Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and poverty reduction strategies in

Zimbabwe: The case of the Catholic Development Commission (CADEC) in the

Binga district.

By

WALTER M MHAKA (200808111)

A Dissertation Submitted to the University of Fort Hare, Department of Sociology

in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Social Science in Sociology

January 2014

SUPERVISOR: DR F H NEKHWEVHA

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Abstract

The main objective of this study was to explore non-governmental organisations (NGOs)

and poverty reduction strategies in Zimbabwe through an assessment of the activities of

the Catholic Development Commission (CADEC) in the Binga district in the Matabeleland

North province. The research method used was triangulation and the theoretical

framework combined insights of both the Basic Needs Approach and the Capability

Theory. The core argument which has emerged is that despite criticisms levelled against

NGOs that they cater for immediate relief and basic needs, the operation of CADEC in

Binga shows in contrast that NGOs can operate in such a way that the capabilities of the

participants can be enhanced or expanded such that the Binga district can be capable of

independently engaging in sustainable livelihoods and development. This study argued

that participation in projects has enabled CADEC to realise and expand people’s

capabilities and participation was identified as a means of gaining a sustainable

livelihood. To achieve the objectives of the study the researcher collected data using a

survey questionnaire and in-depth interviews. The study was framed within the concept

of Fundamental Human Needs by Manfred Max-Neef and the Capabilities Approach of

Amartya Sen. The concept of Fundamental Human Needs argues that human needs do

not change but the ways of satisfying the needs do change and unsatisfied needs results

in poverty. The Capabilities approach on the other hand, sees poverty as caused by the

deprivation of human capabilities. These theories were utilized for this study because they

complement each other. Max-Neef believed that development should focus on promoting

community agency where beneficiaries are the primary actors for development.

Development for him is people-centred, participatory and environmentally sound whilst

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the Capability Approach of Sen is of the view that development is about developing or

expanding human potentials. Being anchored on these two theories this study found out

that CADEC use supplementary feeding, sustainable projects such as gardens and

livestock production, educational initiatives, the provision of shelter and participatory

development as strategies to alleviate poverty in the Binga district. CADEC’s long term

projects that focus on farming practices and sustainable livelihoods have enabled Binga

people to respond to their poverty. Thus, the results of this study substantiated the views

on Max-Neef and Sen since CADEC does not only provide for basic needs but also

enhances the capabilities of the people in Binga. However, even if the majority of the

respondents believed that CADEC has managed to reduce poverty in Binga, a lot still

needs to be done since poverty is still the main problem in the district.

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Declaration

I, Walter Mugove Mhaka (200808111), the undersigned do hereby declare that the

content of this dissertation is my original work and has not been previously submitted to

any other university for an award of a degree either in part or in its entirety

Signature……………………………………………………………….

Date………………………………………………………………………

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FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

Plagiarism declaration

1. I am aware that it is forbidden to plagiarize. Plagiarism is using one’s work without

acknowledging that it is not your own ideas.

2. This study utilised the Harvard referencing style. Every section, sentence and

quotations from other scholars used in this study have been acknowledged, well cited

and referenced.

3. I have never allowed and will never permit someone else to replicate my work with the

intention of pretending that it is his or her own original work.

4. I, Mhaka W M (200808111), admit that it is prohibited to plagiarize the whole, parts and

pieces of another person’s work, therefore, I declare that this dissertation is my own

original work.

Signature (Student)…………………………………………… Date………………………

SUPERVISOR’S CONFIRMATION

This is to confirm that as per the Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities’

recommendation, the plagiarism detection software was utilised and it was found that this

dissertation was not plagiarized.

Signature (supervisor)……………………………………. Date………………………..

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Acknowledgements

I would never have been able to complete my dissertation without the guidance of my

supervisor, help from friends, and support from my family.

First and Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Dr F H

Nekhwevha for the continuous support, for his serenity, motivation, enthusiasm, and

immense knowledge. His guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of

this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better supervisor, and mentor for my

Masters Study.

Besides my advisor, I would like to thank Roselyn Tshuma, for her encouragement,

insightful comments, and helpful questions. I thank my fellow classmates Devane Nzima

and Roselyn Tshuma for the stimulating discussions, for the sleepless nights we were

working together before deadlines, and for all the fun we have had in the last six years.

Also, I thank my friends: William, Blessing (Couzie), Credy, Wishy, Aby, Shorty (Solo),

She-Marange, Martin and Windy for always supporting me and encouraging me with their

best wishes. I am grateful to Addmore Muruviwa for enlightening me about the quality

of work at this level of study.

My sincere thanks also go to Mr Siakenga and Mrs Daka, for offering me the opportunity

to collect data from the beneficiaries of CADEC, Hwange dioceses, and to visit their

diverse exciting projects in different wards.

I would like to acknowledge the financial, academic and technical support of the University

of Fort Hare and its staff, particularly in the award of a Postgraduate tuition waiver and

supervisor linked bursary that provided the necessary financial support for this research.

Last but not the least, I would like to thank my family especially my parents Mr C E Mhaka

and Dr N Mhaka, for giving birth to me in the first place and supporting me spiritually

throughout my life.

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Contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................................................... i

Declaration ................................................................................................................................................ iii

Plagiarism declaration ........................................................................................................................... iv

Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. v

List of tables ............................................................................................................................................. xi

List of figures .......................................................................................................................................... xii

List of acronyms and abbreviation ....................................................................................................xiii

Chapter 1: General Introduction and Overview ............................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Situational analysis of Zimbabwe ................................................................................................. 3

1.3 The research problem ...................................................................................................................... 5

1.4 Preliminary literature review .......................................................................................................... 7

1.4.1 NGO landscape ....................................................................................................................... 7

1.4.2 CADEC ...................................................................................................................................... 8

1.4.3 Causes of poverty in Zimbabwe ......................................................................................... 9

1.4.4 Contextualizing poverty in Binga..................................................................................... 10

1.5 The research questions ................................................................................................................. 12

1.6 Research aim and objectives ....................................................................................................... 12

1.7 Theoretical framework ................................................................................................................... 13

1.8 Research methodology and design ............................................................................................ 16

1.9 Research Instruments .................................................................................................................... 17

1.10 Population ....................................................................................................................................... 19

1.11 Sampling .......................................................................................................................................... 19

1.12 Data analysis .................................................................................................................................. 20

1.13 Significance of study ................................................................................................................... 20

1.14 Delimitations of the study ........................................................................................................... 21

1.15 Ethical considerations ................................................................................................................. 21

1.16 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 22

2.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 23

2.2 Development ..................................................................................................................................... 25

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2.3 Failures of traditional development theories to seriously address the praxis of

development. ........................................................................................................................................... 26

2.4 Max-Neef’s Fundamental human needs .................................................................................... 29

2.5 Capabilities approach by Amartya Sen ..................................................................................... 31

2.5.1 Ends and means ................................................................................................................... 32

2.6 The sustainable livelihoods approach ....................................................................................... 33

2.7 Livelihood .......................................................................................................................................... 34

2.8 Sustainable livelihoods as an integrating concept ................................................................ 35

2.9 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 36

Chapter 3: The concept of poverty and macro perspectives of poverty in Zimbabwe and

Binga ......................................................................................................................................................... 38

3.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 38

3.2 Definition of terms ........................................................................................................................... 40

3.3 Poverty in the world an overview ................................................................................................ 42

3.4 Measuring poverty .......................................................................................................................... 45

3.5 Absolute poverty ............................................................................................................................. 46

3.6 Relative Poverty ............................................................................................................................... 47

3.7 Understanding Poverty: A Political stand on its definition .................................................. 48

3.8 The meaning of poverty ................................................................................................................. 52

3.9 Poverty in the African context ..................................................................................................... 54

3.9.1 Mismanagement of land ..................................................................................................... 55

3.9.2 Corruption .............................................................................................................................. 55

3.9.3 Diseases ................................................................................................................................. 56

3.9.4 Hygiene and sanitation ....................................................................................................... 57

3.10 Individualistic theory of poverty ............................................................................................... 57

3.10.2 Cultural theory of poverty ................................................................................................ 58

3.10.3 Structural perspective of poverty .................................................................................. 60

3.11 Poverty in Zimbabwe .................................................................................................................... 63

3.12 Causes of poverty in Zimbabwe ................................................................................................ 64

3.13 Poverty in Binga district .............................................................................................................. 65

3.14 Contextualising poverty in Binga ............................................................................................. 68

3.15 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs and poverty reduction strategies (PRS) ........ 69

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3.16 International organisations and the PRSPs ........................................................................... 70

3.17 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 71

Chapter 4: The role of NGOs in poverty alleviation in Zimbabwe ............................................. 72

4.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 72

4.2 Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) ................................................................................ 73

4.3 Why NGOs in development? ........................................................................................................ 76

4.4 The emergence and expansion of NGOs in development .................................................... 77

4.5 Classification of NGOs in Zimbabwe ......................................................................................... 79

4.6 The role of NGOs in Zimbabwe .................................................................................................... 80

4.7 NGOs as service providers and developers in Zimbabwe ................................................... 81

4.8 Criticisms of NGOs ......................................................................................................................... 84

4.8.1 NGOs and Donor agencies ................................................................................................ 84

4.8.2 NGOs and the State ............................................................................................................. 86

4.8.3 Scaling up of NGOs ............................................................................................................. 88

4.8.4 Participation .......................................................................................................................... 89

4.8.5 Organisational praxis .......................................................................................................... 91

4.9 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 93

Chapter 5: Theoretical Framework. ................................................................................................... 95

5.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 95

5.2 Max-Neef’s human-scale development model ......................................................................... 95

5.2.1 Max-Neef’s fundamental human needs .......................................................................... 96

5.2.2 Objectives of human scale development ...................................................................... 98

5.2.3 Postulates of human scale development..................................................................... 100

5.2.4 Development is about people and not about objects ............................................... 100

5.2.5 Needs and satisfiers .......................................................................................................... 100

5.2.6 Fundamental human needs are finite, few and classifiable, what changes both

over time and through cultures, is the way or the means by which the needs are

satisfied. ......................................................................................................................................... 102

5.2.7 Poverty and poverties ....................................................................................................... 103

5.2.8 Categorization of human needs ..................................................................................... 104

5.3 Capability approach ...................................................................................................................... 106

5.3.1 The capability approach and education for sustainable development ................ 109

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5.4 Shortcomings of the capability approach............................................................................... 110

5.4 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 112

Chapter 6: Research methodology.................................................................................................. 114

6.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 114

6.2 Research methodology and design .......................................................................................... 115

6.2.1 Quantitative Research design ........................................................................................ 117

6.2.2 Qualitative research design ............................................................................................ 117

6.3 Research Instruments .................................................................................................................. 118

6.4 Population ....................................................................................................................................... 120

6.5 Sampling .......................................................................................................................................... 120

6.6 Pilot study ....................................................................................................................................... 121

6.7 Gaining entry .................................................................................................................................. 122

6.8 Data analysis .................................................................................................................................. 123

6.9 Significance of study .................................................................................................................... 123

6.10 Limitations of the study ............................................................................................................. 124

6.11 Ethical considerations ............................................................................................................... 125

6.12 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 125

Chapter 7: CADEC, poverty alleviation and the satisfaction of the Basic Needs of the

Binga people ......................................................................................................................................... 127

7.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 127

7.2 CADEC’s target ...................................................................................................................... 129

7.3 Gender composition of CADEC’s beneficiaries ............................................................ 131

7.4 Age groups of CADEC’s beneficiaries ............................................................................. 132

