transform
the individual being or the whole society.
5.3.1 The capability approach and education for sustainable development
Sen (1999) believed that education is seen as an end of development in itself, and he
identified it as a capability to meet basic needs. In this respect education is either facilities
or arrangements that facilitate freedom, as well as a hard set of outcomes, capabilities as
particular skills acquired (Unterhalter et al., 2003). If education is to fully enhance freedom
and development the learning needs of all should be met through equitable access to an
education of such quality that it leads to learning outcomes that ultimately enhance
individual freedoms to be and to do (Bakhshi et al., 2003).
Furthermore, with respect to the capability approach, education must therefore be seen
as a human right not only in terms of access and completion, but also in terms of learning
outcomes. Although the right to fair access to education is officially recognized in many
countries, access to it is still not a right for a large number of people. The capability
approach relates to this question as a person’s right to something must be coupled with
another agent’s duty to provide that first person with that something (Sen, 1999).
Therefore, for education to become a true human right, it has to be seen as a concept
that stretches beyond legislation and conventions signed by countries to include the
accountability of its provision. Furthermore, “while quality is impossible without access,
access without quality is often meaningless to those for whom access is made possible”
(UNESCO, 2003). As a result, quality education relates to effective application of all forms
of knowledge by individuals functioning independently and in relation to others, in order
to help people to see themselves as the main actors in building their own future and the
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future of society. With regard to the capability approach, good education provide valuable
opportunities that lead people to the kind of lives they want to lead, to do what they want
to do and to be the person they want to be (Robeyns, 2005). With regard to the Binga
people, CADEC is assisting young people through payment of school fees so that they
will do what they want and be what they want to be. As a result, this study is anchored on
the Capabilities Approach.
The life skills learning outcomes needed to know, be, and live together are directly related
to the capability set or opportunity set, that is the “potential functioning” or capabilities of
the individual. The practical skills of learning to do, can either be seen as related to the
individual’s basic capability, that is the basic actions that are necessary for survival and
to avoid or escape poverty, or is seen more broadly as the ultimate combined action linked
to achieved functioning, that is what people are able to do or be (Sen, 1999). However,
all theories are open to criticism, below is the shortcomings of the capabilities approach.
5.4 Shortcomings of the capability approach
The capability approach was referred to as an unworkable idea (Rawls, 1999:13) since it
is criticised for incompleteness. The problem indicated relates to the selection of
capabilities. Hence there is profound contestation as to what capabilities should inform
the capability lists for evaluative purposes. Nussbaum (2006) argues that a list of
capabilities chosen by the people may not amount to a morally justifiable list. Thus, a
basic list of capabilities is not acceptable merely because people have agreed on it or
because it has been chosen. The notion of public reasoning in the generation of
capabilities lists has been questioned considering that most African nations are not
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democratic. However, it is possible to draw a list of capabilities for Africa’s development
(Klasen, 2000).
Furthermore, the capability approach was criticised for focusing on the individual at the
expense of the community and other social structures. This is brought by the argument
which says there are many factors within the societal processes and structures that inhibit
the enhancement of freedoms and capabilities. Stewart and Deneulin (2002:68) suggest
an extension of the concept of capability to include valuable structures of living together,
thus, the inclusion of functional families and social contexts deserve more attention in
terms of how they facilitate and stall development. But Robeyns (2005) argues that there
are a number of studies on capabilities that have incorporated the factors that critics are
arguing to be non-existence in the capability approach.
Additionally, the capabilities together with the basic human needs theory did not take into
account poverty caused by economic, political, social and geographical factors. These
factors limit people’s opportunities and resources that enable the achievement of goals
and well-being (Bradshaw, 2006:11). Thus, certain groups in societies are vulnerable
because of discrimination. As a result regardless of the capabilities and competence the
poor are left to fall behind. Again, lack of facilities in the area increases poverty. Thus,
by virtue of living in a poor area, the poor are bound to remain poor (Bradshaw, 2006:
12). Thus, for Davids et al., (2005:41) the solution to poverty is to eliminate structural
poverty through redistribution of wealth and income. Bradshaw (2006:11) believed that
poverty can be eliminated by training and educating people. However, the poor cannot
afford basic education. In the case of Binga district the poor do not have access to
services that can help them to get out of their situation.
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Furthermore, politicians complained that Sen’s emphasis on access to lives we have
reason to value implies a commitment to some objective index for evaluating advantage
whatever those concerned might actually value, thus the capability approach is taken to
imply the political endorsement of a particular conception of the good whatever dissenting
individuals believe, which fails the requirement that the public conception of justice is to
be political not metaphysical. On the face of this appears to present a material dilemma
for Sen’s capability approach; either the capability approach is politically liberal or it is
perfectionist. If it is politically liberal then it must respect individuals’ sovereignty to decide
for themselves what the good life consist in, so it should stop trying to evaluate advantage
and instead support a procedural approach to removing unfreedoms and providing
general purpose freedoms. If it is perfectionist then it should specify and justify its theory
of value.
5.4 Conclusion
All in all basic human needs are physical, psychological, social and spiritual needs without
which existence is impossible. Human needs are not transmitted by a particular culture
or implanted or taught by local institutions. They are universally expressed. Every human
is conscious of them. The articulation of what they represent to each individual is what is
learned. Again human needs are irrepressible, demanding satisfaction no matter how a
society’s regime may seek to suppress or manipulate them. These human needs can be
satisfied differently; their satisfiers differ from context to context and person to person and
are gendered in nature. However, if they are not fully satisfied they result in poverty and
that leads to pathologies. Binga district’s pathologies may include marginalisation and
exclusion from other communities. Max-Neef’s and Sen’s theory advocates for
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development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs (Sustainable Development). Nyerere (1967)
believed that sustainable development is achieved through participatory development.
Thus, the results of this study show that participatory development allows people to
express themselves so that they will become what they want to be in life. Accordingly,
this study argues that CADEC has managed to bypass the criticisms levelled against
NGOs that they cater or immediate relief and basic needs by using participation as a tool
to enhance Binga people’s capabilities. All these concepts are in favour of sustainable
development, because it puts the interest of the affected people at heart. Thus, the
government and NGOs that are involved in poverty eradication like CADEC should focus
on the fundamental human needs, put the needs of people to the fore, allow people to
express themselves and include them in decision making or any one of these. Thus, the
model of human scale development and the capabilities helps in assessing whether
CADEC provides for basic needs, whether it enhances people’s capabilities and whether
it is facilitating sustainable development.
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Chapter 6: Research methodology
6.1 Introduction
The aim of this chapter was to highlight the research methods utilised in this study. The
main objective of the study was to assess whether CADEC provides for the basic needs
of the Binga people or not, whether the capabilities of people are being enhanced through
its operations and whether its projects are sustainable. The results of this study show that
the Binga people are able to work on their own since CADEC only comes to check the
progress. Thus, the researcher collected data based on the research objectives which
included the following; the identification of anti-poverty interventions utilized by CADEC
and whether these strategies contribute to address the basic needs of people in Binga.
Additionally, the research objectives were to find out the perceptions of people in Binga
about CADEC’s poverty alleviation programme and ascertaining the extent to which
capabilities of the Binga citizens have been expanded through the organisation’s poverty
alleviation praxis. Having worked according to the objectives, this study argues that
CADEC provides more that the basic needs of the Binga people, its operation as shown
by the results of the study indicate that it funds development projects and enhances the
capabilities of the people through their participation in its projects. For these research
objectives to be achieved the study had a good population size, sample size and sampling
procedures and these will be discussed in this chapter. Again, the procedure used to
obtain data and the analysis of data will be discussed in this chapter. Below follows the
discussion of the research methodology and design.
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6.2 Research methodology and design
According to Maree (2007), research methodology refers to all the measuring tools,
techniques and procedures adopted in the research project in order to collect, analyse
and interpret research data so that research findings can be deduced. The research
method is described by Kothari (1990:10) as a way of systematically solving a research
problem. Suharko (2007) utilised qualitative research design to study the role of NGOs in
rural poverty reduction in Indonesia and India and found out that NGOs are helping people
to start self-help groups. Thus, in this case, Suharko’s study supports the findings of this
study since self-help groups aim to enhance people’s capabilities so that they can earn a
livelihood. Again, Nyathi (2012), in her study on the evaluation of poverty alleviation
strategies implemented in Zimbabwe in the Binga district, used qualitative research.
Banks and Hulme (2012) also used a qualitative research design in their work on the role
of NGOs and civil society in development and poverty reduction. Similarly, Chinake
(1997) also used qualitative methods to gather her data on the strategies of reducing
poverty in Zimbabwe. Abiche (2004) also used qualitative methods in his studies in
Ethiopia. Similarly, Oyemomi (2003) utilised qualitative methods in doing his research in
Nigeria. Many studies on the strategies used by NGOs to reduce poverty utilised
qualitative methodologies.
However, the qualitative methodologies utilised in the identified studies did not provide
the perceptions of people towards poverty reduction strategies used by NGOs. Again,
studies which employed qualitative methods lacked enough information on the
perceptions of people about poverty reduction strategies. It is against this background
that this study used both qualitative and quantitative methods. The findings of this study
indicate that CADEC is now going beyond the provision of relief and basic needs. It is
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now working on sustainable projects that enhance people’s capabilities. Furthermore, the
two methods were combined so as to cross check the findings. Thus, the mixed methods
approach utilised in this study was directed at ensuring the collection of valid and reliable
data.
Thurmond (2001:254) believed that the advantage of utilizing triangulation is that it
increases confidence in research data, creates innovative ways of understanding a
phenomenon, reveals unique findings, challenges or integrates theories and provides a
clearer understanding of the problem. The usage of both qualitative and quantitative
approaches helped in ensuring that the researcher gets an in-depth understanding of the
strategies used to reduce poverty in Binga. Furthermore, the two research methods were
combined to suite the research questions of this study. Quantitative methods were used
to measure variables that are linked to the research problem in the case study area, such
as the perceptions of CADEC’s beneficiaries about the NGO’s performance with regard
to poverty alleviation, to ascertain the extent to which capabilities of Binga citizens have
been improved through CADEC’s poverty alleviation praxis and to find out the extent to
which the strategies utilised by CADEC contribute to the process of catering for the basic
needs of the people in Binga. On the other hand, the rationale behind using qualitative
methodologies in addition to the collection of quantitative data was that qualitative
research strategies are mainly suitable when gathering social dynamic information related
to human behaviour and the interaction of people. That is, how people make sense of
their lives, experiences and their structure of their world (Baker, 1994). For this study in
particular the qualitative design aspect of this triangulation research strategy was geared
towards gathering information on the poverty alleviation strategies, their
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operationalization mechanisms and their utility in addressing the basic needs, as well as
in enhancing capabilities of the Binga people. The qualitative research methodology was
also used to find out about the sustainability of projects in Binga. Thus, a survey
questionnaire and in-depth interviews were the two research tools which were utilised
during the research process. A survey questionnaire was used to collect quantitative data
and in-depth interviews collected qualitative data.
6.2.1 Quantitative Research design
In order to achieve the objectives of the study the researcher inter alia utilized a
quantitative research design. Gubrium and Sanker (2005: 48-52) are of the view that
quantitative research requires that the data collected should be expressed in numbers
and should be quantified. Various factors will influence it. The methods used to conduct
quantitative research are explanatory, descriptive and experimental. The approach used
in the study involved the systematic collection of quantifiable information, meaning that
the approach used was quantitative. The data entry and statistical analysis were done
using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Since this study adopted a
triangulation methodological approach, it is therefore important to also justify the use of
qualitative research methodology.
6.2.2 Qualitative research design
The research also used the qualitative design in addition to the quantitative method
discussed above. The qualitative aspect of this triangulation geared at gathering
information on the poverty alleviation strategies, their operationalization mechanisms and
their utility in addressing the basic needs of people in Binga. Qualitative research seeks
to understand a social phenomenon within its cultural, social and situational context
without imposing pre-existing expectations upon the setting (Gubrium and Sanker, 2005:
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52; Mouton and Marais, 1990: 204). Hence, it provided a holistic picture about the
strategies utilised by CADEC and their implementation dynamics in the Binga district. This
study rests upon the assumption that a researcher can obtain extensive in-depth data
from ordinary conversations with people (Gubrium and Sankar, 1994:7). Qualitative
research aimed to describe and understand an individual’s experience and life-world
through descriptive processes. So by using in-depth interviews the researcher managed
to gain useful information about the Binga people and their experience with CADEC.
Below are the research instruments utilised in this study.
6.3 Research Instruments
Since the study adopted both quantitative and qualitative methodologies, it also utilised
two research instruments, which are the survey questionnaire and in-depth interviews. A
survey questionnaire was used to collect data on variables that are linked to the research
problem in the case study area, such as the perceptions of CADEC’s beneficiaries about
the NGO’s performance with regard to poverty alleviation, to ascertain the extent to which
capabilities of the Binga citizens have been improved through CADEC’s poverty
alleviation praxis and to find out the extent to which the strategies utilised by CADEC
contribute to the process of catering for the basic needs of people in Binga.
The questionnaire was divided into six parts and all questions aimed to answer the
research questions. The first part elicited data on respondents’ socio-demographics (age,
gender, education and marital status among others). The second part sought to answer
the first research question by asking about the basic of the Binga people needs and the
type of assistance offered by CADEC. Third part aimed to find out about the level of
satisfaction of the Binga people with the services of CADEC. The respondents were
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asked to rate statements ranging from very satisfied, satisfied, neutral, dissatisfied, very
dissatisfied and the positive answer was given the highest value (very satisfied) and a
negative answer was given the smallest value (very dissatisfied). The fourth part tries to
measure the performance and benefits from CADEC and respondents were asked to rate
statements on a Likert scale where 5 = very effective; 4 = effective; 3 = neutral; 2 =
ineffective; 1 = very ineffective. The firth part statements aimed to measure how effective
are the strategies used by CADEC to reduce poverty in Binga and respondents were to
indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement by marking with an X where 5 =
strongly agree; 4 = agree; 3 = neutral; 2 = disagree; 1 = strongly disagree. Lastly the last
group of questions on the questionnaire was about how helpful is CADEC in Binga and
respondents were to rank statements ranging from very helpful to very unhelpful and
neutral. Raw figures were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS) software. Descriptive statistics were calculated for the sample and are provided
in the sections that follow. In the data analysis section, both the quantitative and
qualitative data were utilised, with the later providing a supportive narrative to the facts
already revealed by the former.