7.5 Pressing human needs in Binga ....................................................................................... 133

7.6 Assistance from CADEC...................................................................................................... 136

7.7 The nature of assistance from CADEC ............................................................................ 137

7.8 Did you get any aid in the last 3 months? ...................................................................... 140

7.9 The anti-poverty interventions utilized and strategies operationalized by CADEC

to fight poverty in Binga ............................................................................................................. 141

7.9.1 Supplementary feeding .................................................................................................... 141

7.9.2 Educational initiative ......................................................................................................... 144

7.9.3 Sustainable projects.......................................................................................................... 146

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7.9.4 The extent to which CADEC’s strategies contribute to the basic needs of the

people in Binga ............................................................................................................................. 148

7.9.5 The perception of the Binga people about CADEC’s poverty alleviation

programme. ................................................................................................................................... 150

7.10 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 153

Chapter 8: Enhancement of capabilities and sustainable development of the activities of

CADEC .................................................................................................................................................... 155

8.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 155

8.2 The enhancement of capabilities in Binga ............................................................................. 158

8.2.1 Community gardens as an integral strategy to sustainable livelihoods ............. 159

8.2.2 Water Point Committees .................................................................................................. 161

8.3 The effectiveness of CADEC’s facilitation in development ............................................... 161

8.4 Socialisation of skills through crop and livestock production ......................................... 165

8.5 Enskilling through educational initiatives .............................................................................. 166

8.6 Possibilities for the projects to continue operation without CADEC in Binga ............. 167

8.7 Has CADEC’s goal of poverty alleviation been achieved? ................................................. 169

8.8 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 170

9.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 173

9.2 Core argument of the dissertation ............................................................................................ 174

9.3 Recommendations ........................................................................................................................ 182

9.4 Limitations of the study ............................................................................................................... 184

9.5 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 184

Appendix 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 205

Survey questionnaire on NGOs and poverty reduction strategies in Binga, Zimbabwe .. 205

Appendix 2: ............................................................................................................................................ 213

Interview guide for CADEC beneficiaries ...................................................................................... 213

Interview guide for CADEC officials ................................................................................................ 217

Appendix 4 ............................................................................................................................................. 220

Interviews and documents ................................................................................................................ 220

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List of tables

Table 1: Matrix of needs and satisfiers………… ..………..……………..………….…101

Table 2: CADEC’s target………………………………………………….……………...131

Table 3: Gender composition of CADEC beneficiaries……………..…………………132

Table 4: Age………………………………………………………………………………..133

Table 5: Assistance from CADEC…………………………………………….………….137

Table 6: Aid in the last 3 months………………………………………………………....141

Table 7: Educational achievement of the Binga people……………………………….145

Table 8: Performance of CADEC in poverty alleviation……………………………….151

Table 9: If CADEC stops operating in Binga……………………………………………153

Table 10: The satisfaction of people by the way their potentials are enhanced…...159

Table 11: Effectiveness of the facilitation process of CADEC……………………….164

Table 12: Has CADEC’s goal of poverty reduction has been achieved…………….170

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List of figures

Figure 1: Zimbabwe overview map…………..………………..……..……..…..……..4

Figure 2: Administrative map of Zimbabwe..……………….………………………...5

Figure 3: Basic needs of Binga………………………………….………..……………135

Figure 4: Nature of assistance from CADEC………………....................................139

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List of acronyms and abbreviation

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

CADEC Catholic Development Commission

DGD-DEV Directorate General for Development

DCD-DAC Development Cooperation Directorate and Development Assistance

Committee

ESAP Economic Social Adjustment program

EC European Commission

EU European Union

FPL Food Poverty Line

G7C Group of 7 Countries

HDI Human Development Index

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GNP Gross National Product

GDT Geographic Discrepancy Theory

HDR Human Development Report

HIV Human Immune Virus

HPI Human Poverty Index

IDA International Development Association

IFI International Financial Institutions

IDB Inter-American Development Bank

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation

NPI National Poverty Line

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PST Progressive Social Theory

PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers

PPP Purchasing Power Parity

PRS Poverty Reduction Strategy

SLA Sustainable Livelihoods Approach

SPSS Statistical Package of Social Sciences

TCPL Total Consumption Poverty Line

UFH University of Fort Hare

UNDP United Nations Development Program

USA United States of America

UN United Nations

WB World Bank

WSSD World Summit of Social Development

USD United States Dollar

UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

ZWD Zimbabwean Dollar

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Chapter 1: General Introduction and Overview

1.1 Introduction

The principal argument emanating from this study is that although non-governmental

organisations (NGOs) are criticised for catering for immediate relief and basic needs

(Treasure, 2009:7-10), the operation of CADEC in Binga shows in contrast that in addition

to providing for immediate relief and basic needs, NGOs can enhance the local people’s

capabilities through participating in different activities and thus enabling a district to

independently engage in sustainable development. This is evidenced by the findings of

this study that proved that apart from providing for immediate relief and basic needs, this

study identified community participation, gardening, livestock production, funding

sustainable projects and educational initiatives as strategies used by CADEC to reduce

poverty in the Binga district. In other words CADEC is encouraging people to work by

themselves.

This study explored non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and poverty reduction

strategies in Zimbabwe through an evaluation of the activities of CADEC in the Binga

district. Poverty is a worldwide phenomenon that affects people differently in different

nations and continents. It upsets individuals in different depths and levels, at different

eras and stages of life. Poverty differs in concentration and prevalence (Oyemomi,

2003:16). South Asia has the highest number of poor people in the world and about 32%

of the world’s poor live in South Asia. Similarly, sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America

have the highest concentration of poverty and have very low socio-economic

development levels (Oyemomi, 2003:16-17). Madzingira (2007:1) reports that 45% of

about 590 million people in sub-Saharan Africa live below the National Poverty Line

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(NPL). Thus, the saddle of poverty is spread unequally amongst the regions of the

developing world, amongst countries within those regions, and amongst localities within

those countries.

Zimbabwe is one of the poorest countries in the world which ranks 151 out of 177

countries in the human development index. Poverty in Zimbabwe is very high with about

62% of all Zimbabweans living in households with income per person below a level

sufficient to provide for basic needs (Madzingira, 2007:2). Binga, a district located in the

western Zambezi Valley, is the 3rd least developed in terms of Human Development in

Zimbabwe. Thus, a number of NGOs operate in the district, for example, CADEC has

been operating there for over 25 years, carrying out long-term projects in poverty

alleviation. It assists communities that live in marginalised rural areas to have better lives

through programs that are designed and geared towards meeting the needs of concerned

communities that are left behind in development (Redekop, 2000:145-148). However, on

the basis of the findings of this study, it shows that CADEC has crossed the border from

the criticisms levelled against NGOs by Treasure (2009:7-10) that they cater for

immediate relief and basic needs to activities that enhances people’s capabilities and

enables the Binga people to gain a sustainable livelihood through long-term development.

CADEC is a limb of the Catholic Church which deals with community based work in terms

of social welfare and socio-economic development (Finger, 2004 and documents 1, 2, 3,

4, 5 and 6). CADEC believes that development is not limited to economic growth but

rather it is holistic, covering all areas of life, be it economic, political, cultural, personal

and spiritual. This study found out that CADEC targets marginalized groups in society

regardless of their faith, political affiliation or gender. It offers services that are meant to

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address the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of poverty eradication and food

security (Clark, 1994: 29). Thus, CADEC’s vision is “to see a society in which the dignity

of the human being is paramount and in which exclusion, discrimination, violence and

dehumanising poverty are no more” (Documents 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). In other words,

CADEC uplifts the standard of living in Binga through development processes that lead

to self-reliance and this is achieved by participatory identification of people’s basic needs

and enhancing their capabilities. Its mission is “to improve the quality of life of the deprived

families by promoting, supporting and sustaining the development of the whole human

being as part of the evangelisation mission of the church” (Documents 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and

6). Accordingly, one can believe that CADEC is trying to make a difference in people’s

livelihood through facilitating development processes and appropriate training that lead

to social, physical, spiritual and economic self-sustenance (Jerie, 2010). Although much

has been documented on NGOs, this study focused on the activities of CADEC, whether

it provides for the basic needs, whether it enhances human potentials and whether the

projects it runs are sustainable in Binga. This chapter outlines the situational analysis of

Zimbabwe, preliminary literature review, research problem, research questions, research

aims and objectives, theoretical framework and research methods, among others.

1.2 Situational analysis of Zimbabwe

The republic of Zimbabwe is a wholly landlocked country in Southern Africa. On the North

and North West there is Zambia, Botswana at the South West, Mozambique at the East,

South Africa at the South and Namibia’s strip touches its western border at the connection

by Zambia. Zimbabwe is on the high highlands between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers

and these rivers are her main drainage systems. An overview map of Zimbabwe is

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provided below. (Encyclopedia of the nations accessed on 01/05/13

http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Africa/Zimbabwe.html)

Figure 1: Zimbabwe overview map

Source: http://abendkleider-abendmode.de/geschichte-der-kleider/zimbabwe-map

The Zimbabwe administrative map below indicates that Zimbabwe has 8 provinces,

namely, the Mashonaland West, Mashonaland Central, Mashonaland East, Manicaland,

Midlands, Masvingo, Matabeleland North and Matabeleland South. Binga district is

located in Matabeleland North. Binga is an isolated district on the South Eastern shore of

the lake Kariba. The district was constructed to rehouse the Ba Tonga people whose

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homelands were flooded by the reservoir. Thus, this is the focus research site of this

study.

Figure 2: Administrative map of Zimbabwe

Source: http://english.freemap.jp/map.php?area=africa_e&country=zimbabwe

1.3 The research problem

The study examined NGOs and poverty reduction strategies in Zimbabwe through an

evaluation of the activities of CADEC in Binga. Binga is very poor and marginalized and

its people require humanitarian aid every year. Accordingly, a number of NGOs have

been working to reduce poverty in Binga. NGOs are perceived to be efficient, effective

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and flexible (Lee, 2004, Mpofu, 2011 Nyathi, 2012). However, regardless of the rising

status that NGOs have earned for themselves and their work for the past years, their

contribution to development remains limited (Edwards et al., 1992:14). This is in spite of

the fact that various evaluations of the achievements of NGOs view them as instigators

of development wherever they are located. NGOs play a significant role in poverty

reduction and provide services in the various communities in which they operate (De Beer

et al., 2000). Nevertheless, these successes have not translated into a thoroughgoing

developmental breakthrough and therefore there must certainly be something erroneous

somewhere. Maybe the projects are not good or they are good but poorly executed

(Suharko, 2007:17). Specifically the study was mainly concerned about whether CADEC

provides for the basic needs, whether it enhances people’s capabilities and whether its

projects are sustainable. Therefore, it is against this framework that this study was

motivated and the findings of this study proved criticisms levelled against NGOs that they

cater for immediate relief and basic needs wrong.

In contrast the findings of this study indicate that the operation of CADEC in Binga proved

that NGOs are able to enhance the capabilities of individuals and communities and to

facilitate the gaining of sustainable livelihoods. However their freedom of choice of the

capabilities is limited (Gasper, 2002). This study’s results indicate that participation in

projects has enabled CADEC to recognise and develop people’s capabilities. As for Sen

(1998) livelihood means gaining a living whilst capabilities are both an end and means of

livelihoods. Additionally, the livelihood provides the support for the enrichment and

exercise of capabilities (an end) and capabilities (a means) enable a livelihood to be

achieved. As a result, it is argued in this study that sustainability is both an end and

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means, that is sustainable stewardship of resources is an end in itself and it provides a

means for livelihoods to be sustained for future generations. The section below discusses

the preliminary literature review for this study.