On the other hand, in-depth interviews gathered information on the poverty alleviation
strategies, their operationalization mechanisms and their utility in addressing the basic
needs as well as in enhancing capabilities of the Binga people. This also help in the
process of finding out about the sustainability of projects in Binga. The researcher used
two (2) separate in-depth interview guides to collect data, one aimed to collect data from
the beneficiaries of CADEC and the other to collect data from CADEC officials. The
researcher had tested the research instruments (Pilot study) with 32 questionnaires and
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8 in-depth interviews with beneficiaries only. The pilot study was important because it
enhanced the process of adaptation and development of the research instrument in order
to make it suitable for the purpose it was to achieve, and to enhance the researcher’s
familiarity with his tools and tactics. Appropriate adjustments were made before the actual
survey (Oppenheimer, 1992) was conducted at Binga.
6.4 Population
According to De Vos (2005), a population is a set of entities where all the measurements
of interest to the researcher are represented. This research focused on the estimated
population of 138074 people in 21 wards in Binga where there are 11 NGOs. For the
purpose of this study a sample was chosen from the beneficiaries of CADEC.
6.5 Sampling
A sample is a small portion of the total set of objects or persons that comprise the focus
of the study (De Vos, 2005). The study focused on 1 of the 5 NGOs involved in poverty
alleviation programs, namely, CADEC, and 384 of its beneficiaries in the Binga district.
The logic of selecting CADEC is that it is the most prominent NGO dealing with poverty
alleviation in Binga. A sample of 382 was calculated based on the estimated population
size of 138074 using the Raosoft sample size calculator online
(@http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html) at a margin of error of 5%, confidence level
of 95% and response distribution of 50%. On the other hand, 22 in-depth interviews were
constituted with 2 interviews with CADEC officials and 20 with beneficiaries and
respondents were selected on the basis of a purposive sampling strategy. However, out
of 384 questionnaires that were distributed among CADEC beneficiaries for the purpose
of quantitative data collection, the response distribution was very fair as 361
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questionnaires were returned. Thus, the researcher used 361 questionnaires during his
analysis. The researcher did a pilot study before the final collection of data to check the
need for instruments adjustment.
6.6 Pilot study
Prior to conducting the main study the questionnaire and the interview guide for data
collection for this project were pre-tested in the Binga district between January and
February 2013. This was done to enhance the process of adaptation and development of
the research instrument in order to make it suitable for the purpose it was to achieve and
to enhance the researcher’s familiarity with his tools and tactics while at the same time
suitable adjustments before the actual survey was conducted (Oppenheimer, 1992). The
researcher used a pilot study to test the rate of response and willingness of respondents
to answer the questionnaire and interview questions. In other words, the pilot was used
to establish the limitations of the instruments in order to ensure that the final research
instruments were valid and reliable tools.
The researcher had tested the instruments with 32 questionnaires and 8 in-depth
interviews with beneficiaries only. The selected sample size was taken as an
approximated 10% of the total sample size to be used in the actual survey. The total
sample size for the survey was calculated using the Raosoft sample size calculator online
(@http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html). The estimated population of the Binga
district based on census 2012 is 138074. Using the Raosoft online sample size calculator
(http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html) and on the basis of the estimated population of
Binga district, at a standard error margin of 5%, a confidence level of 95%, and a 50%
response distribution, a sample size of 384 was derived. It was on this basis that a sample
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of 32 was used for the pre-test. However, the response distribution was very low, maybe
because of the political situation that was prevailing in the country. The pilot test led to
the restructuring of both the questionnaire and in-depth interview guide so that they could
incorporate some variables that are specific to the enhancement of people’s capabilities
and the sustainability of projects run by CADEC in the fight against poverty. Moreover, it
was through piloting the study that the researcher found it important to interview the
CADEC officials and as a result a separate in-depth interview guide for CADEC officials
was prepared. In order to access the beneficiaries of CADEC’s projects for data collection
purposes, entry was sought from CADEC.
6.7 Gaining entry
Gaining entry was sought through contact by written and informed consent to access the
participants, that is, CADEC officials and CADEC beneficiaries. The informed consent
letter contained the following information in order to gain access and participation from
the participants, namely; the request for their participation in the research, the purpose of
the research, the voluntary nature of the research, the informants’ right to stop the
research at any time, the protection of confidentiality. Participants were invited to
participate by a letter explaining the study as well as their ethical rights during the
research process. Given the prevailing political situation, approaching community
members and other informants would have had the potential to raise suspicion and
threaten the safety of the respondents. The NGO’s support throughout the project was
critical to the success of the field data collection phase since the researcher was given
an official to travel with within different Binga wards which include Manjolo, Lubu and
Simatelele. In Zimbabwe, it is advisable to seek permission from both traditional and
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political structures before any research is conducted in an area. Given the political
instability at the time of the study, communities had been warned against talking to
strangers. For this reason the researcher obtained clearance to gain entry into the
community. The discussion below is about how the collected data was analysed.
6.8 Data analysis
Qualitative data was analysed through content analysis where information gathered
through in-depth interviews was broken down into different themes and categories.
Content analysis allowed the researcher to identify, establish and organize the
relationship between themes emerging from the data. The information collected was
synthesized and used to make valid and necessary inferences on the provision of basic
needs, enhancement of capabilities and on the sustainability of projects run by CADEC.
On the other hand, quantitative data was analysed using the Statistical Package of Social
Sciences (SPSS) which describe, categorize, order, manipulate and summarize the
features of the sample data (Bogdan et al., 1998). Charts, graphs and tables have been
used to illustrate the results of the study.
6.9 Significance of study
This study identified community gardens, the financing of sustainable growth projects,
supplementary feeding, livestock production and educational initiatives as strategies used
by CADEC to reduce poverty in Binga. It suggested possible measures that can help the
organisation to work on better strategies to achieve its goals such as participation and
funding development projects. It is hoped that the study will make the Binga people aware
of the contribution CADEC is making through its community gardens and livestock
production projects in reducing their level of poverty. Furthermore, the study revealed
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some of the challenges CADEC faces with regard to poverty reduction, which has
consequently made it hard for the NGO to achieve its major goals such as scaling up of
beneficiaries and focusing on donor objective at the expense of its goals. This can make
it possible for stakeholders to work out follow-up poverty alleviation turnaround strategies.
Additionally, the strategies for alleviating poverty like participation, financing projects,
educational initiatives and gardens can be used by stakeholders of poverty alleviation
efforts such as the public and private sector policymakers, managers, planners,
coordinators and evaluators of poverty reduction agencies, the poor and the general
public to influence community change or development. Lastly, as this work has social
scientific relevance it is hoped that its findings has added to the body of knowledge we
have, empirical or theoretical, and that other scholars might find new research questions
worth further investigation from the results of the study. Below are the limitations of this
study.
6.10 Limitations of the study
As far as this study is concerned, there are many limitations that the researcher
encountered. Being a case study which focuses on a small area with few NGOs, it may
be inadequate to draw conclusions that generalize the findings across several areas and
organisations dealing with the reduction of poverty in Zimbabwe. In addition, there was
little information on the case study area, Binga. Therefore, the researcher was forced to
use the limited available information with regards to the community profile. This being the
case, the researcher found it difficult to quantify the organisation’s contribution to poverty
reduction in Binga. Another limitation was getting interviewees within stipulated time. The
language was also a problem since the researcher did not understand Tonga language.
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In addition, there were challenges related to costs for transportation to the research sites,
considering the distance the researcher had to travel long to the various community
segments involved. Moreover, the time given was not sufficient enough for the researcher
to fully explore the organisation’s projects in some areas since there was a need to meet
academic deadlines. However, this study was carried out in accordance with the ethical
considerations that were identified in chapter 1.
6.11 Ethical considerations
The information that was gathered in this research was used solely for academic
purposes and was treated with strict confidentiality. Additionally, respondents were
guaranteed anonymity and their rights were respected, that is, they were questioned only
if they are willing. Lastly this study observed the University of Fort Hare ethical protocols
and respondents were required to sign a consent form before the commencement of the
fieldwork.
6.12 Conclusion
This chapter has provided a general overview of the research methods utilised in this
study. The research adopted the mixed methods methodology of both quantitative and
qualitative methodologies. The quantitative method aimed to collect data on quantitative
questions and a questionnaire was used to collect data. On the other hand, in-depth
interviews were used to collect qualitative data. These two instruments were piloted
before the actual study. This helped the researcher to finalise the instruments and to
make adjustments before going to the field. The instruments consisted of questions that
aimed to answer the research questions. Thus, through the utilization of the research
methodology discussed above this study put forward an argument that although NGOs
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are criticised for providing for relief and basic needs only, the operation of CADEC in
Binga shows that it is operating in such a way that enhances the beneficiaries’
capabilities. The results of this study indicate that participation in the projects run by
CADEC leads to the enhancement of capabilities and sustainable livelihoods in the long
run. The following chapter will discuss CADEC’s poverty alleviation strategies and the
satisfaction of the Basic Needs of the Binga people.
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Chapter 7: CADEC, poverty alleviation and the satisfaction of the Basic Needs of
the Binga people
7.1 Introduction
The study’s core argument was that despite the criticisms levelled against NGOs that they
provide for immediate relief and basic needs only (Treasure, 2009:7-10), the activities of
CADEC in Binga indicates in contrast that it enhances people’s capabilities and enables
people to gain a sustainable development. This is supported by the findings of this study
that indicate that the enhancement of capabilities was made possible by involving
beneficiaries in the activities that concern their wellbeing such as gardening, livestock
production and training. The aim of this chapter was to present the findings of this study.
The study presents that the objective of the study was investigating NGOs and their anti-
poverty reduction strategies in Zimbabwe using the case study of CADEC in Binga. As a
result CADEC works with the poorest of the poor so as to reduce their poverty. The results
of this study substantiate that CADEC is practically implementing its goals particularly,
funding sustainable growth projects successfully and involving the poor in decision
making and execution of projects. For the research to measure both the basic needs and
the capabilities of the Binga people, the study was anchored on the fundamental human
needs theory and the capabilities approach.
The fundamental human needs helped in gathering information about the provision of
basic needs such as supplementary feeding, educational initiatives and sustainable
projects that addresses the basic needs of the people. The capabilities focused on the
enhancement of capabilities through participating in projects training, and educational
initiatives. However, some of the anti-poverty interventions such as sustainable projects
and educational initiatives provide for the basic needs and at the same time enhances
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the capabilities of people. As a result there was straddling between this chapter and the
next chapter.
This chapter deals with the presentation and analysis of data that was collected from the
field. This study’s aim was information collection and analysis of data with regard to the
provision of basic needs, enhancement of people’s capabilities and the sustainability of
projects in Binga district. In this chapter data collected was about NGOs and poverty
reduction in Binga in Zimbabwe. Since this study triangulated its research methodologies,
quantitative data collected was analysed using the SPSS and qualitative data was used
to make valid and necessary inferences on the interaction of the Binga people and
CADEC thus qualitative data backed up quantitative data. Hence, due to the size of the
sample, the analysis was limited to frequency distribution tables and cross tabulations
among others and this is explained by the results of the study. Furthermore,
generalisations in the chapters on the research findings or results are made on the basis
of information from the interviews and documents.
This study contends that in spite of the criticisms raised against NGOs that they cater for
immediate relief and basic needs (Treasure, 2009:7-10), the operation of CADEC in Binga
shows in contrast that NGOs can operate in such a way that the capabilities of the
participants can be enhanced or expanded in a way that enables the Binga district to
independently engage in sustainable livelihoods and development. Thus, this study found
out that participating in projects has enabled CADEC to realise and expand people’s
capabilities and participation was identified is a means of gaining a sustainable livelihood.
The results of this study show that CADEC targets the poor. The organisation uses
supplementary feeding, gardens, livestock production, payment of school fees and
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participation among others as strategies for alleviating poverty in Binga. CADEC’s
activities are guided by its mission and vision which are based on the evangelism teaching
of the Roman Catholic Church. The organisation assists the deprived people regardless
of gender, age, marital status and education among others. The results of this study
indicate that the majority believed that CADEC has been able to reduce poverty in Binga
to a greater extent. Clean water was identified as the most pressing human need followed
by food in Binga district. Both men and women are CADEC’s target and they participate
in activities that are enhancing their capabilities.
7.2 CADEC’s target
The results of this study demonstrate that CADEC targets the most marginalised and
deprived people in the societies. Its operations are guided by its vision which is “to see a
society in which the dignity of the human being is paramount and in which exclusion,
discrimination, violence and dehumanising poverty are no more”. Its mission is “to
improve the quality of life of the deprived families by promoting, supporting and sustaining
the development of a whole human being as part of the evangelisation mission of the
church” (Interviewee no. 1 male, June 2013 and documents 1, 2, 3 and 4). Thus, the
results of this study are in line with the vision and mission statements of CADEC since
the organisation is enhancing people’s capabilities and facilitating sustainable livelihoods
through projects aimed at eradicating poverty in Binga. So one can say that CADEC’s
objective comes from the vision and mission statement of the organisation. Thus, table 2
below shows presents the results of the views of people in the target group of CADEC.
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Table 2: CADEC’s target
DO CADEC TARGET THE POOR?
Frequenc
y
Percent Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Not at all 12 3.3 3.3 3.3
Don’t know 111 30.7 30.7 34.1
To some
extent
157 43.5 43.5 77.6
A lot 81 22.4 22.4 100.0
Total 361 100.0 100.0
Source: A Printout of a table derived from the data and findings of this study.
As indicated in the table 2 above (81) respondents believed that CADEC really targets
the poor and 157 respondents believed that it targets the poor to some extent. However,
12 respondents believed that CADEC do no target the poor and 111 respondents were
not sure. Targeting the poor is very crucial since NGOs empowers the poor. The
organization (CADEC) targets marginalized and deprived groups in society regardless of
their faith, political affiliation, gender, age, marital status and level of education. A CADEC
official said “we work with poor people so as to enhance their dignity” (Interviewee no. 1
male, June 2013). Another participant said “CADEC helps those who are poor and those
who cannot afford to have basic needs like food, shelter and clothing” (Interviewee no. 3,
June 2013). Thus, a CADEC official said “…our role is to bring happy faces to enhance
their dignity…” (Interviewee no. 1 male, June 2013). Nyathi’s (2012:67) findings are in
harmony with the results of this study since she believed that NGOs seek to improve
access of services to disadvantaged people. In implementing its programs, CADEC seeks
to capacitate target communities in the districts of operation to be highly participatory in
the development of their communities so as to break the dependency syndrome (Finger,
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2004). In support of this, the coordinator of CADEC said that “we are an arm of the church
mandated to do development and relief in Binga” (Interviewee no. 2 female, June 2013).