1.4 Preliminary literature review

Despite a relative dearth of literature in the area of study, this section however was

directed at a bird’s view on the various available literatures dealing with NGOs and

poverty reduction strategies generally and in Zimbabwe in particular. The section took as

a point of departure the NGO landscape in Zimbabwe (i.e. the history of the NGO

phenomenon in the country and how these NGOs are categorized), CADEC, the internal

and external causes of poverty in Zimbabwe and the contextualization of poverty in the

Binga district.

1.4.1 NGO landscape

Tsolmon (2004:7) argues that NGOs have been involved in various value-based activities

since the eighteenth century. NGOs developed from slave trade opposition and labour

unions to groups lobbying within international organisations like the United Nations

agencies (UN). The history of NGOs dates back to as early as the thirteenth century and

Africa’s NGOs emerged in the latter days of colonial rule as ethnic welfare associations.

They are categorised by orientation as charitable, service and participatory and by levels

of operation as Community and city based organisations, National and International

NGOs (Davids, 2005:67-68). In Zimbabwe, NGOs play a complementary role to the

government. This is in harmony with the findings of this study since CADEC at some

instances uses the facilities of the government to ensure that a service reaches the

intended destination. NGOs such as CADEC help to get goods and services into the areas

that are inaccessible to the government. These areas are inaccessible due to the lack of

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government transport to reach distant areas and this consequently resulting in lack of

access to goods and services and hence poverty.

1.4.2 CADEC

CADEC is also known as Caritas and it is found in more than 35 countries and has more

than 195 programs around the world. The organisation started in 1897 in Freiburg,

Germany. CADEC is an international aid and development organization which helps to

end poverty, promote justice and uphold the dignity of the poor people in the world. It is

an international charitable organisation of the Catholic Church that support societal

development and fosters the custom of charity and social work (Wagner, 2007: 99). Its

operation is guided by respect of human dignity, assisting people in need to overcome

the difficulties in life so as to become full societal members. Thus, CADEC advocates for

love, mercy, charity and sympathy. It is also dedicated to helping poverty ridden countries

all around the world. In other words, CADEC takes action not only in Third World countries

that are suffering, but also assist countries which have been hit by natural disasters and

are short on resources and support (Wagner, Ibid).

The great thing about CADEC’s support is that it does not reduce their suffering only, but

also teaches them how to support themselves through farming, cooking, gathering and

building in order to overcome their poverty. The organisation also focuses on giving

resources like water wells, farms and education to develop the community to be a better

place to live. CADEC’s mission statement indicated that it works towards the creation of

a world that God desires to be just and compassionate. It also works for the freedom of

those who are oppressed by injustice, assisting both the powerless and powerful, and

proclaiming to the poor the good news of their human dignity. This work is undertaken

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principally through the life-giving activities of aid and development. Furthermore,

CADEC’s mission statement speaks of building a better world, especially for the deprived

and oppressed. This is done through partnerships with other NGOs that are autonomous

and carry out local activities independently. For example, in the event of an emergency

or other major environmental disasters CADEC together with other local organizations

stand ready to help. Based on the social teachings of the Catholic Church, CADEC’s

mandate includes integral development, emergency relief, advocacy, peace building,

respect for human rights, and support for proper stewardship of the earth’s environment

and resources. Additionally, CADEC works to promote the globalization of solidarity

through advocacy. The primary purpose is to have an effect on policy makers at the local,

national, regional, and international levels. Its current advocacy issues relate to

Zimbabwe, Israel, the Palestinians and Iraqi sanctions. CADEC disapproves of American

efforts to effect regime change in Zimbabwe and Iraq. The organisation is also against

poverty caused by the existing European Union (EU) sanctions on Zimbabwe (Larrivee,

2011:51-60 and document 7).

1.4.3 Causes of poverty in Zimbabwe

The causes of poverty in Zimbabwe can be grouped into internal and external factors.

Internal factors causing poverty in Zimbabwe include conflicting economic and social

policies, corruption, political violence and oppression in the country (Chinake, 1997:1). In

addition, Chinake argues that poverty reduction strategies put in place during the early

independence period failed to address the root causes of poverty and the Economic

Structural Adjustment Programme (ESAP) introduced in the 1990s intensified poverty.

The removal of subsidies on social services also increased costs of social services and

reduced access to these services among Zimbabweans. Thus, blame for the slow

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progress in achieving MDGs is put on a number of problems, such as, the weakening in

the living standards due to the decrease of real incomes and rising unemployment;

increased food insecurity among the poor because of the decline in agricultural

production, caused by land reform; a sharp decline in the quality of social services and

infrastructure remarkably in the education and health sectors caused by lack of sufficient

resources and the mass departure of professionals (Chinake, 1997:1-3).

External factors causing poverty in Zimbabwe include persistent drought, removal of

donor aid from the public sector following the hotly contested parliamentary and

presidential elections and the sanctions imposed by the European Union (EU) and the

United States of America (U.S.A). In other words, the Zimbabwean economy failed to

support its social and productive sectors due to reduced levels of aid, foreign investment,

trade opportunities and travel sanctions against leading Zimbabwean politicians by

countries annoyed by the situation prevailing in the country (Basilwizi trust, 2010:13).

Hence the rising levels of poverty in Zimbabwe and in districts such as Binga.

1.4.4 Contextualizing poverty in Binga

Binga district suffers from high levels of poverty, food shortages and lack of basic socio-

economic services. About 90% of the population in Binga are poor and require

humanitarian aid every year. The dilemma of the Binga people is largely due to the

involuntary displacement in 1957 to make way for the Kariba Dam. This displacement

remains a scar of cruelty to the Binga communities since no reparation was made either

at community level through the provision of basic infrastructure and services or at

household level for loss of entitlements, livelihoods, disrupted social networks, lands and

natural resources (Chege, 1999:2-8). Thus, the lives of the Binga people have been hard,

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painful and a struggle year in and year out since they were taken away from their land,

sanctuaries and the graves of their ancestors. Today, 56 years after the invasion of the

Tonga territory, poverty and disaster risks have increased in both pace and magnitude

(Gugerty, 2008).

Exclusion and marginalization of these communities by the colonial, post-independence,

unity governments and post unity governments are another major cause of the

vulnerability of the Binga communities. Successive prohibitive legal and policy

frameworks have been used to exclude the communities from access to both internal and

external resources to meet their basic needs. Lake-based industries which are at their

proximity exclusively serve national rather than local interests. Increased control and

access by local groups to fishing rights, water resources and wildlife revenues remains

one of the strategies for reducing persistent poverty and vulnerability in Binga

communities (Suharko, 2007:17-19 and Gugerty, 2008).

Since the 1960s, affected communities in Binga have made a number of initiatives to get

rid of their situation but were not successful. The government continued to treat displaced

people in the same way as communities that remained undisturbed in their localities.

However, churches and NGOs intervened but only succeeded in aid efforts that

addressed the results of the problem and not the problem itself (Oyugi, 2004 and Chinake,

1997:4). Binga is characterised by droughts, low rainfall, tsetse flies and tick-borne

diseases. These natural hazards can trigger humanitarian crises such as malaria,

diarrhoea and malnutrition (Redekop, 2000). Nevertheless, focusing on natural hazards

as a complete explanation for humanitarian crises causation is myopic and diverts

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attention from major issues located in the social, economic, and political development

arenas.

1.5 The research questions

What are the anti-poverty interventions utilized by CADEC and how are they

implemented in Binga?

To what extent do these anti-poverty interventions contribute towards catering for

the basic needs of the people in Binga?

What are the perceptions of people in Binga about CADEC’s poverty alleviation

programme?

To what extent are the capabilities of the Binga citizens improved through

CADEC’s poverty alleviation praxis?

1.6 Research aim and objectives

The main aim of this study was to explore NGOs and poverty reduction strategies in

Zimbabwe through an assessment of the activities of (CADEC) in the Binga district in

Matabeleland North province. The objectives are listed in synchrony with the research

questions as follows:

To identify anti-poverty interventions utilized by CADEC and investigate their

implementation in Binga.

To find out the extent to which these anti-poverty interventions contribute to

addressing the basic needs of people in Binga.

To determine the perceptions of people in Binga about CADEC’s poverty

alleviation programme.

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To ascertain the extent to which capabilities of Binga citizens have been improved

through CADEC’s poverty alleviation praxis.

1.7 Theoretical framework

This study adopted a theoretical triangulation method. The study utilized and was framed

within the Max-Neef theory of fundamental human needs which falls under the overall

School of Human Scale Development and the Capabilities approach by Amartya Sen.

The underlying principle behind using these theories was that Max-Neef’s theory provides

some background information on the understanding that human needs are classified and

variant and Sen’s theory argue that humans can lead their own lives through advancing

different capabilities (Sen, 1979, Robeyn 2003:7 and Max-Neef, 1999:30). These two

theories were chosen to underpin this study because they are concerned about the

human condition. Basic needs are the essentials of life and specifically these refer to food,

water, shelter, clothing, sanitation and health care among others.

These needs can be satisfied differently. Some people cannot satisfy individual needs on

their own and hence they are in need of aid and some require the support and guidance

to expand opportunities to lead the lives that they have reason to value (Sen, 1979). For

Gasper (2002) this take away people’s freedom of choice. This aid comes from either

state or from NGOs. Considering the case of Binga, aid comes from NGOs. However,

man is a wanting animal and rarely reaches a state of complete satisfaction except for a

short time. As one desire is satisfied, another pops up to take its place. When one need

is satisfied, another comes into the foreground. It is a characteristic of the human being

throughout his whole life that he practically always desires something (Maslow, 1970: 24).

Therefore, the basis of Max-Neef’s theory is that human needs do not change but the

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satisfiers of those needs do change. As a result unsatisfied needs create poverty, which

can generate a destructive pathology. Hence the crucial premises for building sustainable

well-being and resilience to poverty and disaster in Binga are community organisations,

participation and involvement in decision making processes. For Max-Neef and Sen,

development should focus on promoting community agency where beneficiaries are the

primary actors for change; this is because they believed that development is people-

centred, participatory and environmentally sound. It does not involves economic growth

only but also fair distribution, enhancement of people’s capabilities and the widening of

their choices. Similarly, Sen (1985:78) argues that the solution to poverty is expanding

human capabilities such as education and skills so as to meet basic human needs.

However, for Tom (2010), the principal route out of poverty is employment and a good

job is made possible by quality education. Accordingly, Max-Neef and Sen are of the view

that development is giving top priority to poverty elimination, integrating people into the

growth process, encouraging the self-reliance of people and protecting the rights of the

local people as well as enhancing human potentials. However, choosing to realise some

capabilities may involve huge opportunity costs, which implies that people should focus

on sets of co-realizable capabilities (Williams, 1987:98-100.

Max-Neef theory further suggests that communal policies and societal innovation oriented

towards satisfying basic human needs are crucial in shaping a sustainable future. For this

reason external interventions are required to reduce poverty (Max-Neef, 1999:32-33).

With regard to the assessment of NGOs and poverty reduction strategies in Zimbabwe, if

the needs of the people are not met their rights will be violated and this is likely to bring

about a destructive pathology.

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However, Max-Neef’s theory is criticised for putting all needs at the same level. Max-Neef

should have listed the needs according to their importance in the same way that Abraham

Maslow did in his hierarchy of needs (Burns, 2000:22). The capabilities approach was

criticised for not offering a predefined list of capabilities and this makes it difficult for

scholars to operationalize capabilities (Nussbaum, 2000:75-80). The basic needs theory

do not attempt to prescribe or proscribe specific responses to drives of needs. Thus, the

Max- Neef framework cannot be used prescriptively or proscriptively at all. Rather it is

employed as a tool for reaching inter-subjective agreement on which kinds of satisfiers

might best be employed to meet the range of underlying motivations (Max-Neef 1992,

Again, Max-Neef asserts that the central feature of well-being is to achieve valuable

functionings, he provides little guidance in interpreting what valuable means in this

context (Dodds, 1997). Thus, this makes the capabilities approach merely a normative

tool, which can help to frame discussions about lifestyle choices, but it does not allow

people to derive goals and criteria directly. The capabilities approach also suffers from

one of the other criticisms of needs theory, namely that it places considerable emphasis

on individual functioning, but fails to unravel for us the social logic of consumption choices,

and provides few clues how people might proceed in escaping from hedonic treadmills

and creating sustainable development. Within the space of capabilities there are three

major issues which the individual cannot readily see and which are seldom clearly

discussed. First and in any event, human beings cannot be free from their dependency

upon other human beings. Second and third, under capitalist social relations of

production, individuals can be free neither from hegemonic controls over their

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participation in the public realm, nor from the direct or indirect consequences of the

exploitation of human labour.

Despite these criticisms, the study utilised Max-Neef theory because it brings us closer

to a concern for the human condition. Similarly, Sen’s capabilities approach was utilised

because it argues that a sustainable livelihood provides the support for the enhancement

and exercise of capabilities and capabilities enable a livelihood to be gained. Hence the

intervention of NGOs is necessary in the alleviation of poverty that has now become a

societal, national, continental and global disaster.

The theory of fundamental human needs by Max-Neef was not enough to explain the

remedy to poverty in Binga since it argues for the satisfaction of basic human needs and

widening their choices. Thus, Sen’s capabilities approach complemented Max-Neef’s

ideas by advocating for the enhancement of people’s capabilities. Therefore, the core

argument of this study rest upon the idea that CADEC in Binga does provide for the basic

needs alone but also expands Binga people’s capabilities and enables them to earn a

sustainable livelihood.

1.8 Research methodology and design

This study investigated the strategies used by CADEC to alleviate poverty in Binga by

assessing whether it provides for the basic needs to the Binga people, enhances local

people’s capabilities and whether the projects run are sustainable. This study utilized both

quantitative and qualitative research designs. The quantitative method was used to

measure variables that are linked to the research problem in the case study area, such

as the perceptions of CADEC’s beneficiaries about the NGO performance with regard to

poverty alleviation, to ascertain the extent to which capabilities of the Binga citizens have

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been improved through CADEC’s poverty alleviation praxis and to find out the extent to

which the strategies utilised by CADEC contribute to addressing the basic needs of

people. On the other hand, the rationale behind using the qualitative methodology in

addition to the quantitative methodology was that qualitative research strategies are

mainly suitable when gathering social dynamic information related to human behaviour

and the interaction of people. That is, how people make sense of their lives, experiences

and their structure of their world (Baker, 1994). For this study in particular the qualitative

design aspect of this triangulation research strategy was geared at gathering information

on the poverty alleviation strategies, their operational mechanisms and their utility in

addressing the basic needs and in enhancing capabilities of the Binga people. It was also

used for finding out about the sustainability of projects in Binga. In addition, qualitative

research design aspect of this triangulation was utilised so as to increase the credibility

and validity of results. Thus, a survey questionnaire and in-depth interviews were the two

research instruments utilised in this research process.

1.9 Research Instruments

Since the study adopted both quantitative and qualitative methodologies it also utilised

two research instruments, which are the survey questionnaire and in-depth interviews. A

survey questionnaire was used to collect data on variables that are linked to the research

problem in the case study area, such as the perceptions of CADEC’s beneficiaries about

the NGO performance with regard to poverty alleviation, to ascertain the extent to which

capabilities of the Binga citizens have been improved through CADEC’s poverty

alleviation praxis and to find out the extent to which the strategies utilised by CADEC

contribute to the basic needs of people in Binga. Accordingly, the findings of this study

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indicate that the capabilities of the Binga people are being enhanced to a greater extent

through participating in different sustainable developmental projects.

The survey was divided into six (6) parts and all questions were meant to answer the

research questions. The first part elicited data on respondents’ socio-demographics (age,

gender, education and marital status among others). The second part sought to answer

the first research question by asking about the needs and the type of assistance offered

by CADEC. The third part aimed to find out about the level of satisfaction of the Binga

people with the services of CADEC. The respondents were asked to rate statements

ranging from very satisfied, satisfied, neutral, dissatisfied and very dissatisfied and the

positive answer was given the highest value (very satisfied). The fourth part measured

the performance of CADEC and the benefits derived from its activities and respondents

were asked to rate statements on a Likert scale where 5 = very effective; 4 = effective; 3

= neutral; 2 = ineffective; and 1 = very ineffective. In the firth part, the questionnaire aimed

to measure how effective the strategies used by CADEC to reduce poverty were in Binga

and respondents were required to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement

by marking with an X where 5 = strongly agree; 4 = agree; 3 = neutral; 2 = disagree; and

1 = strongly disagree. Lastly the last group of questions on the questionnaire was about

how helpful was CADEC in Binga and respondents were to rank statements ranging from

very helpful to very unhelpful and neutral. Raw figures were analyzed using the Statistical

Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Descriptive statistics were calculated

for the sample and are provided in the sections that follow. While quantitative data

provided information about the facts, qualitative data added a narrative which provided

meaning to the empirical information that emerged.

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On the other hand, in-depth interviews gathered information on the poverty alleviation

strategies, their operational mechanisms and their utility in addressing the basic needs

as well as in enhancing capabilities to ensure the sustainability of projects in Binga. The

researcher used two separate in-depth interview guides to collect data, one aimed to

collect data from the beneficiaries of CADEC and the other to collect data from CADEC

officials. The researcher had tested the instruments and this was important because it

enhanced the process of adaptation and development of the research instrument to make

it suitable for the purpose it was to achieve, and to enhance the researcher’s familiarity

with his tools and tactics. Appropriate adjustments were made before the actual survey

was conducted (Oppenheimer, 1992).

1.10 Population

According to De Vos (2005), a population is a set of entities where all the measurements

of interest to the researcher are represented. This study focused on the estimated

population of 138074 people in 21 wards in Binga where there are 11 NGOs.

1.11 Sampling

A sample is a small portion of the total set of objects or persons that comprise the focus

of the study (De Vos, 2005). The study focused on CADEC in Binga because it is one of

the NGOs involved in poverty alleviation programs in the district. The logic of selecting

CADEC was in that it is the most prominent NGO dealing with poverty alleviation in Binga.

A sample of 382 was calculated based on the estimated population size of 138074 using

the Raosoft sample size calculator online at (@http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html)

at a margin of error of 5%, confidence level of 95% and response distribution of 50%. On

the other hand 22 in-depth interviews were conducted.

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1.12 Data analysis

Qualitative data were analysed through the form of content analysis where information

gathered through in-depth interviews was broken down into different themes and

categories. Content analysis allowed the researcher to identify and analyse the

relationship between themes emerging from the data. The information collected was

synthesized and used to make valid and necessary inferences on the provision of basic

needs, the enhancement of capabilities and on the sustainability of projects run by

CADEC. On the other hand, quantitative data was analysed using the Statistical Package

of Social Sciences (SPSS) software which describes, categorizes, order, manipulates and

summarizes the features of the sample data (Bogdan et al., 1998).

1.13 Significance of study

This study pointed out poverty reduction strategies used by CADEC in Binga such as

funding of sustainable projects, livestock production, gardening and educational

initiatives. The study also identified the provision of direct food stuff, and up-bottom

decision making as obstacles that hinders the achievement of the NGO’s objective of

sustainable growth and/or development. In addition, it suggested possible measures that

can help the organisation to work on better strategies to achieve its goals, such as

community involvement in projects that benefit them. The study sensitizes the Binga

people about the contribution CADEC is making in poverty alleviation and their role in

participating in these programmes. Furthermore, the study revealed that the continued

growth of beneficiaries of CADEC has consequently made it hard for the NGO to achieve

its major goals, such as, the development of the poverty-stricken people of the Binga

district. For this reason stakeholders should work out follow-up poverty alleviation

turnaround strategies. Planners, managers, coordinators, the public and private sector,

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agencies of poverty reduction and the public in general may benefit from the results and

information from this study with regard to issues relating to the funding of sustainable

projects, community participation and livestock production within development

framework. Lastly, as this work has social scientific relevance it is hoped that its findings

has added to the body of knowledge we have, empirical or theoretical, and that other

scholars might find new research questions worth further investigation from it.

1.14 Delimitations of the study

As far as this study is concerned, there are many limitations that the researcher

encountered. Being a case study which focuses on a small area with few NGOs, it may

be difficult to draw conclusions that can be generalised across several areas and

organisations dealing with the reduction of poverty. In addition, there was little information

documented in primary, secondary and all the available sources in the case study area.

Hence, this study utilised the limited information available on the Binga district. This being

the case, the researcher found it difficult to present a complete history of the

organisation’s contribution to poverty reduction in Binga. Another limitation was getting

interviewees within stipulated time. The language was also an issue given that the

researcher did not understand Tonga language, as a result the researcher used an

interpreter to facilitate the collection of data. In addition, the challenges with regard to cost

of transportation also became an issue, considering the long distance the researcher had

to travel to the community.

1.15 Ethical considerations

The information that was gathered in the Binga district was used solely for academic

purpose and was treated with strict confidentiality. Additionally, respondents were

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guaranteed anonymity and their rights were respected, that is, they were questioned only

if they were willing. Lastly this study observed the University of Fort Hare (UFH) ethical

protocols and respondents were required to sign a consent form before the

commencement of the fieldwork.

1.16 Conclusion

All in all, this chapter has presented the main purpose of the study which was to assess

the strategies utilized by CADEC in poverty alleviation. The chapter has presented the

aim and objectives of the study together with the theoretical framework adopted by this

study. Two theories underpinned this study, namely, the Fundamental Human Needs and

the Capabilities Approach. This is due to the fact that the fundamental human needs

theory was not enough for this study and the capabilities approach was brought in to

complement it and to cover the issues of capabilities and sustainable development. The

theoretical framework of this study contends that the enhancement of people’s

capabilities reduces poverty and a need can be satisfied by different satisfiers. Hence,

the thesis of the study is that CADEC does not provide basic needs and relief services

only but also enhances the capabilities of the people in Binga in order to ensure that

sustainable development takes place. As a result, CADEC has raised the bar from giving

people mere food stuffs to teaching them how to get food stuffs for themselves. For this

reason NGOs are argued to put the interest of the people first if they need to reduce

poverty. Having introduced the study in this chapter, the following chapter will focus on

the issues of development, basic need, capabilities enhancement and sustainability.

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Chapter 2: Basic needs, capabilities and sustainable development

2.1 Introduction

This study explored NGOs and poverty reduction strategies in Zimbabwe through an

evaluation of the activities of CADEC in Binga district of the Matabeleland North province.