For Smillie (1995) CADEC provides a beacon of hope for millions of women, men and
children in times of need and contributes to the development of poor communities. The
section below discusses the gender composition of CADEC’s beneficiaries.
7.3 Gender composition of CADEC’s beneficiaries
The results of the study as shown that CADEC works with both males and females. The
table below shows the gender composition of the respondents of this study who are
CADEC’s beneficiaries.
Table 3: Gender composition of CADEC beneficiaries
Gender
Frequen
cy
Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Male 158 43.8 43.8 43.8
Femal
e
203 56.2 56.2 100.0
Total 361 100.0 100.0
Source: A Printout of a table derived from the data and findings of this study.
From the Table 3 above 43.8% (n=158) of the respondents were males and that 56.2%
(n=203) were females. This implies that both male and females are CADEC’s target and
they participate in its projects. Thus, participating in CADEC’s project means they are
being empowered and their capabilities are expanded to a greater extent. Again, 22
respondents were in-depth interviewed, 20 CADEC beneficiaries and 2 officials. This is
in harmony with Nyathi’s (2012:123) work which also acknowledges that NGOs in Binga
work with both male and females. The subjects interviewed were willing to respond to all
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the questions asked by the researcher, in some instances they went out of their way to
provide the researcher with detailed information that provided useful intuitions on the
activities of CADEC in Binga. However, projects run by CADEC varies according to age
groups of the beneficiaries.
7.4 Age groups of CADEC’s beneficiaries
The researcher managed to distribute questionnaires to both the youth and the elderly.
The ages of the beneficiaries of CADEC are presented in the table 4 below.
Table 4: Age
Age
Frequen
cy
Percent Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Below
15
10 2.8 2.8 2.8
16-25 151 41.8 41.8 44.6
26-35 119 33.0 33.0 77.6
36-45 52 14.4 14.4 92.0
46+ 29 8.0 8.0 100.0
Total 361 100.0 100.0
Source: A Printout of a table derived from the data and findings of this study.
As presented in table 4 above, 10 respondents were under the age of 15, 151
respondents were between 16 and 25, 119 respondents were between 26 and 35, 52
respondents were between 36 and 45 and 29 respondents were above 46 years. This
question was meant to investigate whether the organisation targets all age groups. The
age groups of those who were interviewed were mixed; there were both youth and adults.
This is also in line with Nyathi, (2012:122) who interviewed 20 youth and 20 elderly people
and found out that NGOs in Binga assists both youth and adults. CADEC has
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programmes that are run by the youth and others run by the elderly. CADEC assists the
poor regardless of age, thus the youths are assisted through payment of school fees and
adults are involved in different projects such as gardening, livestock production and craft
that are aimed at alleviating poverty. A Binga community member supported the issue of
fees payment by saying “…CADEC is helping through payment of school fees…”
(Interviewee 19 male, June 2013). Thus, this study indicates that CADEC does not
provide basic needs and cater for immediate relief only but also enhances people’s
capabilities, fosters the attainment of a sustainable livelihood and to facilitate access to
basic human needs.
7.5 Pressing human needs in Binga
The Binga people who were interviewed by the researcher identified clean water,
employment, food, shelter and skills as the pressing human needs in Binga. These needs
are presented in the bar graph below.
Figure 3: Basic needs of the Binga people
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Source: A Printout of a graph derived from the data and findings of this study.
From the figure 3 above water is the most pressing human need (about 172 out of 361
respondents identified it as the most pressing need) in Binga. In Simatelele Ward, rivers
are dying and boreholes are drying down, so people are now travelling long distances to
fetch water. The worst part is that in some rivers like in Simatelele ward crocodiles are
killing livestock and people. This situation is now affecting some of the gardens that were
run by CADEC near rivers and its now making it hard for the Binga people to gain basic
needs and the sustainability of those projects is affected by lack of water. Employment
was identified as the second pressing human need (about 85 respondents), followed by
food (about 47 respondents), then shelter (about 45 respondents) and lastly skills (about
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30 respondents). According to Cohen (1999: 47), poverty is a lack of basic human needs,
such as enough nutritious food, clothing, housing, clean water and health services.
Pressing human needs can be explained by what one man in Binga reported “basically
the basic needs of Binga people are food, clothing and proper health care” (interviewee
no. 4, male, June 2013). Another one said “…The basic needs are jobs…” (Interviewee
20 male June 2013). This is the main cause of dependency and suffering of the Binga
people. Therefore, extreme poverty can cause terrible suffering and death. This implies
that the majority of the Binga people suffer from hunger since Binga is an arid area. Binga
District also suffers from harsh climatic conditions for example extreme high temperatures
and this makes it a drought prone area (Marten, 2010). Again, most parts of the district
are not well suited to agriculture, since temperatures are high, rainfall is generally low and
very erratic, much of the terrain is hilly, soils are poor except in the river valleys. However,
there is a large wildlife population, both within and outside protected areas (Conyers,
2002). As a result the Binga people cannot produce enough food for subsistence
purposes.
Thus, CADEC used supplementary feeding to help those who could not produce enough
food and it is now extending its operations to enhancing the capabilities of the local people
and at the same time enabling them to gain sustainable development. Some identified
employment as the second pressing human need. Employment is a need because there
are few industries and the people are not educated, this makes it hard for them to be
employable (Nyathi, 2012:124). The results of this study show that CADEC’s projects
provides employment to the Binga people and as a result poverty is reduced to some
extent. This was supported by interviewee 21, (male June 2013) who said “…CADEC is
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creating employment for the youth, it’s contributing a lot to our community…” Thus, NGOs
like CADEC chip in, to help people through food aid, education initiatives, shelter
employment and skills among others. All in all, the satisfaction of the identified human
needs can lead to the reduction of poverty in Binga district.
7.6 Assistance from CADEC
CADEC has managed to assist many people in Binga, some of the beneficiaries
acknowledge the assistance from the organisation. The table below presents the findings
on whether people receive aid from CADEC.
Table 5: Assistance from CADEC
Do you get assistance from CADEC?
Frequen
cy
Percent Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
YES 335 92.8 92.8 92.8
NO 26 7.2 7.2 100.0
Total 361 100.0 100.0
Source: A Printout of a table derived from the data and findings of this study.
From the table above the majority of the respondents (92.8%) agreed that they get
assistance from CADEC and 7.2% do not get assistance any more this shows that
CADEC is still helping a number of people in Binga. One of the respondents from
Simatelele ward said “... I give credit to CADEC for everything that I have...” (Interviewee
no. 4, male, June 2013). This shows that she thanks CADEC for helping her to escape
poverty. Another man acknowledges the assistance from CADEC “… I thank CADEC very
much because it gives me maize, cooking oil, beans and other food stuffs. It is also paying
fees for my children….” (Interviewee no. 4, male, June 2013) Another one said “takapihwa
mpongo gore rapfuura” (Interviewee no. 7, male, June 2013), meaning we were given
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goats last year. Another woman said “...Now I feel better because of the aid from CADEC”
(Interviewee on. 10, female, June 2013). All these respondents acknowledge the
importance of CADEC in their everyday lives. Therefore, one can conclude that CADEC
has and is still helping a lot of people to get out of poverty. Thus, this study contends that
the criticism levelled against NGO’s that they cater for immediate relief and basic needs
is not true since the results of this study show that CADEC is helping through sustainable
projects and enhancing local people’s capabilities. The table above shows the number of
beneficiaries who are still benefiting and those who are no longer benefiting from CADEC.
335 of the respondents were still benefiting from CADEC’s activities and 26 were no
longer benefiting. This implies that those who are no longer benefiting are now
independent and are able to provide enough for basic needs.
7.7 The nature of assistance from CADEC
In contrast to the criticisms levelled against NGOs that they cater for immediate relief and
basic needs, the operation of CADEC in Binga shows that NGOs can operate in such a
way that the capabilities of the participants can be enhanced or expanded in such a way
that the Binga district can be capable of independently engaging in sustainable livelihoods
and development. This study argued that participation in projects has enabled CADEC to
realise and expand people’s capabilities and participation is a means of gaining a
sustainable livelihood. The nature of assistance from CADEC ranges from the provision
of basic human needs, enhancement of capabilities, education and facilitating the earning
of a sustainable livelihood.
Figure 4: Nature of assistance from CADEC
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Source: A Printout of a graph derived from the data and findings of this study.
The bar graph above shows that about 98 people were under the food aid program, about
70 were assisted with shelter, about 100 received educational assistance, 67 were
enskilled and about 20 specified the assistance they got from CADEC, ranging from
livestock and different projects. This implies that CADEC focuses on the above named
assistance. However, Nyathi (2012:137-138) believed that some nature of assistance are
not suitable for the Binga people for example food aid is no longer important because
people can produce more for themselves. Those who gained skills did so by participating
in different projects offered by the NGO. One respondent said “… I learnt how to use my
own hands so that I don’t depend on the help of NGOs every time…” (Interviewee on. 3,
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male, June 2013). Another Binga man said “… I got the skills from working in NGOs
borehole maintenance projects and I can repair borehole…” (Interviewees no. 5, 6 and 7
June 2013). CADEC officials testified that “… if there is a specific skill we make sure that
at least three people per ward get it...” (Interviewees no. 1, 2 June 2013). I learnt to make
baskets and am now self-reliant (Interviewees no. 22, June 2013). According to
Document (no. 2), 319 garden members underwent a training on garden management,
nursery management and herbal utilisation. These were plot holders drawn from 15
gardens. The trainings were conducted in conjunction with Tree Africa. Two field days
were conducted during the period under review for the farmers to showcase their garden
produce. The gardens are sustained by group participation. Thus, in this case
participation means that all families in every village or habitation are covered by a program
specifically the poor and most marginalized people. The poor must be involved in the
development processes and benefit from such (Giffen, 2002). This is in harmony with the
words of CADEC official who said “…the community is fully involved and we brought
people on board, we use the problem tree analysis in decision making, and we have never
gone wrong through that approach…” (Interviewee, 1, June 2013).
For Giffen (2002) participation of the poor creates a strong sense of ownership of the
projects and as a result they work whole heartedly. Others were helped through the food
aid programme that gives food to those affected by hunger. About 98 respondents were
under the food aid programme.
However, CADEC stopped giving food to the Binga people in 2012 August and is now
focusing on community projects to help people to start their own initiatives. Some
respondents received education from CADEC. A young man testified that “… I am
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currently doing a course in agriculture and CADEC is paying for everything and I will be
able to find a job and to help my family and to be self-reliant…” (Interviewee no. 4, June
2013). In some instances CADEC pays their fees for them to go to school “… CADEC is
paying school fees for my children...” (Interviewees no. 8 and 10 June 2013 supports the
testimony). However, the majority were not sure about how school fees for their children
was paid by CADEC. This issue of school fees was made clear by one CADEC official
who said “we do not pay school fees directly but we are building blair toilets (latrines) in
schools like Simatelele and Lubu primary and secondary, then we liaise with the
headmaster to exempt students who cannot afford to pay fees from paying” (Interviewees
no. 1 and 2, June 2013). Others were given shelter by the organisation. Through all these
initiatives CADEC has managed to reduce poverty in Binga district. The majority
expressed their gratitude to CADEC for helping in repairing boreholes, food aid, payment
of school fees and being given livestock. Thus, the fulfilment of these needs reduces
poverty to a greater extent.
7.8 Did you get any aid in the last 3 months?
This question aimed to investigate whether CADEC is still operating in Binga district. The
results of this question are presented in the table 6 below.
Table 6: Aid in the last 3 months
Have you received aid in the last 3 months
Frequen
cy
Percent Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Yes 205 56.7 56.7 56.7
No 156 43.3 43.3
100.0
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Total 361 100.0 100.0
Source: A Printout of a graph derived from the data and findings of this study.
From the results provided in the table above it shows that the majority (205) respondents
received aid in the last 3 months and 156 respondents did not. However, some admitted
that they were helped by CADEC but they are no longer getting any help maybe because
they are now independent and they can support themselves. Clark (1995) believed that
NGOs use (two) 2 approaches to reduce poverty, supply and demand or micro or macro
approach. The supply or micro approach, NGOs provides for various basic human needs
of the poor for example food, provision of shelter and payment of school fees among
others. The demand or micro approach, NGOs mobilises and ask what is needed by the
people then work according to people’s needs. Therefore, CADEC uses both approaches
proposed by Clark (1995) to reduce poverty in Binga. But for Nyathi (2012:142), NGOs
are not sufficient enough to reduce poverty. As a result the study identified the main
human needs in Binga and strategies of satisfying them. This enabled CADEC to utilise
properly the ant-poverty alleviation strategies in Binga.
7.9 The anti-poverty interventions utilized and strategies operationalized by
CADEC to fight poverty in Binga
A number of anti-poverty interventions utilized by CADEC in Binga were identified by this
study such as supplementary feeding, sustainable projects such as gardens and livestock
production, educational initiatives and the provision of shelter.
7.9.1 Supplementary feeding
Zimbabwe Red Cross Society Report (2009:3) views supplementary feeding programmes
as deliberate actions by the government and NGOs to assist vulnerable members of
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communities facing food insecurity with highly nutritional food. As the name suggests
supplementary feeding schemes are meant to provide vulnerable community members
with food which is high in nutritional content such as beans, nutritional maize meal and
cooking oil. These nutritional meals if adequately prepared by the recipients help to
reduce incidences of malnutrition. As a result poverty will be minimised. Supplementary
feeding comes as to fill the gap of food insecurity in Binga. Thus, one man said “…I thank
CADEC very much because it gives me maize, cooking oil, beans, and other food stuffs,
on top of that takapihwa chikafu gore rapfuura” (Interviewee no.11 June 2013), meaning
we were given food last year. However, this study found out that the project on food
security (supplementary feeding) stopped in 2012 since people were taught to grow food
for subsistence and were given livestock to keep for themselves. Nyathi (2012:138)
supports the stoppage of food aid because it was no longer necessary since people were
able to produce for themselves. This means that the majority of the Binga people was
suffering from hunger since Binga is an arid area. This is because the Binga district suffers
from harsh climatic conditions for example extreme high temperatures and this makes it
a drought prone area (Marten, 2010 in Nyathi, 2012:2). Thus, most parts of the district
are not well suited for agriculture, since temperatures are high, rainfall is generally low
and very erratic and the terrain is hilly and sandy except in the river valleys. Again, there
is a large wildlife population, both within and outside protected areas (Conyers, 2002:6-
10). Because of the harsh climatic conditions the Binga people grow drought resistant
crops like millet, and sorghum. As a result the Binga people could produce enough food
for subsistence purposes until they started growing drought resistant crops. Therefore,
extreme poverty has been causing terrible suffering and death. In response to the
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situation in Binga, CADEC used to offer food to the Binga people through its
supplementary feeding programme. CADEC used to give food stuffs like beans, cooking
oil, porridge, peas, and maize to the Binga people. On the question of the satisfaction
about supplementary feeding the majority of the respondents (56.5%) were very satisfied,
38.0% respondents were satisfied, 3.6% were undecided, and 2.0 were not satisfied by
CADEC’s supplementary feeding.