This dissertation was anchored on the Fundamental human needs approach and the

Capabilities Approach and found out that despite the criticisms levelled against NGOs

that they cater for immediate relief and basic needs only (Treasure, 2009:7-10), the

operation of CADEC in Binga evidenced that NGOs can operate in such a way that

enhances human capabilities and promotes sustainable development through financing

sustainable growth projects and community participation. This is owing to the fact that

human beings need a number of prerequisites to survive which include physical and non-

physical essentials needed for human growth and development, as well as all those things

humans are intrinsically driven to attain. This is in line with the findings of this study

because CADEC provides more than just immediate relief and basic needs to the Binga

people. CADEC is implementing sustainable projects that are meant to reduce poverty by

providing for the basic needs of the local people and enhancing their potentials that

enables them to attain sustainable livelihoods.

Thus, the basic needs approach is one of the major approaches to the measurement of

absolute poverty in developing countries. It attempts to define the absolute minimum

resources necessary for sustainable physical well-being, usually in terms of consumption

of goods. The poverty line is then defined as the amount of income required to satisfy

those needs. Human needs are based on consumption and Max-Neef believed that they

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stem from the well-being and condition of human beings and are few, finite and

classifiable. They are also distinct from the conventional notion of monetary needs that

are infinite and insatiable. Human needs are also constant in every human culture and

throughout historical time periods. The only difference is the approaches of satisfying

those needs over time and between communities (Max-Neef, 1989:15-19). Moreover,

Max-Neef (1989:19) argues that development is about people and not about objects.

Therefore, the objective of development is not only about production and consumption,

but also the gratification of human needs as well as the needs of being. Consequently,

CADEC is empowering the Binga people by financing sustainable projects and working

alongside the people in its projects. Its encouragement is done through the “don’t give me

fish, but teach me how to fish” aphorism used by CADEC. As a result Max-Neef’s

assumptions were that:

“The society should serve people, not the other way around.

Development is about people (quality of life) not objects (material wealth).

Development does not require growth and growth is not the same as

development.

No economies are possible without the eco-systems of the world.

The society is a subsystem of the greater system of the biosphere, and has to

be adapted to suit it” (Max-Neef 1989:19-25).

Accordingly, the above named assumptions are in harmony with the central argument of

this study because CADEC’s operation in Binga shows that it is providing more than just

basic needs and immediate relief. It is serving the people’s interests by allowing them to

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make initiatives and projects that concern their livelihood and empowering them through

inclusion in decision making about matters of their development. Thus, the objective of

development is the promotion and expansion of valuable capabilities (Alkire 2004: 2).

Hence, Sen based his work on the enhancement of capabilities instead of consumption.

For Sen (see Alkire 2004:1-4), people are the real wealth of nations and certainly, the

fundamental purpose of development is to enlarge human freedoms. The process of

development can expand human capabilities by expanding the choices that people have

to live full and creative lives. Furthermore, people are both the beneficiaries of such

development and the agents of the progress and change that bring it about. This process

must benefit all individuals equitably and build on the participation of each of them. The

results of this study show that CADEC is implementing developmental projects which are

run by the local people in Binga. These projects are meant to benefit the Binga people

since they are the ones who own the projects. This approach to human development has

been advocated by every Human Development Report since the first in 1990 (Alkire 2004:

3). This chapter will discuss theoretical issues of basic needs, capabilities, sustainability,

livelihood and development since these concepts are encompassed in the theoretical

framework of this study (the fundamental human needs by Max-Neef and the capabilities

approach by Sen). However, to understand these concepts the researcher provided a

brief history of the issues behind development namely modernisation and dependency

theories.

2.2 Development

Development is a confusing concept but often defined as the act or process of growth.

However, presently development seems to refer to anything seen as positive social

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change, for example, economic development, sustainable development and women's

development. There are various indicators used to measure development, such as, inter

alia poverty prevalence and literacy rate among others (Ferraro, 1996:58-64). However,

for development to take place, modernisation was proposed as an alternative and

dependency theory came as a response to modernisation. To start with, modernisation

came as a prescription for development. In other words, it was a developmental

alternative for Third World countries to follow so as to reach the same development that

was achieved by the First World countries. However, it is the failure of the developmental

alternative that brought about the issue of satisfying basic needs, enhancement of

capabilities and sustainable development. Accordingly, CADEC as shown by the findings

of this study is following the alternative development of providing for the basic needs and

enhancing Binga people’s capabilities as well as enabling them to gain a sustainable

livelihood. Thus, the failure of traditional development theories brought about new

alternatives to development.

2.3 Failures of traditional development theories to seriously address the praxis of

development.

Modernization theory was seen as the underpinning touchstone of the evolutionary

recommendation for development. However, being a pathway for development, the theory

was criticised for focusing on shortages in the poorer countries and its proposed ways to

get rid of these deficiencies. This theory sees traditional society as characterised by

negative things, in particular, stagnation in terms of development, lack of innovative ideas

and the absence of commitment to the capitalistic profit motif. The theory argued that

people were poor in the traditional societies and were characterised by subsistence social

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arrangements. However, what prompted change was the desire for profit maximization

through economic growth and the capitalistic economic system. As a result, this capitalist

economic system brought about modernization and technological growth in Western

Europe. This urged capitalists to compete for profit maximization and these profits were

pursued by re-investing so as to make huge profits. It was this profit that resulted in Third

World countries being exploited and underdeveloped by Western countries. (Tipps,

2012). Hence according to the Modernization theory, there is a need for the Third World

to transform itself from the primitive stage to modernity. This means that Third World

countries were to follow the route that was used by the West towards development.

However, the theory also does not consider such factors as the existing inequalities and

sees no conflict of interest between the rich and of the poor. It also ignores the fact that

the resources in the world may be limited and the accumulation of wealth by some

capitalists may actually reduce the chances of other people to get rich. However,

dependency theory sees the theory as a-historical and too Eurocentric (Wayne, 2006:5-

8).

Dependency theory was a response to the modernization theory and it was motivated by

the fact that economic growth in the advanced industrialized countries did not essentially

lead to development in the poorer countries. The dependency theory argues that

economic activities in the richer countries often led to serious economic problems in the

poorer countries. The problems are created by exports of primary commodities to rich

countries by poor countries who then manufacture products out of those commodities and

sell them back to the poorer countries. The bone of contention is that, value added goods

always cost more than the primary products used to create those products. Therefore,

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poorer countries are not earning enough from export earnings to pay for imports (Ferraro,

1996:1-2).

In other words, the world cannot be understood without reference to the entire

international economic system. From this viewpoint, underdevelopment is a dynamic

progression of poverty interconnected to development and as a result, some parts of the

world are underdeveloped because others are developed. This applies to a greater extent

to the Binga community, their suffering was due to their displacement from their land in

1957 to make way for the establishment of the Kariba dam. The Binga people were not

compensated in any way and the resources in their proximity including water industries

that were supposed to first benefit them were taken away. As a result the suffering of the

Binga people brought NGOs into the development agenda of Binga.

Underdevelopment and development are two sides of the same coin because they are

aspects of the same process. To be more precise, economic growth in advanced

countries created Third World poverty in its wake. The Third World countries are poor

because they were exploited by the West (Wayne, 2006: 5). In other words, the Third

World is poor because the development of the industrial system in Western Europe and

North America transformed and underprivileged many societies of Africa, Asia, and Latin

America, through colonization, imperialism and unfavourable terms of trade (Ferraro,

1996: 58-60).

For the above-mentioned reasons, dependency theory was viewed as a possible way of

explaining the persistent poverty of the poor countries (Ferraro, 1996: 3-4). Whereas

modernisation theory perceives capitalism as a creative force behind development and

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progress, dependency theory perceives capitalism as the cause of the devastation of the

developing world. Similarly, modernisation theory perceived the First World countries as

helpers of poor countries whilst dependency theory perceived them as detrimental to the

welfare of the Third World countries. However, not all of the dependency theorists’

remedies are anti-capitalism (Tipps, 2012). A number of them see some good in using

capitalism owing to the fact that it enhances national economies (Ferraro, 1996: 60-64).

Since the modernisation cannot be applied to communities like Binga, this study argued

for the enhancement of capabilities and sustainable projects as alternatives to

development in small communities. Similarly, Suharko (2012) proposed self-initiated

projects that enable attainment of a sustainable livelihood as a strategy to reduce poverty

in rural areas. This is in line with the argument of this study which is based on the belief

that the provision for fundamental human needs and immediate relief are not adequate

to help people. Hence, for authentic development to take place there is a need for the

enhancement of people’s capabilities and enabling them to attain sustainable

development.

2.4 Max-Neef’s Fundamental human needs

Max-Neef et al (1987:12) argue that human scale development is based and focused on

the satisfaction of fundamental human needs, on the generation of growing levels of self-

reliance and on the construction of organic articulations of people with nature and

technology, of global processes with local activity, of the personal with the social, of

planning with autonomy and of civil society with the state. The fundamental human needs

are discussed in this study because CADEC provides aid to people in Binga, thus

necessitating the understanding of fundamental human needs. The views of Max-Neef

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supports the findings of this study since CADEC is facilitating the satisfaction of

fundamental human needs through development projects that are aimed at reducing

poverty in Binga

The main contribution that Max-Neef made to the understanding of the human needs was

the distinction that he made between the needs and satisfiers. Moreover, Max-Neef is of

the view that basic human needs are perceived as limited, finite and classifiable whilst

wants are infinite and insatiable. Once more, fundamental human needs are endless in

every human culture and across historical time periods. Max-Neef believed that what

changes over time and between cultures is the way these needs are satisfied. The needs

of the Binga people were being satisfied through the provision of immediate relief and the

catering of the basic needs. In fact CADEC is now running community projects that benefit

the local people. On the other hand, unsatisfied needs results into pathologies and

poverty. Furthermore, fundamental human needs should be understood as a structure

meaning that they are interconnected and interactive. This means that human needs are

not in a hierarchy in the process of needs satisfaction (Max-Neef et al., 1987:15-17).

Furthermore, the economic structure measured in gross domestic product (GDP) is not

sustainable. Max-Neef concedes that the structure cannot be sustained because it does

not include the economic and ecological loss of natural resources spent daily. He also

argued that the structure does not embrace the economics bound up in charitable work

(Max-Neef, 1985). As a result, Max-Neef developed an alternative to the GDP called the

Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) that includes inter alia the costs of unemployment,

environmental degradation.

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Max-Neef (1983) in his theory of fundamental human needs came up with an alternative

explanation of how people prioritize human needs. He developed a non-hierarchical theory of

basic human needs which presents a linked and interactive system. Max-Neef et al (1987:17-19)

argues that, if all nations were to implement the fundamental human needs theory when

developing and meeting the needs of people, the world would positively attain the same levels of

GPI with less materialism. However, it is not enough to ease the suffering of people by providing

for their immediate relief and basic needs only. Hence, this study argued for the enhancement of

people’s capabilities so as to attain sustainable development. However the capabilities approach

places emphasis on individual functioning and fails to loosen for us the social logic of

consumption choices, and provides roadmaps on how we might proceed in escaping

poverty and creating sustainable development.

2.5 Capabilities approach by Amartya Sen

The capabilities approach arose as a result of growing criticism of the monetary approach

of the 1980s and is much more than the rise or fall of national incomes. The belief is that

development is about expanding the choices people have to lead lives that they value,

and this is not limited to economic growth alone (UNDP, 2009). Bu this, Sen was referring

to a positive vision of the human good which must be specified to be useful. Unfortunately

his approach is questioned on what guidance the capabilities gives without a clear

description of what kind of life people have reason to value or a roadmap to follow.