Surprisingly, in their effort to reduce poverty, the majority of the respondents reported that
they do not receive any aid from the government, one beneficiary said “… we do not get
any aid from the government…” (Interviewee no. 9, June 2013). Someone said “no
government help at all” (Interviewees on. 11, female, June 2013). Another one said “…
Kana...” (Interviewee no. 3, June 2013) meaning not at all. These are some of the
responses about whether the Binga people get assistance from the government. Since
NGOs supplement the role of the government poverty remains a problem if the
government does not help its people (Riddle et al., 1992:143) because NGOs alone
cannot fully end poverty in Binga (Nyathi 2012:142-143). However, the role of the
government was made clear by the CADEC manager who said “… sometimes we work
with the government and sometimes we use its facilities and resources to assist the Binga
people in providing feeding to the public…” (Interviewee no. 1, June 2013). The local
people are not aware of the invisible hand of the government. It is very unfortunate that
CADEC reported that it had stopped giving food directly to the Binga in 2012 August, but
it is fortunate that it is helping people to produce their own food. This is based on “don’t
give me fish but teach me how to fish” motto used by the organisation to encourage
participation in its projects that aim to benefit the local Binga people. Nyathi (2012:136)
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advocates for the development of social amenities rather that the provision of foodstuffs
since poverty is not a lack of food only.
However, CADEC’s supplementary feeding program in Zimbabwe stopped because it
was facing challenges that were a result of macroeconomic instability experienced in the
country since 2000. The characteristics of this macroeconomic instability are
hyperinflation, cash shortages, unemployment, increasing poverty and food insecurity
(Red Cross Society, 2009:2). Macroeconomic instability made it almost impossible to
adhere to the set budgets as the food costs increased beyond budgeted amounts and the
attendant food insecurity and poverty meant that the supplementary feeding programmes
become oversubscribed and as a result CADEC and other NGO’s could not cope with the
large number of beneficiaries (Red Cross Society, Ibid).
7.9.2 Educational initiative
CADEC in Binga is helping people through educational initiatives and the educational
achievement of the respondents are presented in the table below.
Table 7: Educational achievement of the Binga people
Educational achievement
Frequen
cy
Percent Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
No formal education 23 6.4 6.4 6.4
grade1-7 153 42.4 42.4 48.8
form 1-6 151 41.8 41.8 90.6
university
degree/degree
34 9.4 9.4 100.0
Total 361 100.0 100.0
Source: A Printout of a table derived from the data and findings of this study.
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The results shown in the table above indicates that the Binga people are able to acquire
basic education that is form 1 to form 6 (151 respondents). Some manage to acquire the
minimum education of grade 1 to 7 (153 respondents). There were 34 respondents with
university degrees or diplomas and 23 respondents without formal education. The low
literacy rate can be a result of lack of money to send children to school. The Binga people
are generally regarded as very backward, underdeveloped and illiterate (Schuthof and
Boerenkamp, 1991:14).
However, some of those who managed to acquire education acknowledge that they were
assisted by CADEC. CADEC has managed to help a number of people to acquire
education and as a result the poverty of the Binga people will be minimised in the long
run because they will get jobs and earn better incomes. Some who received education
from CADEC reported that “… I am currently doing a course in agriculture and I will be
able to find a job and to help myself to be self-reliant” (Interviewee no. 3, June 2013). The
organisation is also paying school fees for children to go to school. This is in line with
what was said by one respondent in Binga who said “… CADEC is paying school fees for
my children...” (Interviewee no. 8, June 2013). CADEC developed a strategy to pay school
fees for the deprived students, the manager of CADEC said “we are building blair toilets
in schools like Simatelele and Lubu and we liaise with the headmaster so that he exempt
those who cannot afford to pay fees from paying school fees” (Interviewee no.1, June
2013). This will enable the Binga people to get formal jobs and to earn better incomes.
For Sen (2000:5) poverty is more than income, it includes capability deprivation and
income can be seen as a means of enriching capabilities. Thus, Sen (1985:78) argues
that the solution to poverty is to expand human capabilities such as education. This is in
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line with Tom’s (2010) argument which says the principal route out of poverty is work and
it is hard to get a proper job without an education. Sen (2000:5-6) went on to say the
enhancement of human capabilities should also go hand in glove with the expansion of
productivities and earning power. This means an emancipated man should produce
results and earn more so as to reduce the level of poverty. On the same note, Davids et
al., (2005:41) believed that the poor will never get out of poverty irrespective of the
capabilities and competencies they have without exposure to services like education.
However, Nyathi (2012:123-124) attributes low literacy in Binga to deprivation of the rights
of the girl child who did not have equal opportunity to acquire education as the boy child.
Thus, Tom (2010:5) in support of (Nyathi, 2012), argues that without rights the poor will
never get out of poverty. This is the other reason why Binga is still underdeveloped
because it still practices traditional or cultural values and does not respect the rights of
the girl child. Some families in Binga prefer to educate a male child as compared to a girl
child. This worsened poverty among women as compared to man. However, CADEC is
working of such inequalities to empower the girl child and to reduce poverty in the long
run. The next section discusses the sustainability of projects run by CADEC.
7.9.3 Sustainable projects
CADEC has sustainable projects that are run by the local people. These projects include
gardening, livestock projects, craft, agricultural projects and water harvesting projects that
help to provide for basic needs. Basing on the results it shows that CADEC is able to
help a number of people in Binga through different activities. Again the craft industry is
believed to be very helpful (56.3%) in providing employment for women in Binga and
43.8% of the respondents believed that it is helpful. Suharko (2007:57) argues that the
involvement of NGOs in alleviating poverty has changed the life of the poor in developing
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countries. This is evidenced by the results of this study where one respondent said “... I
give credit to CADEC for everything that I have; my life has changed as a result of
CADEC’s help. I was given goats and now I am a man among man....” (Interviewee no.
8, June 2013). In the Tonga culture wealth is measured by the number of livestock one
has. Therefore, NGOs by designing and implementing innovative program interventions,
they have enhanced the quality of life of the poor. They have facilitated the poor to reach
a first foothold on the development ladder and reduces dependency syndrome and at the
same time sustainable projects make the attainment of basic needs possible (Suharko,
2007:57). Projects like gardens are mostly run by both men and women. They grow
vegetables such as rape, tomatoes, carrots, beetroot, sweet potatoes, potatoes and
bananas among others. CADEC has stopped supporting these projects and locals are
running them on their own. CADEC only visits at times to check the progress. The
manager said “… we stopped assisting them directly and we only check the progress from
time to time. They are managing everything on their own and they are succeeding…”
(Interviewee on. 2, June 2013). The results of this study show that people are satisfied
with the gardening projects since they get food and money from them. CADEC’s role in
these projects is to link them to the market. The coordinator of CADEC said “… to make
it easy for the Binga people we managed to link them to the markets like TM, OK
supermarkets and local vendors…” (Interviewee no. 1, June 2013). However, the gardens
could not reach out to outside markets due to the poor road network. The size of the
gardens could also not produce much to cater for consumption and large scale selling.
Nevertheless, the projects seem to be continuing smoothly except the problem of water
to water the vegetables. One participant suggested that “… we need an underground
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water pump for our project to continue because rivers are drying up…” (Interviewee no.
12, June 2013). The other problem encountered is the one of animals both domestic and
wild that attacked their crops. Fortunately CADEC has managed to fence the gardens for
the Simatelele and Lubu ward people. However the fencing does not help when it comes
to animals like elephants and buffalos because they can easily break the fencing and
attack the crops. But to a greater extent the projects have assisted the in reducing the
poverty of the Binga people. The section below examines the extent to which CADEC’s
strategies contributed to the basic needs of the people in Binga.
7.9.4 The extent to which CADEC’s strategies contribute to the basic needs of the
people in Binga
The results of this study indicate that the strategies used by CADEC contribute to the
basic needs of the Binga people to a greater extent. The food aid of the organisation
provided for the basic need of the Binga people. Agro inputs like seeds and fertilizers also
help the local people to be able to produce food for subsistence purposes. This is in line
with CADEC report (2011) which says a total of 511.1 million tons of fertiliser were
distributed in the three years (2008-2010). The fertilizer distributed comprised of basal
fertilizer, the top dressing fertilizer and the gypsum. For 2008/9 a total of 86.6 million
tonnes was distributed in two wards (Simatelele and Lubu), while 162 million tonnes were
distributed in 2009/10 and 262.5 for the 2010/11 cropping season in Lubu, Sinamagonde,
Kabuba and Simatelele. There has been a change in the attitude of people towards the
utilisation of fertiliser. Ammonium Nitrate fertiliser was highly valued by farmers in Lubu,
Sinamagonde and Kabuba as compared to Simatelele (Document no.2). This enabled
many people to produce food for subsistence.
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Again, CADEC offers the poor livestock so that they will own for themselves. Community
participants also contributes to the attainment of the basic needs of the Binga people
because they work to earn a living. As a result they also become enskilled through
participating in different activities. A number of respondents reported that “we were taught
to fix boreholes and how to keep livestock” (Interviewee no.5, June 2013). The manager
of CADEC added on by saying “if there is a particular skill we make sure that at least
three people in each ward get it” (Interviewee no. 1, June 2013). They gain skills because
they fully participate in different projects offered by the NGO. Another respondent from
Manjolo ward in Binga said “I learnt to use my own hands so that I don’t depend on the
help of NGOs every time. I got the skills from working in NGOs’ projects” (Interviewee
no.3, June 2013). Thus, participation means that all villagers are covered by a project
specifically the poor and most marginalized people. They must be involved in the
development processes and benefit from such (Giffen, 2002:1-4). This is the same as
what the Binga people are doing, they are involved in different activities and they benefit
by being able to acquire basic needs for survival. The women in bee keeping projects
reported that “… honey is used for medical purposes, subsistence purposes, and some
of it is sold and the money is shared among the members...” (Interviewee no. 13, June
2013). For Giffen (2002:2), participation of the poor creates a strong sense of ownership
of the projects and as a result they work whole heartedly. Participation creates
employment and it enskills the local people and the end result is that the Binga people
are helped by CADEC’s projects to a greater extent to escape poverty.
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7.9.5 The perception of the Binga people about CADEC’s poverty alleviation
programme.
Beneficiary’s perceptions on the performance of CADEC in poverty alleviation processes
are represented in a table below.
Table 8: Performance of CADEC in poverty alleviation
5 4 3 2 1
A How effective is CADEC in facilitating a
process by which the Binga people make
their own initiatives about development?
48.2% 48.2% 2.2% .6% .8%
B How effective is CADEC’s food aid as a
way of reducing poverty in Binga?
29.1% 61.2% 5.5% 3.0% 1.1%
C How effective is CADEC’s food aid in
meeting the basic needs of people in
Binga?
36.0% 51.2% 10.5% 1.7% .6%
D How effective are the activities of CADEC
such as crop and livestock production in
reducing poverty in Binga?
36.0% 50.1% 9.1% 4.4% .3%
E How effective is CADEC’s projects in
enhancing people’s capabilities.
35.7% 47.1% 11.1% 4.2% 1.9%
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How effective is CADEC’s decision making
process with regard to community
development in Binga?
36.6% 46.0% 11.6% 5.0% .8%
Source: A Printout of a table derived from the data and findings of this study.
From the table above the majority (48.2%) believed that CADEC’s facilitation process in
decision making are very effective. Again 48.2% believed that it is effective, 2.2% were
not sure, 0.6% believed that it is ineffective and 0.8% said it is very ineffective. Thus, the
results indicate that CADEC facilitates people to make their own initiatives to a greater
extent. This freedom to make their own initiatives give them a strong sense of the project,
hence the success of the initiative.
Food aid is another strategy used by CADEC to reduce poverty in Binga, 29.1% of the
respondents believed that it is very effective and 61.2% were of the view that it is effective
whilst 5.5% were undecided, 3.0% said it is ineffective and 1.1% were of the view that it
is very ineffective. Again food aid also meets the basic needs and has impacted many
lives of the Binga people to a greater extent. Food aid was important because the Binga
people require food aid every year because they have been deprived of their needs in all
facets; first the government relocated them to create Lake Kariba for the hydroelectric
plant. They were not compensated. They were dumped on very arid, tsetse fly infested
mountainous areas adjacent to game reserves and national parks where they have to
suffer from wildlife like elephants that destroy their few crops and hyena’s and lions that
kill them or their domestic animals (Musona, 2011:4). However, for Nyathi (2012:133)
supplementary feeding was no longer necessary since people were producing enough by
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themselves. Thus, Nyathi (2012:137) believed that some strategies of reducing poverty
are not suitable in Binga and they end up not being sustainable.
Crop and livestock production are perceived to be very effective (36.0%) and effective
(51.2%), 10% not sure and 2.3% respondents perceived crop and livestock production to
be ineffective in reducing poverty in Binga. The ineffectiveness of the project can be
caused by what some called greediness, they believed that if they are to work without the
supervision of CADEC some will take advantage to dominate others and as a result the
projects will fail in the long run. This is illustrated by the table below where respondents
were asked a question on the event that CADEC ceases to operate in Binga, will the
projects successfully provide for the basic needs for the present generation and the
generation to come.
Table 9: If CADEC stops operating in Binga will the projects continue?
CADEC’s projects will continue in its absence.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Valid
strongly disagree 75 20.8 20.8 20.8
Disagree 99 27.4 27.4 48.2
not sure 91 25.2 25.2 73.4
Agree 78 21.6 21.6 95.0
strongly agree 18 5.0 5.0 100.0
Total 361 100.0 100.0
Source: A Printout of a table derived from the data and findings of this study.