Many studies on the strategies used by NGOs to reduce poverty have placed much

attention on the provision of immediate relief and basic needs. However, this study looked

beyond the provision of immediate relief and basic needs by investigating the

enhancement of people’s capabilities and the sustainability of the projects run by CADEC

in the Binga district. This enhancement is ensured through participatory development.

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This study argued that participation in projects has enabled CADEC to expand people’s

capabilities. In addition participation was identified as a means of gaining a sustainable

livelihood. Sen (1985:43) defines capabilities as what people are able to do or able to be.

Capabilities are the opportunities they have to achieve various standards of living and as

a result the ability to live a good life. Sen distinguishes this from what he calls functionings;

the things a person actually does and experiences. Functionings may vary from the basic

needs for survival such as being adequately nourished and being free from avoidable

disease to complex activities or personal states such as community participation and self-

respect. Thus, capability refers to the feasible alternative combinations of these

functionings. Sen (1999, in Anand et al., 2005:4) differentiates the capabilities approach

from the more traditional practical and economic policy analysis which to him has an

economic concentration on the primacy of income and wealth rather than on the

characteristics of human lives and substantive freedoms. However, the approach robs

people their freedom of choice (Gasper, 2002). The capability approach should focus on

mental satisfaction rather than on creative discontent and a libertarian preoccupation with

procedures for liberty with deliberate neglect of consequences that stem from those

procedures (Anand et al., 2005:4).

2.5.1 Ends and means

An essential strength of the capability approach is clarity about the objective. According

to the capability approach, the objective of both justice and poverty reduction should be

to expand the freedom that deprived people have to enjoy valuable beings and doings.

They should have access to the basic helpful resources, and they should be able to make

choices that matter to them. The significant point about the capability approach is that it

goes beyond the persistent criticism of income to propose an alternative to conceptualize

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both poverty reduction and justice. This alternative includes multiple functionings and

freedoms. The optimism is that further explanation of this objective will build into an

alternative paradigm, a substitute way of identifying and assessing intermediary actions

for instance development, social investment and participation that might contribute to the

objective of enhancing valuable capabilities (Sen, 1988:8-11).

The capability approach and human development argue that human beings and their

flourishing, rather than an increase in economic growth, should be the “end” or objective

of development. In Sen’s work, “The Concept of development” stated what appears to be

his continuing position. For Sen, welfare economics and development should not vary at

all in so far as their objective is concerned. The enhancement of living conditions must

clearly be the essential objective of the entire economic exercise and that enhancement

is an integral part of the concept of development (Sen, 1988: 11). Thus, the status of

human beings as ends of development must be recapped, since Sen (1990:41) argues

that human beings also happen to be directly or indirectly the primary means of all

production. The production by human being should always be sustainable so as to

continue providing for their basic needs.

2.6 The sustainable livelihoods approach

The Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA) puts people at the heart of development just

like what Sen proposed in his capabilities approach. It recognizes that the poor are the

bosses of multifaceted assets. Thus, this study argued that CADEC is enhancing people’s

capabilities so as to enable people to have sustainable livelihoods. The approach search

for an understanding of the numerous livelihoods that people follow and the changes

occurring over time, the resources used in livelihood activities, the constraints faced and

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available opportunities. In Binga livelihood depends on agriculture, hunting, fishing and

trade. The opportunities of people living in this area are very limited since the resources

in their proximity are used to benefit the whole country not only the Binga people. The

approach aims to build the capacity of the local people so that they can be able to develop

or propose their own livelihood strategies. The sustainable livelihoods approach involves

action in enhancing the participation of people in planning their livelihood intervention

options and adopting people-centred strategies; raising the human capital status of

households and communities; promoting formal and informal employment; and ensuring

appropriate utilization of natural resources (UNDP, 2001: 24). In the case of the projects

initiated by CADEC, the interests of Binga people are being put first. The people of Binga

participate in development because they know their real situation and they are aware of

what they really need. Development in this case is a bottom-up approach. Nyerere (1967)

suggests participatory development as a means of developing people. Participatory

development is the active involvement of people in planning, development,

implementation and evaluation of projects and activities that affect them (Ibid).

Accordingly, the Binga people are being given the opportunity by CADEC to realize their

potential, be the authors of their own history and to achieve sustainable livelihoods from

their own efforts.

2.7 Livelihood

The meaning of livelihood differs according to situations. This concept is extensively used

on poverty as well as rural development. In Binga it can be seen as an easy way of living

by meeting needs for shelter, food, clothes, health, education and the environment which

could provide substantial degree of local needs and self-reliance. However, livelihoods

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are more than consumption and income. Ellis (2000) believes that a livelihood is

comprised of assets such as natural, physical, human, financial and social capital. The

activities to access these assets by institutions and social relations together determine

the living gained by the individual, household or community and should be sustainable.

2.8 Sustainable livelihoods as an integrating concept

A sustainable livelihood combines the concepts of sustainability, equity, and capability.

Livelihood means gaining a living. Capabilities are both an end and means of livelihoods:

a livelihood provides the support for the enhancement and exercise of capabilities (an

end) and capabilities (a means) enable a livelihood to be gained. Equity is both an end

and a means and includes adequate and decent livelihoods. The results of this study

indicate that in the struggle to eradicate poverty CADEC’s operation aim to ensure

sustainability of projects, equity among participants and enhancing their capabilities

through working together. All these are encompassed in the vision and mission statement

of the organisation which is to see a society in which the dignity of the human being is

paramount and in which exclusion, discrimination, violence and dehumanising poverty

are no more and to improve the quality of life of the deprived families by promoting,

supporting and sustaining the development of the whole human being as part of the

evangelisation mission of the church respectively.

In this sense, sustainability is both an end and means. That is, sustainable stewardship

of resources is an end in itself and it provides conditions or means for livelihoods to be

sustained for future generations. Therefore, livelihood can be defined as adequate stocks

and flows of food and cash to meet basic needs. A household may be enabled to gain

sustainable livelihood security in many ways for example through ownership of land,

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livestock, right to grazing land, fishing, hunting or gathering and employment with

adequate remuneration among others. Sustainable livelihood is an integrating concept

because it is a precondition for a stable human being, a prerequisite for good agriculture

and sustainable management. A sustainable livelihood becomes a means of serving the

objective of equity and sustainability and providing the resources as well as conditions for

the enhancement and exercise of capabilities. In simple terms a livelihood comprises the

capabilities, assets and activities required for the means of living. It is sustainable since

it can cope and recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and

assets and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation. Moreover

it contributes net benefits to other livelihoods and local and global levels in the short and

long term (Anand et al., 2005:4, Ellis, 2000, Max-Neef et al., 1987:17-20, Sen 1988: 8-

14, UNDP, 2001:24).

2.9 Conclusion

All in all this chapter has discussed the model of human scale development by Max-Neef,

the capabilities approach by Amartya Sen, livelihoods approach and sustainable

livelihood as an integrating concept. These theories complement each other in such a

way that the concepts of basic human needs (Max-Neef), sustainability, equity, and

capability (Sen) are combined the notion of by sustainable livelihood. Livelihood means

gaining a living whilst capabilities are both an end and means of livelihoods. A livelihood

provides the support for the enrichment and exercise of capabilities (an end) and

capabilities (a means) enable a livelihood to be achieved but. In addition sustainability is

both an end and means. That is, sustainable stewardship of resources is an end in itself

and it provides conditions or means for livelihoods to be sustained for future generations.

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Hence, livelihood is argued to be adequate stocks and flows of food and cash to meet

basic needs. Accordingly, Binga households are enabled to gain sustainable livelihood

security through ownership of land, livestock, right to grazing land, fishing, participating

in development projects hunting or gathering and employment with adequate

remuneration among others? Furthermore, poverty is necessitated by the geographic

location of a place, thus wealth attracts wealth and poverty attracts poverty and the faulty

economic system for example discrimination, racism and crime among others. However,

the following chapter discusses the concept of poverty and macro perspectives on

Poverty in Zimbabwe and Binga district.

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Chapter 3: The concept of poverty and macro perspectives of poverty in

Zimbabwe and Binga

3.1 Introduction

The results of this study indicate that despite the criticism levelled against NGOs that they

cater for immediate relief and basic needs only (Treasure, 2009:7-10) is wrong because

the operation of CADEC in Binga showed that it can enhance people’s capabilities, fund

their sustainable projects so as to have sustainable livelihoods. The theoretical framework

combined Max-Neef’s and Sen’s ideas. Max-Neef advocates for the satisfaction of human

needs as a way to end poverty. However, for this study the provision of basic needs was

not adequate to end poverty since CADEC believes in teaching people to do things for

themselves. Thus, the capabilities approach was utilised to fill in the gap of enhancing

people’s capabilities as a way of long term provision of basic needs. Therefore, this

chapter discussed the earlier work done by others on the concept of poverty and its

reduction. A lot has been done and documented on the strategies used by NGOs to

alleviate poverty, this study focused on the strategies used by CADEC to reduce poverty

and their implementation in Binga district. This chapter discussed the concept of poverty

because CADEC in Binga deals with poverty reduction so there is a need to understand

poverty, its types and how it is measured. As a result, the literature presentation approach

is selective, not exhaustive.

In Zimbabwe the failure of development programs aimed to reduce rural poverty and

promote equality in remote areas like Binga distorted the imagined free Zimbabwe by the

year 2000 (Chinake, 1997:39). Thus, this lead to unsuccessful development efforts since

the market-based economic reforms, famine and other interplaying factors, the poor and

disadvantaged sections of the population become more marginalised. As a result

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development is perceived to be a dreadful story of hopes, disappointment, pains, anguish

and conflicts of the majority of African people (Harrison in Osei-Hwedie, 1995:93). Thus,

indeed, the story of people-based development in Zimbabwe can safely be equated to a

development crisis, especially after 33 years of costly failures to reduce poverty. This

avowal can be confirmed by the fact that rural and urban poverty is on the increase

regardless of oratorical commitments to rural development. This miserable scenario is

occupied by other social indicators such as homelessness, high rates of unemployment,

increasing crime, poor water supply, poor transport, poor health and other forms of

deviant behaviour. Again, the poverty of developing countries has been made worse by

the HIV/AIDS epidemic and the unfriendly macro-economic environment (Kamidza, 1996

in Chinake, 1997:39). Thus, 62% of Zimbabweans are said to be living in households with

an individual income insufficient to provide the basic needs of food, shelter, clothing,

education, and access to health and other social amenities. The distribution of poverty is

high in communal areas (81%), resettlement areas and small scale farms (67%),

commercial farms (51%) and in urban areas is low (46%). These statistics should help

the government and NGOs in their efforts to change the suffering of the majority of

Zimbabweans (Chinake, 1997:39-40).

Nonetheless, we can no longer afford to be shameful about the past since NGOs are

complementing the work of the government so that poverty reduction strategies can be a

success. This study therefore seeks to provide the missing link by finding out the

strategies used by NGOs to alleviate poverty, their implementation in Binga district, the

enhancement of capabilities and sustainability of projects run in Binga by CADEC. The

research also investigated whether CADEC is enhancing people’s capabilities and

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whether its projects are sustainable. The results of this study confirm that CADEC is

implementing sustainable development projects like gardening, livestock production and

participation besides providing immediate relief and basic needs to reduce poverty in

Binga. This chapter is going to provide the definition of terms, overview of poverty in the

world, reconceptualise the definition of poverty, and contextualise African concept then

to the Zimbabwean situation.