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The results in the table above indicate that in the event that CADEC ceases to operate in
Binga, the majority disagrees (99 respondents disagree) and 75 respondents strongly
disagree that the projects will continue to provide for the basic needs of the Binga people
and the generations to come. This means that they doubt the continuity of the projects
without the assistance of CADEC. However, 91 respondents were not sure about the
continuity of CADEC’s projects wen CADEC stops operating in Binga. Interviewee on. 4,
male June (2013) said “… without CADEC’s help projects will not address the basic needs
of people and projects will stop...” On the other hand a few have a positive mind about
the continuity of projects wen CADEC is gone. 78 respondents agree that the projects will
prosper in the absence of CADEC and 18 respondents strongly agree that projects will
continue. Hume (2001:136-141) believed that projects can be successful only if NGOs
move away from direct service delivery to advocacy. Mpofu (2011:17) attributed the
failure of projects to inadequate and unreliable information on the target beneficiaries.
Nyathi (2012:141) is of the view that the failure of projects is due to homogenization of all
communities and as a result some strategies are not suitable for other communities. In
the event that CADEC cease to operate in Binga, the projects will not fully provide for the
basic needs for the present generation and the generation to come.
7.10 Conclusion
All in all the current chapter has given an overview of CADEC, poverty alleviation and the
satisfaction of the Basic Needs of the Binga people. It has been argued throughout this
chapter that CADEC provides basic needs through supplementary feeding, gardening,
livestock production and educational initiatives. Some of the strategies like sustainable
projects and educational initiatives provide for the basic needs and straddle for the
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enhancement of capabilities. This study concludes that CADEC is an organisation of the
people. This is because CADEC is committed at assisting communities that live in
marginalized rural areas to have better lives through programs that are designed and
geared towards meeting the needs of concerned communities that are usually left behind
in development. As a result CADEC reduces poverty and manifests the idea of charity,
loves and sharing in the bid to eliminate poverty. The research found out that the Binga
people have been assisted to a greater extent by CADEC. The services of CADEC satisfy
the Binga people, the performance and benefits are effective, the strategies are good and
CADEC is helpful in Binga. As a result poverty has been reduced to a greater extent in
Binga. The following chapter discusses the findings of the study with regard to the
enhancement of people’s capabilities. The following chapter confirms the argument of this
study by presenting that CADEC goes beyond the criticisms of providing for basic needs
only by enhancing capabilities through strategies that were identified in the following
chapter
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Chapter 8: Enhancement of capabilities and sustainable development of the
activities of CADEC
8.1 Introduction
To reiterate the argument of this study, most NGOS have operations limited to relief and
satisfaction of basic needs only. However, CADEC goes beyond that in such a way that
it facilitates long-term and sustainable development through enskilling and capability
enhancement. The previous chapter indicated the satisfaction of the basic needs of
people through supplementary feeding, sustainable projects, and community gardens.
However, some antipoverty alleviation strategies like sustainable projects and
educational initiatives transgresses from providing for the basic needs to the
enhancement of capabilities. Thus, the previous chapter utilised much of the fundamental
human needs element and this current chapter utilised the elements of the capabilities
approach. As a result this chapter argues that CADEC enhances the capabilities of the
Binga people through training, educational initiatives and participating in projects. The
argument in this chapter is in line with the core argument of this study since CADEC’s
operation proves that it enhances the capabilities of people together with providing for the
basic needs. Therefore, this study investigated beyond the provision of services, it
investigated the enhancement of people’s capabilities and the sustainability through the
utilization of a combination of the fundamental human needs and the capabilities
approach. The results of this study show that enhancement of capabilities empowers
people and promotes equality and reduces inequality. Again, empowerment also
determines the ability to extend opportunity and to enhance capabilities. This is ensured
through participatory development, where community members are fully involved in the
activities that concern them. Thus, De Graff (1986:15-16) argued that NGOs should
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encourage community participation so as to mobilise resources and increase direct
decision making. Similarly, Interviewee no 3, June (2013) believed that the mobilization
of people and resources reduces poverty in the long run. Nyathi (2012: 65-66) supports
the findings of this study to some extent since she identified income generating projects,
advocacy, agriculture, short term loans and relief and welfare as strategies to reduce
poverty in Binga. Thus, participation and sustainable projects seem to be the best
strategies of alleviating poverty in poor communities like Binga.
By so doing CADEC is using participation as a tool to reduce poverty and at the same
time the beneficiaries are being empowered. Thus, the results of this study indicate that
CADEC together with the community people are the one running sustainable these
projects. To be specific CADEC is there to check progress. CADEC official witnessed this
by saying “…. We stopped doing the projects for them; we now check the progress and
link them to the markets…” (Interviewees on 1 and 2, June 2013). This links well with the
Capability Approach which is conceptualized in terms of people’s capabilities to function
which is their effective opportunities to undertake the actions and activities that they want
to engage in and be whom they want to be (Sen, 1999). The capability approach regarded
poverty as the scarcity of some basic capabilities. These capabilities vary from that vary
from being well raised, being amply clothed and sheltered to community participation and
being able to appear in public without shame (Sen, 1995).
However, one element of the theoretical framework of this study, i.e. the capabilities
approach is against the income poverty measurement and it demonstrates a distinction
between the actual capabilities an individual has. Sen argues that they are essentially
important and their income, which is merely a means to such opportunities and whose
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importance is both instrumental (Sen, 2009: 233) and contingent (Rod, 2012). Thus, this
again relates to the distinction between direct and indirect concepts of poverty (Ringen,
1988). The direct concept of poverty focus on cases where living standards fall below a
certain level and typically assume that this is because of a lack of resources. On the other
hand, indirect perceptions of poverty focus on cases where resources fall below a certain
point and typically assume that this results in a low standard of living. However, such
distinctions are of little significance if low income were a good alternative for deprivation.
But the capability approach holds that this is unlikely to be the case since people have
varying needs and they require different levels of resources in order to achieve the same
standard of living (Ringen, 1988).
Again this study went on to look at the sustainability of these projects, whether they can
produce for the basic needs of the present generation and the generation to come.
Enhancement of capabilities through participation goes along sustainability since
participation gives the poor a part in initiatives designed for their benefit in the hopes that
development projects will be more sustainable and successful if local populations are
engaged in the development process. Accordingly, sustainable is both an end and means
that is sustainable stewardship of resources is an end in itself and it provides conditions
or means for livelihoods to be sustained for future generations. Thus, this study was
anchored on both Max-Neef’s basic needs and Sen’s capabilities approach. These
theories are concerned with the human condition, the basic need focused on the
satisfaction of human needs and the capabilities approach on the enhancement of human
capabilities. The researcher used questions that are directed to the enhancement of
capabilities and sustainability of CADEC’s projects to gather useful important information
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about the Binga people’s experience. These questions are analysed in the paragraphs
below.
8.2 The enhancement of capabilities in Binga
The capabilities of the Binga people are enhanced by CADEC through participating in
different activities like gardening, livestock keeping, repairing boreholes and fixing fences.
In table 10 below the Binga people rated on a scale their level of satisfaction on how their
potentials are enhanced through participating in different activities run by CADEC.
Table 10: the satisfaction of people by the way their potentials are enhanced
I am satisfied with how people's potentials are enhanced
through participating in different CADEC's activities
Frequ
ency
Percent Valid
Percent
Cumulativ
e Percent
Valid
very dissatisfied 1 .3 .3 .3
Dissatisfied 5 1.4 1.4 1.7
Neutral 9 2.5 2.5 4.2
Satisfied 147 40.7 40.7 44.9
very satisfied 199 55.1 55.1 100.0
Total 361 100.0 100.0
Source: A Printout of a graph derived from the data and findings of this study.
The majority 199 respondents were very satisfied, 147 respondents were satisfied with
how their potentials are enhanced. 1 respondent was very dissatisfied, 5 respondents
were dissatisfied and 9 respondents were undecided. Their capabilities are enhanced
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through participating in various activities. Some are practicing gardening projects in their
wards, they were assisted on how to grow, what to grow and when to grow. However,
CADEC stopped directing the projects and the Binga people are now running the projects
on their own. In Lubu and Simatelele wards the gardens are a success and CADEC only
assesses the progress in these gardens and it links the beneficiaries to the markets.
These gardens are run by both men and women. Thus, by assisting through asking them
on what to do helps CADEC to run away from what Nyathi (2012:146) calls the
dependency syndrome. This dependency is causing the failure of many projects because
donors decide for the poor and some project will be useless to the benefit of the poor.
Accordingly, the central argument of the study says CADEC provides for more than just
immediate relief and basic but also enhances people’s capabilities and facilitates
sustainable livelihoods in Binga through participation as to run away from dependency
syndrome. Participation also empowers women in Binga since they are the ones involved
in projects like craft and bee keeping. Furthermore, CADEC has managed to integrate
people since they work together in community gardens water point committees and other
different projects. Thus, one can contend that the shortcomings levelled against NGOs
that they provide basic needs only are wrong since CADEC in Binga has proved to be
enhancing people’s capabilities and facilitating sustainable development. In support of
the above, Hume (2001:136-141) believed that NGOs are now shifting from direct service
provision to sustainable projects. However, some NGOs end up supporting political
advocacy so that their interest will be supported.
8.2.1 Community gardens as an integral strategy to sustainable livelihoods
The introduction of gardens by CADEC in Binga aimed at assisting households to
contribute to food security and income generation to the households. There are gardens
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in Lubu, Sikalenge and Simatelele wards. There were not even a single garden when
CADEC got into Lubu and Simatelele. CADEC hoped that group members would benefit
not only through increased household income but also through diversifying their diets.
Community gardens are reinforced by the fact that members share vital resources such
as water point(s), latrine(s), garden inputs and markets. These resources are not
available to individual households but only to garden group participants. Again,
participating in groups around a commonly shared natural resources improves the
management of such resources. These are also working well in bringing together the
support group members. So far there are 27 gardens, 16 in Lubu, 8 in Simatelele and 3
in Sikalenge. In Sikalenge ward gardening was being implemented at household level.
However in some ward like Sianzyundu gardening could not be implemented due to water
challenges. According to the outcome evaluation for CADEC in 2011, the challenges are
experienced because 58% of the households rely on a perennial river, 28% rely on a
borehole, 9% use water from springs, while the other 5% rely on a seasonal river,
perennial dam, and perennial well, seasonal well or sand abstraction. The common
watering system across the garden is the use of watering cans or buckets. The members
of the gardens were trained in various aspects including garden establishment, nursery,
nutrition, crop production, pest and disease, market linkages and record keeping control
among others (Documents 1, 2 and 4).
Gardening used to be seasonal but now because of CADEC it is an all year round activity
and production levels have increased. The food security situation has improved
particularly for Simatelele as they cannot rely on field crops because its either they are
destroyed by elephants or climatic challenges resulting in low yields. This has not gone
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well with the neighbouring ward Manjolo as they no longer have a market and production
levels in these two wards have increased. The common vegetable in the gardens were
dark green leaves, tomatoes and onions. These gardens are run independently without
the help of CADEC. The gardens are providing for the basic needs of the people and their
potentials are being enhanced. The projects are sustainable to a greater extent since
community members are able to train others on the activities of gardening. Consequently,
these gardens prove that CADEC do not only provide for immediate relief and basic needs
but is also concerned about expanding the capabilities and sustainable livelihood of the
Binga people.
8.2.2 Water Point Committees
Since water is a big problem and was identified as the most pressing human need by this
study, CADEC has been working with the newly formed Water Point Management
Committees with the aim of improving the management and maintenance of village based
water points. It was hoped that group members or Binga community would eventually
benefit through sustainable access to water. The organisation has managed to establish
6 water point committees (Documents 2 and 4). These water point committees have
managed to equip people with the technique that brings clean water to the communities.
These techniques include repairing boreholes and digging wells. Despite enhancing the
capabilities of the Binga people the effectiveness of CADEC’s facilitation needs to be
measured.
8.3 The effectiveness of CADEC’s facilitation in development
The results of this study show that CADEC helps the Binga people to start their own
initiatives about development. In the gardens the Binga people are able to decide what to
grow, this shows that they have control over the project and it increases a sense of
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ownership. Thus, one can believe that the Binga people have been empowered with the
ability to make and influence decisions that affect their wellbeing. Oakley (2001:39)
believed that empowering people is relevant to poverty reduction strategies. The Binga
people are guided by motivational statements for example the walls of CADEC offices are
written “don’t give me fish but teach me how to fish”. Thus, this statement talks a lot, it
implies that people should work for a living not just depend on aid from the NGOs. The
statement is true since it means, simply giving food to a poor or needy person is the least
one can do for people because they will not be hungry today. However, they will get
hungry tomorrow again. Therefore, if you teach people to get food by themselves or to
earn money to get food and other things they needs, it means a lot to them for their
lifetime. Consequently, this study argues that community organisations, participation and
involvement in decision making processes are crucial grounds for building sustainable
well-being and pliability to poverty and disaster in Binga, Zimbabwe. Development should
focus on promoting community activities where beneficiaries are the primary actors for
development and advocacy and development of social amenities (Nyathi, 2012:137).
This is in line with the views of Max-Neef (1991) who believed that development is people-
centred, participatory and environmentally sound. As a result, development should
involve economic growth, equitable distribution, enhancement of people’s capabilities and
expansion of their choices. It gives top precedence to poverty elimination, integration of
women into the development process, self-reliance of people and protection of the rights
of indigenous people. Thus, sustainable agriculture makes a community mostly self-
sufficient and resilient. CADEC provides this level of needs for the majority of the Binga
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people through different agricultural projects like, gardening, animal husbandry and
access to clean water. Therefore, criticisms levelled against NGOs that they cater for
immediate relief and basic needs only does no hold since the organisation has improved
its services to the enhancement of capabilities and sustainable development. The
facilitation of CADEC in people making their own initiatives is effective as indicated in the
table below.
Table 11: The effectiveness of CADEC’s facilitation of development initiatives in
Binga
Effectiveness of CADEC in facilitating development initiatives?
Frequen
cy
Percent Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
very
ineffective
3 .8 .8 .8
Ineffective 2 .6 .6 1.4
Neutral 8 2.2 2.2 3.6
Effective 174 48.2 48.2 51.8
very
effective
174 48.2 48.2 100.0
Total 361 100.0 100.0
Source: A Printout of a graph derived from the data and findings of this study.