3.2 Definition of terms

Poverty can be defined as a situation whereby a person is unable to provide adequately

for his or her basic needs such as food, clothing and shelter. It also includes people who

are unable to satisfy social and economic responsibilities, lacks gainful employment,

skills, assets and self-esteem; and have limited access to social and economic

infrastructure. For example, education, health, potable water, and sanitation; and

consequently. Poverty also include those who has limited chance of progressing their

welfare to the limit of his or her capabilities (Sen, 2001 and Max-Neef, 1987:12-13).

Poverty stricken people do not have the means to obtain the recommended diet, to take

part in the activities and to be at par with other community members (Townsend, 1979).

Indicators of Poverty: are the measures of economic performance, standard of living of

the people and it includes the measures of income or purchasing power or consumption

with social indicators, which shows the availability and access to the basic necessities of

life (Household income and expenditure survey 2009/10:1-4)

Poverty Reduction Strategies Paper (PRSP): these are development plan borne out of

joint exertions of a broad range of participants’ poverty reduction that was introduced by

the World Bank. It is normally designed and implemented by the participants and all those

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involved in one way or the other in poverty, poverty alleviation and its related issues. In

other words, the Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) are now a prerequisite by

the World Bank (WB). Countries seeking debt reduction or seeking to borrow money at

especially low International Development Association (IDA) rates must present PRSPs to

the World Bank for approval before the debt forgiveness or loan will be extended. The

PRSP requirement was born as a result of widespread criticism of damage done by World

Bank policies, especially Economic Structural Adjustment Programs in the 1980’s in sub-

Saharan Africa and other places. Acknowledging that development had to be approached

differently, leaders of the Group of 7 (G7) countries decided at a meeting in September,

1999 to implement PRSPs (International Monetary Fund Factsheet, 2013).

Gross Domestic Product (GDP): is the dollar value of all the goods and services

produced within a country but excluding net income from abroad (Sebhendu, 2010:3).

Gross National Product (GNP): is the market value of all the goods and services

produced in Zimbabwe over a specific period of time usually a year at factor cost (Lozano-

Ros 2003:7).

Human Development Index (HDI): this is referred to as the measure of prolonged

existence (longevity), knowledge and income. Prolonged existed is measured by life

expectancy at birth. One’s knowledge is measured by the literacy rate (reading ability)

and the average number of years of schooling. For income, purchasing power parity

(PPP) (based on real GDP) per capita adjusted for the local cost of living is used (Kelley,

1991:314-16).

Globalisation: is a process of creating a global marketplace in which, increasingly, all

nations are forced to participate based on the following key elements: the interconnection

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of sovereign nations through trade and capital flows, harmonization of the economic rules

that govern relationships between these nations; creating structures to support and

facilitate dependence and interconnection (Nesadurai, 2002:2-3).

These definitions of poverty and its related concepts is useful as a preparation for the

overview of global poverty which follows below

3.3 Poverty in the world an overview

Poverty is everywhere in the world and it affects continents, nations and individuals

differently. It upsets people in various magnitudes and levels and at different times and

stages of life. There is no state that is absolutely free from poverty. The main difference

is the concentration and the prevalence of this malaise. Nations in sub-Sahara, South

Asia and Latin America have the highest level of poverty and low level of socio-economic

development (Oyemomi, 2003:16). These nations are also characterised by high level of

political violence, social insecurity, unrest and undesirable standard of living (Oyemomi,

2003:16-17). As a result poverty is perceived to be state whereby people are unable to

provide sufficiently for the basic needs of food, clothing and shelter; are incapable of

meeting social and economic responsibilities, lacks employment, skills, assets and self-

esteem. Again, social amenities such as education, potable water, health and sanitation

are not easily accessible to the poor. Thus, this limited the expansion of the capabilities

of the poor. (Central Bank of Nigeria, 1999:1). This explains the situation of the Binga

people because they are unable to produce basic needs as a result of harsh climatic

conditions such as high temperatures and low rainfall and animals that attack their crops.

Again there are no formal industries in Binga and even if there were industries lack of

skills make the Binga people unemployable in decent job, thus, they remain poor. Again

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this study identified portable water as the main stressing basic need in Binga and CADEC

is fixing boreholes in the district so as to help the needy people. The results of this study

show that the greater chance of advancing capabilities was dealt with by introducing

participation, community projects and training in different activities like fixing boreholes

where people realise and exercise their potentials.

The World Bank (2000:1) exposed the several dimensions of poverty that include well-

being, psychological, basic infrastructure, illness and assets. Thus, for the World Bank

(2000) poverty is a lack of what is necessary for material well-being particularly food,

shelter, land, and other properties. In other words, poverty is the dearth of a number of

necessities of life that results in starvation and physical deprivation. Furthermore, poverty

stricken people do not have voice, power, and autonomy and are subjected to

mistreatment and manipulation. Therefore, being poor leads the poor to be vulnerable to

disrespect, humiliation, and inhumane treatment by the private and government or State

from whom they seek help. With regard to Zimbabwe it is among the 25 poorest countries

in the world. In the 1980s Zimbabwe’s poverty was about 15% of its population, however,

now it is struggling to reduce it from about 70% of its current population of about 13.5

million. In Zimbabwe about 73% of the poverty stricken people are mainly found in the

rural areas where illiteracy is high, there is no potable and clean water and health facilities

are hardly available, road and electricity infrastructures are unavailable or ill-maintained

just like in Binga district.

The World Bank (2000) indicated that the Human Development Index (HDI) of Zimbabwe

was 0.461 which appropriately indicate the miserable state of the countries’ level of

poverty and low human development despite being rich in mineral and agricultural

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resources. The percentage of the poor people in Zimbabwe of the poor has doubled over

the last two decades, during which time the country received over USD300 billion in

agriculture and mineral revenue. However, the level of Zimbabwe’s revenue and her

poverty are illogical since more money is used to benefit the rich leaving the poor poorer.

While the revenue profile of Zimbabwe rose from $4 billion in 1975 to $26 billion in 1980,

and GNP per capita rose from $360 to more than $1000 in the same period, the

percentage of the population that was poor grew from 15% in 1960 to about its present

80%. Zimbabwe used to be ranked 6th and 7th in tobacco and gold production respectively

but unfortunately it is ranked the 195th in GNP per capita and is now unpleasantly ranked

among the 25th underprivileged nation in the world (World Bank, 2000).

Nevertheless, the discussed case above did not come as a result of mere ignorance of

the problem at hand, it was triggered by the land reform policy. It did not come by as a

result of lack of response to the hunger of the poor people who needed freedom from

their awful and miserable state of hopelessness (Chinake, 1997). Thus, through the

Millennium Declaration and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) the world is

addressing the many dimensions of human development, such as halving by 2015 the

proportion of people living in extreme poverty. Developing countries are working to create

their own national poverty eradication strategies based on local needs and priorities.

UNDP advocates for these nationally-owned solutions and helps to make them effective

through ensuring a greater voice for poor people, expanding access to productive assets

and economic opportunities. Additionally, linking poverty programs with countries’

international economic and financial policies. At the same time, UNDP contributes to

efforts at reforming trade, debt relief and investment arrangements to better support

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national poverty reduction and make globalization work for poor people (UNDP, 2002 and

World Bank 2000). One challenge however, is that there is no agreement on how poverty

can be measured.

3.4 Measuring poverty

Poverty can be measured at the level of countries as well as on a global level. Different

methods have been used to measure poverty across countries. For instance, Woolard

and Leibbrandt (1999) use private consumption expenditure as a way of measuring

poverty and they also identify other ways by which poverty has been measured. These

include; Per capita consumption, household consumption, per capita income, per capita

food expenditure, and per capita caloric intake, budget share of food expenditure or food

ratio and average educational level of adult household members. A common method used

to measure poverty at country level is based on incomes or consumption levels. A person

is considered poor if his or her consumption or income level falls below some minimum

level necessary to meet basic needs. This minimum level is usually called the poverty

line. Thus, the poverty line is defined as the minimum level of income that is deemed

necessary to meet basic needs in a certain country. Thus, Max-Neef (1991) tried to have

a better development process and he contended that in the traditional paradigm, there

were poverty indicators such as the Gross National Product (GNP). This was indicator

about the qualitative growth of objects. However, now for him, there is need of an indicator

about the qualitative growth of people. Thus, the best developmental process will be that

which allows the greatest improvement in people’s quality of life. The quality of human

life is determined by the way their capabilities are enhanced and the way their

fundamental human needs are satisfied (Sen, 2001). However, Sen (2001) advocates for

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the enhancement of human capabilities as a way of reducing poverty. If all organisations

focus on the qualitative growth of people, the world will be a better place. What is

necessary is the satisfaction of basic needs across time and societies. But, the way of

satisfying needs vary in time and place. Each country uses lines which are appropriate to

its level of development, societal norms and values (World Bank, 2007). However,

according to the World Bank (2007), poverty satisfaction should be done with similar

poverty lines, expressed in a common unit across countries and in absolute and relative

terms

3.5 Absolute poverty

This is described as a lack of basic security, the absence of one or more factors that

enable individuals and families to assume basic responsibilities and to enjoy fundamental

rights. It is a situation where people’s total earnings are insufficient to acquire the

minimum necessities for the maintenance of merely physical efficiency (Kinwa, 1994: 8).

Triegaardt, (2006: 3) also postulates that absolute poverty implies that households are

unable to meet the basic needs for survival. They are continually hungry, unable to access

health care, lack the amenities of safe drinking water and sanitation. Again, they cannot

afford education for some or all children, lack basic shelter and basic piece of clothing

like shoes. For Max-Neef unsatisfied human needs results in poverty. On the other hand

Sen, (2001) believed that suppression of human capabilities results in poverty.

However, an alternative and more multi-dimensional definition of absolute poverty was

given at the World Summit for Social Development (WSSD) in Copenhagen in 1995 as a

condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe

drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends

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not only on income but also on access to social services (Noble et al., 2004). A measure

of absolute poverty computes the number of people below a poverty threshold. This

poverty threshold is independent of time and place. The poverty threshold or poverty line

is the minimum level of income deemed necessary to achieve an adequate standard of

living. The World Bank (2007) has identified this poverty line and classifies it to be less

than $1 per day for those living in extreme poverty and less than $2 per day for those in

moderate poverty. The Absolute poverty line is fixed in terms of the standard of living

indicator being used over the domain of poverty comparison. Being fixed, comparisons

can be made across the entire poverty domain over time (Mlambo, 2000: 7). Basing on

the theoretical framework of this study (Fundamental human needs and Capabilities

Approach) the operation of CADEC in Binga indicates that it is trying to reduce the

absolute poverty not only by catering for immediate relief and basic needs but also by

enhancing the capabilities of people and increasing the capacity to attain a sustainable

livelihood. However, poverty can be measured better in relative terms than in absolute

terms.

3.6 Relative Poverty

Relative poverty is used in terms of particular groups or areas in relation to the economic

status of other members of the society. Poverty results from and even consists of a lack

of basic securities, which include financial resources, as well as education, employment,

housing, health care and other related aspects. Education is seen as an end of

development in itself and was identified by Sen (1999) as an ability to meet basic needs.