The table above shows that 174 respondents believed that the facilitation process is very
effective. Similarly, 174 respondents believed that the facilitation process is effective, 8
respondents were not sure, 2 respondents were of the view that it is ineffective and 3
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respondents believed that it is very ineffective. The Binga people are also empowered
through decision making; they are included in the decisions about projects that affect
them. In the case of CADEC assisting the Binga people they should be put first and
participate in development because they know their real situation and they are aware of
what they really need. In other words, the enhancement of Binga people’s capabilities
can be called Sustainable Livelihood since it puts people at the heart of development. It
recognizes that the poor are the bosses of multifaceted assets. The sustainable approach
searches for an understanding of the numerous livelihoods that people follow and the
changes occurring over time, the resources used in livelihood activities, the constraints
faced and available opportunities. In Binga livelihood depends on agriculture, hunting,
fishing and trade. Their opportunities are very limited since the resources in their proximity
are used to benefit the whole country not the Binga people. The approach aims to build
the capacity of the local people so that they can be able to develop or propose their own
livelihood strategies. The sustainable livelihoods approach involves action in enhancing
the participation of people in planning their livelihood intervention options and adopting
people-centred strategies; raising the human capital status of households and
communities; promoting formal and informal employment and ensuring appropriate
utilization of natural resources (UNDP, 2001: 24). In the case of CADEC assisting the
Binga people they are being put first and they are participate in development activities
because they know their real situation and they are aware of what they really need. Thus,
development in this case should be a bottom - up approach. Nyerere (1967) suggests
participatory development as a means of developing people. Hence, participatory
development is good since it involves people in planning, development, implementation
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and evaluation of projects and activities that affect them (Nyerere, Ibid). Thus, the Binga
people are being given the opportunity to realize their potential and be the authors of their
own history and achieve self-actualization through the socialisation of skills as part of the
experience of being a participant in CADEC’s projects.
8.4 Socialisation of skills through crop and livestock production
In this study, it has been established that the skills of the Binga people has been
socialised through crop and livestock production. The Binga people are enskilled through
working in agricultural projects of CADEC and livestock projects. In Manjolo ward the
majority of the beneficiaries reasoned that “… we received goats from CADEC and we
are breeding them for our own benefit…” (Interviewee no. 5, statement supported by
interviewees 6, 7, 9, 12 and 14, June 2013 and documents 1 and 2) they learnt how to
keep and breed goats in their community. Some learnt to breed guinea fowls. One
respondent explained how they breed guinea fowls, “…. We take the eggs of a guinea
fowl and put them in a hen’s nest so that the hen will hatch and keep the chicks as hers,
an individual has more than 50 guinea fowls, even the youth and school going age groups
owns some guinea fowl. We sell the guinea fowls to nearby lodges and hotels in Victoria
Falls. Each guinea fowl is sold for 7 dollars…” (Interviewee no. 11, statement supported
by interviewees 2, 12 and 14).
The beneficiaries of small livestock underwent some training prior to receiving the
livestock. This was to equip them with the skills in the management of the livestock. One
training per year was conducted. The trainings were conducted in conjunction with Vet,
Agricultural Extension (AGRITEX) and CADEC. Zimbabwe Republic Police (ZRP) was
also involved in the trainings wherein they gave a talk on stock theft. These projects have
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created employment for a number of people in Binga and poverty has been reduced to a
greater extent in Binga district. Thus, this study argues that CADEC goes beyond the
provision of basic needs and catering for immediate relief but also enhances people’s
capabilities and promotes sustainable development through educational activities and
other enskilling processes
8.5 Enskilling through educational initiatives
The findings of this study indicate that, CADEC has managed to enskill a number of
people through assisting them to further their studies or through payment of school fees.
One respondent reasoned that “... I am currently doing a course in agriculture and CADEC
is paying for my studies...” (Interviewee no. 4, June 2013). Some were enskilled through
participating in different activities for example fixing borehole. About 4 individuals in
Manjolo and Simatelele wards said “we were trained to repair boreholes and now we can
earn a living from that, they have managed to provide clean water for the communities of
Binga” (Interviewee no. 5, June 2013). Furthermore, the youth in Binga are assisted to go
to school through payment of school fees, one CADEC official specified how they are
helping the poor to pay their fees, “... We are building latrine toilets in schools to avoid
diseases and we liaise with the headmaster to exempt students from paying school fees.
We target those who cannot afford the fees...” (Interviewees no 1 and 2, June 2013). The
educational needs of people in Binga are satisfied with CADEC in collaboration with other
NGO’s like Ntengwe for Community Development. They use a motto derived from Nelson
Mandela’s quotation which goes like, “… education is the only weapon we can use to
change the world...” (Mandela brainyQuote.com retrieved 15 august 2013). Therefore,
the youth in Binga are being armed to face challenges of the world through education. In
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support of this Sen (1999:4) contended that education is a foundation of development in
itself and is a capability of meeting the basic needs of people. Another woman said “…
our children can now go to universities to pursue their careers…” (Interviewee 22 female,
June 2013) Thus, education for Sen, (Ibid) is perceived as either facilities or
arrangements that enable freedom, as well as a “hard” set of outcomes, capabilities as
particular skills acquired (Unterhalter et al., 2003:2). For education to fully enhance
freedom and development the learning needs of all people should be met through
equitable access to quality education that leads to learning outcomes that finally enhance
individual freedoms to be and to do (Bakhshi et al., 2003).
The statement “don’t give me fish, teach me how to fish” (documents 1, 2 and 3) also
applies to enskilling. This means that if you give a person human basic needs he wants
for example food, he will not gain the necessary knowledge to be able to get it himself. If
one teaches it means giving knowledge to someone. Give man knowledge on how to get
basic needs for himself, and he will be able to get food himself. Thus, this supports the
argument of this study as CADEC is enhancing people’s capabilities through teaching
them different things that enables them to gain a sustainable livelihood. Interviewees 1,
19, 20, 21and 22 support this by saying they have leant different skills from interacting
with CADEC and they are now able to utilize those skills for the benefit of the community
or personal.
8.6 Possibilities for the projects to continue operation without CADEC in Binga
This is a very important question concerning the continuity of CADECs projects when
individuals are running them on their own. The majority doubt the continuity of the projects
in the absence of CADEC. The failure of projects in the absence of CADEC is attributed
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to individual greediness, mismanagement of resources, inequality and vandalisation. One
respondent argues that “… I don’t see the projects going anywhere in the absence of
CADEC, we need its guidance all the time…” (Interviewee no 4, June 2013). This shows
that they cannot work on their own. This respondent’s view is in line with Nyathi (2012:
87) who believed that NGO’s projects are not sustainable because they bring superficial
change in the communities they work in and some strategies are not suitable for Binga.
However, from a capability perspective the capabilities of the Binga people have been
enhanced to a greater extent since they are now able to start development projects on
their own than depending on aid. One CADEC official said “…In some areas we have
stopped operating directly, once in a while we visit the projects to monitor the progress...”
(Interviewee, 1 June, 2013)
The Binga people are now able to fix their own boreholes to get clean water; they are also
able to grow agricultural products for themselves and for commercial purposes and to
keep domestic animals. CADEC officials supported this by saying “…We have trained
people on environmental health and Para vets-people who were trained to cure animals
and prevent some diseases…” (Interviewee 1, June, 2013)
The agricultural projects are reported to be a success as well as the guinea fowl and goat
projects. Thus, sustainable projects also provide for the basic needs and at the same time
they create employment for the Binga people. As a result, CADEC is helping people a lot
since 90% of the population in Binga is poor and requires humanitarian aid every year
(Chege, 1999:2-8). The Binga people are actively involved in CADEC’s projects; this
increases a sense of ownership and control over their projects and as a result they benefit
from such. The respondents in this study showed a positive attitude towards the activities
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of CADEC in their community. All in all, one can say that Binga has the capabilities for
development and has a sustainable livelihood since a household may be enabled to gain
sustainable livelihood security in many ways, for example, through ownership of land,
livestock, aid, right to grazing land, fishing, hunting or gathering and employment with
adequate remuneration among others. However, the question remains, has CADEC’s
goal of poverty reduction been achieved?
8.7 Has CADEC’s goal of poverty alleviation been achieved?
The table below presents the results on the question about whether the goal of alleviating
poverty of CADEC has been achieved.
Table 12: Has CADEC’s goal of poverty reduction has been achieved?
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Yes 277 76.7 76.7 76.7
No 84 23.3 23.3 100.0
Total 361 100.0 100.0
Source: A Printout of a table derived from the data and findings of this study.
From the table above almost everyone admitted that CADEC has managed to achieve its
goal of reducing poverty in Binga; 76.7% (277) respondents believed that the goal was
achieved. 23.3% (84) respondents are of the view that the goal is not yet achieved. This
shows that the assistance from CADEC is satisfying the majority of the Binga people.
However, CADEC officials said “we are trying hard to reduce poverty but we have not yet
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fully achieved our goal of a poverty free Binga” (Interviewees no 1 and 2 June 2013).
However, “…from evaluations and testimonies I think we are in the right direction in terms
of reducing poverty in Binga district…” (Interviewee 1, June 2013)
Thus, Nyathi (2012:134) agrees with the officials since she is of the view that the goal of
poverty reduction has not yet been achieved since the strategies used by NGOs do not
address the needs of the poor. For her, NGOs use the wrong strategies in communities
they assist. However, Mpofu (2011:15) believed that NGOs are a pillar of development
and growth providing a firm foundation that enables people to sustain and maintain their
lives. It is believed that their primary objective is to achieve improvements in the quality
of lives of deprived individuals through a process that unites people and adds meaning
and value to their lives (Mpofu, 2011:15-17). Accordingly, one can say NGOs like CADEC
has managed to integrate people since they work together in different projects like bee
keeping and craft. All this is done with the hope to reduce poverty in Binga. However
people completely lack the freedom of choice Gasper, (2002:456-8).
8.8 Conclusion
This chapter has demonstrated how the capabilities of the Binga people have been
enhanced by CADEC and how sustainable the projects are. The results of this study
indicated that people’s potentials have been enhanced through participation, working in
CADEC projects as teams, training for example, to fix boreholes and to keep animals like
goats, cattle, guinea fowls and hens. Some sustainable projects were supported through
CADECs funding. Thus, some of the projects seem to be sustainable, since CADEC
reported that it stopped assisting people, it only checks the progress of the projects now
and then. The findings discussed in the this chapter authenticates the argument advanced
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in this study that despite the criticisms levelled against NGOs that they provide for
immediate relief and basic needs, the operation of CADEC in Binga proves that it has
enhanced the capabilities of people through participating in projects, training and
education. This argument emanated from the utilization of triangulation that enabled the
collection of data related to the provision of basic needs and enhancement of capabilities.
Furthermore, it is through the usage of a combination of the basic needs approach and
the capabilities theory the study managed to identify how CADEC has transgressed from
being a charitable organisation focusing on basic needs and immediate relief only to
enhancing the capabilities through enskilling, educational initiatives and funding
sustainable projects. However, some of the community members doubt the continuity of
the projects because of individual interests. But from the researcher’s point of view there
is a high probability of the continuity of the CADEC’s projects in the absence of CADEC.
This is evidenced by the way projects are being run now without CADEC’s assistance
although with constant check of the organisation. The results of this study are novel in the
sense that they presented what CADEC is doing in Binga. The results have demonstrated
that CADEC has crossed the border from focusing on basic needs to the expansion of
people’s capabilities in Binga. This also makes the argument put forward in this study
novel since the operation of CADEC has straddled the general criticism levelled against
NGOs of catering for immediate relief and basic needs alone to the enhancement of
capabilities and enabling the attainment of sustainable livelihoods. This was supported
by CADEC’s operations that aim to educate and train people to do things for themselves.
Thus, this is based on the organisation’s aphorism “don’t give me fish but teach me how
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to fish” (documents 1, 2 and 3). The following chapter will conclude the study and give
recommendations to other researchers.
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Chapter 9: Conclusion
9.1 Introduction
The central argument advanced by this study is that despite the criticisms that NGOs
cater for immediate relief and basic needs only, the operation of CADEC in Binga proved
in contrast that it can operate in such a way that enhances people’s capabilities so as to
ensure sustainable development. This is evidenced by the results of this study that proved
that CADEC is enhancing people’s capabilities, financing sustainable projects, taking
educational initiative and encouraging participation together with training to expand the
skills of the Binga people. Again, some anti-poverty interventions used by CADEC such
as sustainable projects and educational initiatives satisfy both basic needs and enhance
the capabilities of the Binga people. This chapter presents the conclusions of the study in
relation to the research questions in order to put forward the outcomes of the study. The
rationale behind the research was to investigate NGOs and poverty reduction strategies
in Zimbabwe using the case study of the Catholic Development Community (CADEC) in
Binga. Since the study aimed to gather information on the expansion of capabilities and
the catering for human needs, it was framed within the Max-Neef model of fundamental
human needs and the capabilities approach of Amartya Sen.
The model of human fundamental needs focused on the provision of basic needs to the
people and the capabilities approach focused on the enhancement of people’s
capabilities. CADEC is working towards this through different activities like gardening and
livestock production. An integration of elements of the two theories was employed to
answer the research questions, using a mixed methods research approach. Thus, this
study employed qualitative and quantitative research methods in undertaking the
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research. The core principles of the integrated model include the fact that the NGO should
provide for the basic needs at the same time as enhancing the capabilities of the affected
people and ensuring sustainability of projects in areas they operate. This is in harmony
with the argument put forward in this study that the criticisms levelled against NGOs that
they cater for immediate relief and basic needs only (Treasure 2009:7-10) is wrong since
the operation of CADEC proved in contrast that it can operate in such a way that
enhances people’s capabilities so as to ensure sustainable development.
The use of triangulation in this study enabled the researcher to use both a survey
questionnaire and an in-depth interview for data collection. The theoretical and
methodological frameworks utilised therefore enhanced our understanding on how anti-
poverty strategies are used to alleviate poverty in Binga. The mixed method approach
employed was meant to obtain information on the research objectives relating to the
identification of anti-poverty interventions utilized by CADEC and the extent to which
these interventions contribute to addressing the basic needs in Binga. Additionally, the
study aimed at determining the perceptions of people about poverty alleviation
programme and ascertaining the extent to which the capabilities of Binga citizens have
been improved through CADEC’s poverty alleviation praxis. Below is the core argument
of the study.
9.2 Core argument of the dissertation
The study examined NGOs and poverty reduction strategies in Zimbabwe through an
evaluation of the activities of CADEC in Binga. The results of the study indicated that
Binga is very poor and marginalized and its people require humanitarian aid every year.
As a result, a number of NGOs have been working to reduce poverty in Binga and up to
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this point they are perceived to be efficient, effective and flexible (Marschall, 2002:22).
However, regardless of the rising status that NGOs have won for themselves and their
work for the past years, their contribution to development remains limited (Edwards et al.,
1992:14). This is despite the fact that various evaluations of the achievements of NGOs
view them as instigators of development wherever they are located. NGOs play a
significant role in poverty reduction and provide services in the various communities in
which they operate (De Beer et al., 2000). Nevertheless, these successes have not
translated into a thoroughgoing developmental breakthrough and therefore, there must
certainly be something erroneous somewhere. Maybe the projects are not good or they
are good but poorly executed (Suharko, 2007:17). Specifically the study was mainly
concerned about whether CADEC provides for the basic needs, whether it enhance
people’s capabilities and whether its projects are sustainable.
Therefore, it is against this framework that this study was motivated. It is argued in this
study that despite criticisms levelled against NGOs that they cater for immediate relief
and basic needs, the operation of CADEC in Binga shows in contrast that NGOs can
operate in such a way that the capabilities of the participants can be enhanced or
expanded in such a way that the Binga district can be capable of independently engaging
in sustainable livelihoods and/or development. This study argued that participation in
projects has enabled CADEC to realise and expand people’s capabilities and participation
is a means of gaining a sustainable livelihood. For Sen, livelihood means gaining a living
whilst capabilities are both an end and means of livelihoods and a livelihood provides the
support for the enrichment and exercise of capabilities (an end) and capabilities (a
means) enable a livelihood to be achieved. Therefore, it is argued in this study that
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sustainability is both an end and means, that is, sustainable stewardship of resources is
an end in itself and it provides conditions or means of livelihoods to be sustained for future
generations. Thus, livelihood can be defined as adequate stocks and flows of food and
cash to meet basic needs. As a result a household may be enabled to gain sustainable
livelihood security in many ways. For example, this study found out that through
ownership of land, livestock, right to grazing land, fishing, hunting or gathering,
employment with adequate remuneration and participating in development projects, such
as, gardening, the Binga people have managed to have a sustainable livelihood. It can
be argued in this study that the sustainable livelihoods approach involves action in
enhancing the participation of people in planning their livelihood intervention options and
adopting people-centred strategies; raising the human capital status of households and
communities; promoting formal and informal employment; and ensuring appropriate
utilization of natural resources.
Many studies on the strategies used by NGOs to reduce poverty have placed much
attention on the provision of immediate relief and basic needs. However, this study
investigated CADEC’s provision of immediate relief and basic needs, the enhancement
of people’s capabilities and the sustainability of the projects run by CADEC in the Binga
district. The study found out that, CADEC has been present in Binga for over 25 years,
carrying out long-term activities in poverty alleviation and assisting communities that live
in marginalised rural areas to have better lives through programs that are designed and
geared towards meeting the needs of concerned communities that are left behind in
development. From the results of this study, it can be deduced that the enhancement of
capabilities empowers people and promotes equality and reduces inequality and as a
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result participants work on the projects wholeheartedly. This is in line with the view of
Giffen (2002) who believed that the participation of the poor creates a strong sense of
ownership of the projects and as a result they work wholeheartedly and are able to escape
poverty. However, the detrimental impact of inequality is that it is a barrier to reducing
absolute poverty and hinders the fulfilment of a variety of human rights, including the
capacity to be heard. Empowerment also determines the ability to extend opportunities
and to enhance capabilities. Thus, this study argues that empowerment is ensured
through participatory development, where community members are fully involved in the
activities that concern them. In support of this, De Graff (1986, in Chinake, 1997: 49)
argued that NGOs should encourage community participation so as to mobilise resources
and increase direct decision making.
Since this study looked beyond the provision of relief aid and basic needs, it identified
community gardens, livestock production, educational initiatives and participation as
strategies to reduce poverty in the Binga district. Belshaw and Coyle (2001: 60) identified
orphanages as a way of reducing poverty in Ethiopia. For Chinake (1997:48) land reform
in Zimbabwe and community participation are the other strategies used to reduce poverty
in Zimbabwe. Chinake’s (1997: 49) findings correspond with the findings of this study
since she believed that NGOs should encourage community participation so as to
mobilise resources and increase direct decision making. Nyathi (2012: 65-66) supports
the findings of this study to some extent since she identified income generating projects,
advocacy, agriculture, short term loans and relief and welfare as strategies to reduce
poverty in Binga. Hence, it can be argued that participation and sustainable projects are
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the best strategies that NGOs should use to help alleviate poverty in poor communities
like Binga.
This study identified participation as a tool to reduce poverty and at the same time the
beneficiaries are being empowered through projects like gardening, livestock production
and craft. The community’s people are the ones running these projects. Although, CADEC
only helped the community to start the projects, it is the community which is now running
them own its own. Thus, development should include the emancipation of people’s
capabilities to function and to take advantage of the available opportunities to undertake
the actions and activities that they want to engage in so as to be whom they want to be.
In fact according to the capability perspective, poverty is lack human capabilities (Sen,
1995). For this reason, the role of income has some question marks in poverty
measurement. Sen (2009) believes that the capabilities an individual has are also as
essentially important as income.
Furthermore, this study went on to look at the sustainability of these projects, whether
they can produce for the basic needs of the present generation and the generation to
come. It is argued that the enhancement of capabilities through participation brings about
sustainability since participation gives the poor a part in initiatives designed for their
benefit in the hope that development projects will be more sustainable and successful if
local populations are engaged in the development process. Sustainable is both an end
and means, that is, sustainable stewardship of resources is an end in itself and it provides
conditions or means for livelihoods to be sustained for future generations. Hence, it can
be argued that by designing and implementing innovative program interventions, NGOs
have enhanced the quality of life of the poor. They have facilitated the process through
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which the poor can have a first foothold on the development ladder thus reducing the
dependency syndrome amongst them. Similarly, sustainable projects makes the
attainment of basic needs possible. It is for these reasons that this study was anchored
on Max-Neef’s basic needs and Sen’s capabilities approach. The study argues that these
theories are concerned with the human condition, the satisfaction of human needs and
the capabilities approach on the enhancement of human capabilities. The data collected
and the literature review indicate that CADEC has managed to reduce poverty and
empower the Binga people through participation.
The results of this study show that CADEC embarked on the enhancement of people’s
capabilities and sustainable projects since it had stopped its supplementary feeding
project in August 2012. Supplementary feeding programmes are deliberate actions by the
government and NGOs to assist vulnerable members of communities facing food
insecurity with highly nutritional food. Supplementary feeding schemes are meant to
provide vulnerable community members with food which is high in nutritional content such
as beans, nutritional maize meal and cooking oil. These nutritional meals if adequately
prepared by the recipients help to reduce incidences of malnutrition (Red Cross Society
Report, 2009:3). The results of this study indicate that the majority of the respondents
reported that they do not receive any aid from the government. However, the role of the
government was made clear by the CADEC manager who reported that they work with
the government and sometimes use its facilities and resources to assist the Binga people
in providing feeding. The local people are not aware of the invisible hand of the
government. It is very unfortunate that CADEC reported that it had stopped giving food
directly to the Binga in August 2012, but it is fortunate that it is helping people to produce
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their own food. This is based on “don’t give me fish but teach me how to fish” aphorism
used by the organisation to encourage participation in its projects that aim to benefit the
local Binga people. This statement talks a lot as it implies that people should work for a
living and not just depend on aid from the NGOs. Accordingly, it can be argued that in the
case of CADEC the statement is true since it means simply giving food to the poor or
needy people is not enough as they will get hungry again tomorrow and in the future.
CADEC believes that if it teaches people to get food by themselves or to earn money to
get food and other things they need, it means a lot to them for their lifetime.
Therefore, this study argued for community organisations, participation and involvement
in decision making processes as crucial grounds for building sustainable well-being and
pliability to poverty and disaster in Binga, Zimbabwe. Hence, it can be argued that
development should focus on promoting community activities where beneficiaries are the
primary actors for development. This is in line with the views of Max-Neef who believed
that development is people-centred, partaking and environmentally sound. As a result,
this study confirms the theoretical framework of this study since the operation of CADEC
in Binga shows that development is not just economic growth but equitable distribution of
resources, expansion of grassroots’ capabilities and increasing their choices. It should
give top priority to poverty elimination, integration of women into the development
process, self-reliance of the people and protection of the rights of indigenous people. For
instance, sustainable agriculture makes a community mostly self-sufficient and resilient.
This is why CADEC is trying to alleviate the poverty of the majority of the Binga people
through different agricultural projects like gardening and animal husbandry.
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However, CADEC’s supplementary feeding program in Zimbabwe was facing challenges
that were a result of macro-economic unsteadiness experienced in the country since
2000. This caused macroeconomic instability like hyperinflation, cash shortages,
unemployment, increasing poverty and food insecurity (Red Cross Society, 2009:2). It
also made it almost impossible to adhere to the set budgets as the food costs increased
beyond budgeted amounts and the attendant food insecurity and poverty meant that the
supplementary feeding programmes become oversubscribed. Consequently, CADEC
and other NGO’s could not cope with the large number of beneficiaries in Binga district
(Red Cross Society, Ibid)
The projects of CADEC are said to have enskilled a number of people to acquire basic
needs and participation in these projects has helped people to escape poverty. This
enskilling is ensured through participation and CADEC has managed to integrate people
since they work together in different activities. For Sen (1985:78) the solution to poverty
is the expansion of human capabilities such as education. This is in line with Tom’s (2010)
argument which says the principal route out of poverty is work and it is hard to get a
proper job without an education.
All in all, one can say that Binga has the capabilities for development and sustainable
livelihood since households may be enabled to gain sustainable livelihood security in
many ways. Community participation also contributes to the attainment of the basic needs
by the Binga people because they work to earn a living. As a result they also become
enskilled through participating in different activities.This study argues that the strategies
used to alleviate poverty are effective, although the Binga people are still in poverty but
the strategies are helping in the reduction of poverty in the district. However, Nyathi’s
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(2012:136) study found different. For her the strategies used for poverty reduction are not
very effective and the Binga people are still in poverty.
9.3 Recommendations
Based on the strength of this study, with its comprehensive conceptual framework and
analysis of primary data, other research programs can use this study as their starting
point. The results of this study were derived from a particular socio-economic context, in
particular, a rural context. Similar research projects in other geographical areas,
especially poor rural areas and groups with different socio-cultural backgrounds, are
needed in order to assemble a more comprehensive understanding of NGOs and their
poverty alleviation strategies.
Owing to the fact that NGOs do not usually employ qualified personnel, reliable
knowledge on the needs of the community and is wanting projects that suits their
beneficiaries. Hence, the study recommends that NGOs should employ more qualified
personnel who know and understand the implications of certain situations, particularly
those related to poverty alleviation. They also need to source some more donations in
order to ensure that there is enough resources for poverty alleviation.
Owing to the fact that the dependency syndrome associated with NGOs has made their
projects to fail in the long run, Nyathi (2012:137) recommended that NGOs should
undertake projects that assist community members to learn to help themselves.
Furthermore, Nyathi recommended that NGOs should not do everything for the
community members, but should work with them. In addition, the proper application of the
sustainable livelihoods approach can help NGOs to assist the poor realise their
capabilities.
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Similarly, welfare departments focus more on the provision of relief and immediate aid
need which solves the problem but not the root cause of the problem. As a result, this
study recommends for NGOs to change from service delivery to developmental activities
in bringing about an outlook change which is more oriented towards empowering
communities. Again, the Department of Social Welfare should develop strong links with
the community in order to provide inputs such as methodological expertise, administrative
support and financial assistance. With the help of NGOs, the Welfare department should
also take a down to business approach in supporting community strategies, by
encouraging and supporting the poor in the community. This may include recruiting,
training and supervising support persons in the community to enhance their potential to
assist the poor.
Moreover, the poor people in remote areas are said to have been forgotten by the
government (document, 2), they are in deep poverty and cannot come out of their situation
on their own or with the assistance of NGOs alone. Therefore, this study is recommending
for the governments to redress the deepening poverty at the national level to implement
relevant and effective policies which can protect the rights of the poor especially the
marginalised including the Binga people. Free social services should be accessible to the
poor living in difficult conditions. In addition, subsidized services should be accessible to
the poor who cannot afford to procure them. The study revealed that some Binga people
are poor because they were forced to resettle in arid and sandy areas not suitable for
agriculture; such poor need the help of the state.
The results of this study indicated that the growth of plants and the survival of animals
are made difficult in Binga as a result of the shortage of water. Hence, in order to ensure
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the survival of their plants and animals in Binga, it is recommended that a powerful water
pump be made available to enable them to access water and to continue providing for
their basic needs through agriculture.
9.4 Limitations of the study
This study has some limitations; the researcher sampled only 384 individuals thus being
a case study which focuses on a small area with few NGOs it is inadequate to draw one
conclusion across several areas and organisations dealing with the reduction of poverty.
The research was affected greatly by the political situation in Zimbabwe making the
researcher’s instrument the focus group discussions difficult to implement. Since the
focus group discussion involves a number of people, it was going to raise a political alarm
against the political parties. To avoid this, the researcher utilised in-depth interviews to
collect qualitative data. However, the later instrument did not have enough questions to
address the issues of capability enhancement of the local people and sustainability of the
projects offered by CADEC in Binga. The researcher had to probe for more information
relating to the capabilities and sustainability of their projects during these interviews.
9.5 Conclusion
This chapter concludes that CADEC is helping the Binga people to a greater extent. The
people of the Binga district are being helped to cater for their basic needs by working in
gardens, keeping livestock and other projects. Some of the projects such as sustainable
projects and education straddle from satisfying the basic needs to enhancing people’s
capabilities. This supports the argument of the study that rest upon the idea that the
criticisms posed against NGOs that they cater only for immediate relief and basic needs
(Treasure, 2009:7-10) is not correct because the operation of CADEC in Binga proved
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that through training, education, sustainable projects and participating, the capabilities of
people have then enhanced. Thus, it can be deduced that CADEC is a charitable
organisation mainly aimed at assisting marginalized communities to have better lives
through programs that are designed and geared towards meeting their needs. Its
operation is guided by the role of the church in community and environmental
management (Redekop, 2000). As a result, this study concludes that the Binga people
have been assisted to a greater extent by CADEC. The services of CADEC satisfy the
Binga people, the performance and benefits are effective, the strategies are good and
CADEC is helpful in Binga.
This was achieved through the use of triangulation. The use of triangulation in this study
increased confidence in research data, created innovative ways of understanding the
phenomenon under study, revealed unique findings and integrated the basic needs and
capabilities theories. This was done through direct referencing using qualitative data to
back up quantitative data. It also provided a clearer understanding of the anti-poverty
strategies and how they are operationalized in Binga by CADEC. The usage of both
qualitative and quantitative approaches helped in ensuring that the researcher gets an in-
depth understanding of the extent to which the capabilities of the Binga people are
enhanced and it also ensures that the findings of the study are valid and objective as the
two approaches do complement each other. As a result poverty has to a greater extent
been reduced in Binga.
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Appendix 1
Survey questionnaire on NGOs and poverty reduction strategies in Binga,
Zimbabwe
Dear participant
This questionnaire is meant for obtaining information on NGOs and poverty reduction in
Zimbabwe: The case of the Catholic Development Commission (CADEC) in Binga. The
study is part of the requirement for the Master of Social Science (Sociology) qualification.
I therefore request your cooperation in completing the questionnaire. The information you
provide will be used for academic purposes only and I assure you of the confidentiality of
your responses and anonymity as a respondent.
Thank you for your participation
Yours sincerely
Walter M Mhaka
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Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities
Department of Sociology
Informed consent and declaration of participation
Participant’s name……………………………………………….
Researcher: Walter M Mhaka
Title of the study: NGOs and poverty reduction in Zimbabwe: The case of CADEC in
Binga.
I declare that I will voluntarily participate in this research that has been explained to me
and I will cooperate by sharing my honest experience. I understand that the interview is
part of a research project and that the information will be treated confidentially and
published anonymously for research purposes only. I agree to being interviewed and my
participation is voluntary, I am at liberty to withdraw from the interview at anytime.
Signed at………………………………. date………………….
Signature: (participant)…………………………..………..
Signature: (researcher)……………….…………………….
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Section A. Demographic information
1. What is your gender?
Male 1 Female 2
2. What is your age?
Below 15 16- 25 26-35 36-45 46+
1 2 3 4 5
3. What is your highest level of educational achievement?
No formal education Grade 1-7 Form 1-6 University degree/ diploma
1 2 3 4
4. What is your occupation?
Employed Self-employed Unemployed Other (Specify)
1 2 3 4
5. What is your income in US dollars ($) if employed?
150 and below 151-250 251-350 351-450 451+
1 2 3 4 5
6. What is your marital status?
Single 1 Widowed 2 Divorced 3 Married 4
Section B. Assistance from CADEC
7. What are the most pressing basic needs of people in Binga?
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food shelter employment Clean water Skills Other specify
1 2 3 4 5 6
8. Do you get assistance from CADEC?
Yes 1 No 2
9. What is the nature of assistance do you get from CADEC?
Food aid Shelter Education Skill acquisition Other
1 2 3 4 5
10. Have you received any form of aid (e.g. food aid) in the last 3 months?
Yes 1 No 2
11. In terms of the assistance from CADEC, has it been successful in reducing your level
of poverty?
Strongly agree Agree Not sure Strongly disagree Disagree
5 4 3 2 1
12. Would you say that your life as an individual or family has changed because of the
aid you get from CADEC?
13. In your view, do the strategies or projects (food aid, education initiative, agro-forests
projects) of CADEC really target the poor and their basic needs in Binga?
Changed
significantly
Changed little Don’t
know
Did not change Did not change at all
5 4 3 2 1
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A lot To some extent Do not know Not at all
4 3 2 1
Section C. Level of satisfaction
14. The following questions try to measure your degree of satisfaction with the services
of CADEC in Binga. Please indicate your response by marking with an X where
appropriate (where 5 = very satisfied; 4 = satisfied; 3 = neutral; 2 = dissatisfied; 1 = very
dissatisfied.)
5 4 3 2 1
a I am satisfied with CADEC’s supplementary feeding in
meeting basic needs of people in Binga.
b I am satisfied with the role of CADEC in poverty reduction
through the provision of seeds and fertilizers
c I am satisfied with the facilitation role of CADEC in poverty
reduction processes in the areas of crop and live stock
production
d I am satisfied with the approach of CADEC in solving
community development problems
e I am satisfied with the participation of the local people in
CADEC’s projects in Binga
f I am satisfied with how people’s potentials are enhanced
through participating in different CADEC’s projects in
Binga.
Section D. Beneficiary’s perception on the performance of CADEC in poverty alleviation
processes.
15. The following questions try to measure the performance and benefits from CADEC.
Please indicate your response by marking with an X where appropriate (where 5 = very
effective; 4 = effective; 3 = neutral; 2 = ineffective; 1 = very ineffective.)
5 4 3 2 1
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a How effective is CADEC in facilitating a process by which the
Binga people make their own initiatives about development?
b How effective is CADEC’s food aid in meeting the basic
needs of people in Binga?
c How effective are the activities of CADEC such as crop and
live stock production in reducing poverty in Binga?
d How effective is CADEC’s decision making process with
regard to community development in Binga?
e How effective is CADEC projects in enhancing people’s
capabilities
f How effective is CADEC’s decision making process in
including locals to make their own decisions about the
projects they benefit from
Section E. Effectiveness of the strategies used by CADEC
16. The following statements try to measure how effective are the strategies used by
CADEC to reduce poverty in Binga. Please indicate your degree of agreement or
disagreement by marking with an X. (Please rank these statements, where 5 = strongly
agree; 4 = agree; 3 = neutral; 2 = disagree; 1 = strongly disagree.
5 4 3 2 1
a CADEC’s crop and live stock projects are directed to the
poor and they socialise skills and create opportunities for
self reliant practices among the Binga people.
b CADEC’s poverty reduction strategies address the various
aspects of poverty such as lack of education, hunger and
lack of freedom in Binga.
c Community members actively participate in CADEC’s craft,
bee keeping and agro-forest projects.
d Community members are fully involved in decision making
about projects directed at achieving long term goals.
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e CADEC’ supplementary feeding has impacted many
people’s lives since its creation by providing for basic needs.
f CADEC’s supplementary feeding/food aid are meeting the
basic needs of the people in Binga.
g CADEC is willing to assist Binga people to meet their basic
needs through supplementary feeding and different
projects.
h CADEC has enskilled a number of people through its
educational initiative and by so doing increased their
capability for self reliance.
i CADEC’s agro-forest projects are a source of employment
to the Binga people.
j CADEC’s poverty reduction strategies do not address the
various aspects of poverty such as education, hunger and
freedom of the Binga people
k Through water harvesting techniques, CADEC has
managed to assist towards the reduction of soil erosion in
Binga.
Section F. CADEC’s help
17. The following statements try to measure how helpful CADEC is in Binga. Please
indicate your answer by marking with an X. (Please rank these statements, where (5 =
very helpful; 4= helpful, 3= neutral; 2 = unhelpful, 1=very unhelpful).
5 4 3 2 1
a How helpful is CADEC’s supplementary feeding in satisfying
basic needs
b How helpful is CADEC’s craft industry in providing
employment for women in Binga.
c How helpful is CADEC’s bee keeping activities in providing
for the basic of the Binga people.
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d How helpful is CADEC’s water harvesting techniques in
preserving the environment?
18. In the event that CADEC cease to operate in Binga, the projects will successfully
provide for the basic needs for the present generation and the generation to come?
Strongly agree Agree Not sure Disagree Strongly disagree
5 4 3 2 1
19. How effective are CADEC’s activities such as crop and live stock production, craft,
bee keeping, agro-forest in enhancing people’s capabilities?
Very effective Effective Neutral ineffective Very ineffective
5 4 3 2 1
20. In your view has CADEC’s goal of poverty reduction has been achieved?
Yes No
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Appendix 2:
Interview guide for CADEC beneficiaries
Dear participant
This interview guide is meant for obtaining information on NGOs and poverty reduction in
Zimbabwe: The case of the Catholic Development Commission (CADEC) in Binga. The
study is part of the requirement for the Master of Social Science in Sociology qualification.
I therefore request your cooperation in answering interview questions. The information
you provide will be used for academic purposes only and I assure you of the confidentiality
of your responses and anonymity as a respondent.
Thank you for your participation
Yours sincerely
Walter M Mhaka
214 | P a g e
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities
Department of Sociology
Informed consent and declaration of participation
Participant’s name……………………………………………….
Researcher: Walter M Mhaka
Title of the study: Non-government organisation (NGOs) and poverty reduction in
Zimbabwe: The case of CADEC in Binga.
I declare that I will voluntarily participate in this research that has been explained to me
and I will cooperate by sharing my honest experience. I understand that the interview is
part of a research project and that the information will be treated confidentially and
published anonymously for research purposes only. I agree to being interviewed and my
participation is voluntary, I am at liberty to withdraw from the interview at any time.
Signed at…………………………………..…………. date………………….
Signature: (participant)…………………………..………..
Signature: (researcher)……………….…………………….
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Questions for beneficiaries
1. How long have you been a beneficiary of CADEC?
2. How did you feel before you were a beneficiary of CADEC?
3. How do you feel now being a beneficiary?
4. Did you receive any aid from CADEC in the last 3 months?
5. If your answer is yes state how or what was the nature of service rendered to you?
6. In what year was the service rendered to you?
7. What projects are run by CADEC?
8. Do you think the organisation is meeting the basic needs of people? If yes how/If no
why?
9. What significant contribution has the organisation made in your life?
10. Is there anything you dislike about the organisation?
11. If yes, state them.
12. Do you think the organisation is achieving its goal of assisting in the processes of
poverty reduction in Binga?
13. If not, what do you think are the problems the organisation faces in meetings its goals?
14. Has the organisation assisted in the processes of reducing poverty through food aid,
supplementary feeding, and crop and livestock production?
15. Do you receive any support from the government?
16. Do you think bee keeping and craft are important part of your organisation’s work?
17. What do you think can be done to improve the poverty reduction strategies of
CADEC?
18. What have you learnt from interaction with CADEC which can assist you in the fight
against poverty in future?
19. Did you learn any skills from CADEC’s projects which can assist you in the
establishment of your own or community initiated projects in future?
20. Did participation in CADEC’s activities socialise you to be self-reliant?
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21. Have the skills and experiences gained from CADEC’s activities trained you to be in
the position to initiate, plan and sustain long term projects?
22. Does CADEC involve women in its projects like bee keeping, crop and livestock
production, gardening and craft?
23. Do the projects offered by CADEC empower and enable the Binga people to be able
to continue benefiting from them in future?
24. How helpful is the educational initiative of CADEC?
25. Are the local people included in the decision making process about CADEC’s
projects?
26. What do you think CADEC should do to improve its services?
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Appendix 3:
Interview guide for CADEC officials
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities
Department of Sociology
Title of the study: Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs) and poverty reduction
in Zimbabwe: The case of CADEC in Binga.
Dear participant
This interview guide is meant for obtaining information on NGOs and poverty reduction in
Zimbabwe: The case of the Catholic Development Commission (CADEC) in Binga. The
study is part of the requirement for the Master of Social Science in Sociology qualification.
I therefore request your cooperation in answering interview questions. The information
you provide will be used for academic purposes only and I assure you of the confidentiality
of your responses and anonymity as a respondent.
Thank you for your participation
Yours sincerely
Walter M Mhaka
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Department of Sociology
Informed consent and declaration of participation
Participant’s name……………………………………………….
Researcher: Walter M Mhaka
Title of the study: Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs) and poverty reduction
in Zimbabwe: The case of CADEC in Binga.
I declare that I will voluntarily participate in this research that has been explained to me
and I will cooperate by sharing my honest experience. I understand that the interview is
part of a research project and that the information will be treated confidentially and
published anonymously for research purposes only. I agree to being interviewed and my
participation is voluntary, I am at liberty to withdraw from the interview at anytime.
Signed at………………………………. date………………….
Signature: (participant)…………………………..………..
Signature: (researcher)……………….…………………….
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Questions for CADEC officials
1. What is CADEC’s role in the poverty alleviation processes in Binga?
2. What specific programs and projects do you have for these poverty alleviation
processes in Binga?
3. What structures and processes do you have for the implementation of the poverty
alleviation strategies in Binga?
4. How effectively do members of the Binga community participate in the conception,
planning and implementation of poverty alleviation project?
5. Are community members fully involved when decisions about the whole processes
relating to poverty alleviation projects for Binga are made?
6. To what extent do CADEC’s poverty alleviation strategies address the basic needs of
the Binga people?
7. What skills are socialized during Binga community member’s participation in the
poverty alleviation activities of CADEC?
8. To what extent are the capabilities of the Binga people enhanced during their
involvement with CADEC’s poverty alleviation activities?
9. Should CADEC cease its poverty alleviation activities in Binga, Do you think the skills
and capabilities gained during community members involvement in CADEC’s projects
could assist in the long term sustenance of the projects?
10. What was the nature, if any, of the reciprocal relationship between CADEC and Binga
community during the processes of planning and implementation of the poverty alleviation
projects?
11. What were the challenges faced either by CADEC or the community during the
implementation of these poverty alleviation strategies in Binga?
12. How were these challenges overcommed?
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Appendix 4
Interviews and documents
Interviews
Documents
Interviewee no. 1, male, June 2013
Interviewee no. 2, female, June 2013
Interviewee no. 3, male, June 2013
Interviewee no. 4, male, June 2013
Interviewee no. 5, male, June 2013
Interviewee no. 6, male, June 2013
Interviewee no. 7, male, June 2013
Interviewee no. 8, male, June 2013
Interviewee no. 9, male, June 2013
Interviewee no. 10, female, June 2013
Interviewee no. 11, female, June 2013
Interviewee no. 12, male, June 2013
Interviewee no. 13, female, June 2013
Interviewee no. 14, female, June 2013
Interviewee no. 15, female, June 2013
Interviewee no. 16, male, June 2013
Interviewee no. 17, female, June 2013
Interviewee no. 18, female, June 2013
Interviewee no. 19, male, June 2013
Interviewee no. 20, male, June 2013
Document 1. Monitoring Rural
Livelihoods in Zimbabwe; An Insight from
Binga Rural Site PRP LIME Outcome
Analysis
Document 2. Caritas Hwange Outcome
Evaluation Report
Document 3. Participatory Health and
Hygiene Education Index PRP Report
Caritas Hwange
Document 4. Caritas Hwange PRP ii
year 4 log frame
Document 5. Caritas Zimbabwe-Hwange
PRP ii final report July 2008 – June 2011
Document 6. Monitoring Group Level
Interventions under the PRP in
Zimbabwe. Understanding Group
Interventions through the Group Maturity
Index (GMI) Caritas Hwange
Document 7. Binga
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Interviewee no. 21, male, June 2013
Interviewee no. 22, female, June 2013
THE END
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