As for Unterhalter et al., (2003) education is seen in this respect as either facilities or

arrangements that facilitate freedom, as well as a hard set of outcomes, capabilities as

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particular skills acquired. In other words, for education to fully enhance freedom and

development it is required that the learning needs of all are met through equitable access

to an education of such quality that leads to learning outcomes that ultimately enhance

individual freedoms to be and to do (Bakhshi et al., 2003). When the consequences of

this insecurity are severe they lead to deprivation of life (Abiche, 2004: 30). With relative

poverty, people might be able to afford basic necessities but are unable to maintain the

standard of living considered normal in the society. The relative poverty line sets a

constant proportion of the national mean of the standard of living measure being used as

the poverty line. Any person whose standard of living falls below this measure is

considered poor (Mlambo, 2000: 7). Thus, this being the case it shows that the majority

of the Binga people are poverty stricken since the majority require humanitarian aid every

year. Because of this CADEC is helping the Binga people by enhancing their capabilities

so that they will continue to benefit from those initiatives even in the absence of NGOs’

assistance. Due to the complexity of the concept of poverty, there is need to understand

it from a political viewpoint as discussed underneath.

3.7 Understanding Poverty: A Political stand on its definition

The meaning, causes and strategies of alleviating poverty are conceptualised differently

by academics, politicians, policy makers and the poor themselves. Therefore, Chinake

(1997:40) is of the view that the difficulty in defining and fighting poverty is more of a

political and technical problem rather than a normal activity. Furthermore, Alcock (1993:3)

blames politicians on the prevalence of poverty since they are the ones who run the

country and are therefore responsible for the problems within it. For, Max-Neef (1991) we

should talk about poverties not poverty since poverty is not restricted to a singular

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situation. This is to avoid the traditional concept of poverty which is limited and restricted

because it wholly refers to the plights of people who may be classified below a certain

income threshold. The traditional concept is too economistic, thus, Max-Neef suggests

that we speak of poverties not poverty. For him, unsatisfied fundamental human needs

leads to poverty, for example, poverty of subsistence is as a result of insufficient income,

food and shelter among others, poverty of protection is caused by bad health systems

and violence among others. Poverty of affection is due to oppression, domination and

manipulative relations with the natural environment among others, poverty of

understanding is as a result of poor quality of education; poverty of membership is as a

result of marginalization and discrimination of women, children and minorities and poverty

of identity is due to imposition of alien values upon local and regional cultures, forced

migration and political exile among others.

However poverties are not only poverties, much more than that unsatisfied poverty

generates pathologies (Max Neef, 1991:16&17). Binga district suffers from the poverty of

subsistence, poverty of protection, poverty of membership and poverty of affection. Thus,

a number of NGOs are working in developing countries to satisfy some of the poverties

identified by Max-Neef. In Binga CADEC focuses mainly on the poverty of subsistence

(food security), understanding and sometimes the poverty of freedom. In other words

CADEC in Binga is working towards the satisfaction of the poverty of subsistence,

understanding and independence.

This implies that the problems encountered in implementing poverty alleviation strategies

and the failure of some development efforts in Zimbabwe can largely be attributed to

factors including a wrong definition of poverty and development, weak political backbone

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to undertake radical change, inadequate resources for valuable jobs and lack of

community participation in the development process by the poverty-stricken in projects

that affect their wellbeing (De Graff, 1986; Alcock, 1993:3-6. UNPD (2001:24) advocates

for the sustainable livelihoods approach since it involves action in enhancing the

participation of people in planning their livelihood intervention options and adopting

people-centred strategies; raising the human capital status of households and

communities; promoting formal and informal employment and ensuring appropriate

utilization of natural resources. In the case of CADEC, Binga people are being made their

own bosses in terms of the projects they run, for example in Simatelele ward people are

now doing their own projects without the directive of CADEC and in Manjolo ward people

were given livestock and now they are breeding them on their own for themselves. They

should be put first and participate in development because they know their real situation

and they are aware of what they really need. Thus, development in this case should be a

bottom-up approach. Nyerere, (1967) advocates for participatory development as a

means of developing people which are the active involvement of people in planning,

development, implementation and evaluation of projects and activities that affect them.

Therefore, the Binga people are being given an opportunity to realize their potential and

be the biographers of their own history and accomplish self-actualization.

Nevertheless, the problem lies in the quantification of basic needs in monetary terms, and

as a result poverty has often been defined in economic issue. As a result, the poverty of

Zimbabwe is attributed to the deprivation of welfare, social power and lack of expanded

human capabilities (World Bank, 1995:2). So as to break the culture of poverty, good

strategies that aim to empower the poor are needed to give them voice and power. So

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we cannot blame the poor because poverty is a multi-dimensional phenomenon with

multifarious linkages. Similarly, Streeten (1981) supported that poverty is multi-

dimensional since for him, poverty is not a single phenomenon. Poverty in Zimbabwe can

also be attributed to other people’s arrogances, a lack of access to credit, and a lack of

real choice over family size, drought and structural adjustment. It is sad to know that

woman and children, aged and disabled are the ones who suffer a lot from poverty since

they don’t have means to run away from it. This means that the effect of poverty on

women and men is different. Women’s discrimination is due to the nature of their sex and

this affects every aspect of their lives, including their participation in community

development activities (Chinake, 1997:41).

Furthermore, the poor also lack the power to make decisions on matters that intimately

affect their welfare. Again, the mechanisms of poverty are at a local level but also interlink

in complex ways with national and international factors. Such factors may include

government policies, international commodity prices, debts, unequal trading practices

and conditional aid. Among the factors that cause poverty, geographical and climatic

considerations also play an important role, since some natural conditions do no favour

the production of people’s basic need for example high temperatures and low rainfall.

All what is needed is to come up with poverty intervening strategies that work effectively

with the poor. NGOs, government and other stakeholders need to have a deep

understanding of the causes of poverty. As a result in the bid to reduce poverty special

focus should be directed towards the perception of the poor concerning poverty and

solutions they dream of. Chinake (1997:41) believed that lack of understanding of poverty

takes away the dignity and self-confidence from those with little or no knowledge of the

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situation. Therefore, the aforementioned analysis for the understanding of poverty help to

untie some of the meanings of poverty in Binga, Zimbabwe, Africa and in the world at

large.

3.8 The meaning of poverty

Since poverty has many causes it becomes multi-dimensional in nature and as a result it

can best be understood from the poor themselves. The poor have their own perception

about poverty Narayan et al., (2002:10) and it looks quite different through their eyes.

Thus, this is unfolded by the various definitions that see poverty in relative terms. For

them, “… poverty is humiliation, the sense of being dependent, forced to accept rudeness,

insults and indifference when they seek help”... They also went on to define poverty from

the perspective of the poor thus he described poverty by the situation he was in, saying:

“...Don’t ask me what poverty is because you have met it outside my house. Look at the

house and count the number of holes. Look at my utensils and the clothes that I am

wearing. Look at everything and write what you see. What you see is poverty....”

Furthermore, poverty can be defined as not having enough for subsistence, a high rate

of infant mortality, low life longevity, high illiterate levels, lack of potable clean water,

inaccessible health care, lack of shelter and a lack of active participation in the decision

making process (Oyemomi, 2003). Poverty is thus a depravation caused by lack of basic

needs of food, clothing and shelter (Aluko 1975). The above definitions focuses on only

the features of poverty. Thus, one can conclude that defining poverty seems to be very

difficult since poverty is easily recognized than defined. The best definition of poverty

should include all the most important capacities in which both man and woman are

deprived and perceived undermined in different communities and societies.

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Accordingly, a good definition of poverty should encompass the relationship between

fundamental magnitudes of poverty and the central importance of gender and

environmentally sustainable development. Specifically the fundamental magnitude of

poverty should take into consideration the economy, humans, political issues, socio-

cultural and human capability emancipation. On the same note Narayan et al., (2000: 29-

30) argues that the definitions of poverty and its consequences vary according to age,

beliefs, gender and other socio-economic contexts because of its multi-dimensional

nature. So after acknowledging the multi-dimensional nature of poverty, they defined

poverty considering the categories they identified as the lack of voice, power,

independence, wellbeing or ill-being, regional and gender inequality among others.

Again, poverty has elements such as lack of voice and power which are explained

differently in various countries. They also explained their experience with a Ghanaian in

1995 who said “… the poor knows what should be done but have no means of

production...” However, implementation of the classification system on the definition of

poverty creates more disagreements on what constitutes poverty at different levels of

society such as the individual, household, community, district, province and country.

However, identifying the poor is difficult since there are inconsistences on the measures

of poverty (OECD, 2000:33). The poor understand and perceive their poverty in terms of

a wide range of non-material and intangible qualities such as uncertainty, lack of self-

esteem and status or a lack of power and opportunity (World Bank, 1999:10). Therefore,

poverty is assumed to be either relative or absolute on one hand. On the other hand,

poverty is seen as everlasting or passing or a dearth of basic necessities and facilities

like food, housing, education, social and environmental service, medical care,

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recreational opportunities, consumer goods, neighbourhood amenities and transport

facilities (Aliyu, 2003:2 and Aboyade, 1987:7). However, due to different situations in

different countries what is considered poverty level in one country or community may well

be the height of well-being in other so same poverty alleviation strategies cannot be

utilised in different areas.

This study therefore concludes that poverty may be seen in relative terms since the Binga

people are comparably poor for the majority of the Zimbabweans. Furthermore, relative

poverty can occur when incomes fall drastically behind that of the community average

(Aboyade, 1987:7). In short relative poverty occurs in comparison with other communities

or other people in the same community thus, being poor means living below the category

deemed adequate by the community. Therefore, it can be concluded that poverty is

deprivation of needs where the poor are unable to satisfy the minimum basic human

needs of food, shelter and clothing to ensure a decent life. Poverty also includes the

incapacities to partake fully in the political and socio-cultural events in one’s community.

In simple terms, poverty is powerlessness (Yaqub, 2002:218). The section below has

narrowed down poverty in the African context so as to have an understanding of poverty

in Africa.

3.9 Poverty in the African context

Poverty in Africa is as a result of lack of basic human needs. Despite the natural resources

in Africa she still falls at the bottom in terms of development. Sub-Saharan countries were

found to be the ones under the lowest human development. This can be attributed to the

mismanagement of land, corruption, diseases, hygiene and sanitation among others.

Accordingly, poverty for Sen is a failure to meet the basic human needs; or to remain

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deprived from such needs is a state of poverty. The basic human needs include not only

food, clothing and dwelling, but also health and education (Sarshar, 2010). Poverty in

African is ascribed to mismanagement of land, corruption, diseases and hygiene and

sanitation among others.

3.9.1 Mismanagement of land

Africa is mainly a rural setting and its land is subject to tribal ownership. In other countries

most of the land is often in the hands of descendants of European settlers of the late 19th

century and early 20th century. For example, about 82% of the arable land in South Africa

is in the hands white settlers (Nelson et al., 2009). Many nations lack a system of freehold

landowning. In others, the laws prevent people from disadvantaged groups from owning

land at all. Even though often these laws are ignored and land sales to poor groups occur,

legal title to the land is not guaranteed. As such, people in most rural Africans settings

rarely have clear title to their own land, so they survive as farm laborers. However, idle

land is plentiful, but is often private property. Most African nations have very poor land

registration systems, making squatting and land theft common occurrences. This makes

it difficult to get a loan, as ownership of the property often cannot be established to the

satisfaction of sponsors (Ibid). Again, African countries are still struggling to get out of

poverty because of corruption.

3.9.2 Corruption

Corruption is an endemic cancer that has contributed to the stunted development and

impoverishment of many African states. Of the top ten countries which are corrupt in

Africa, six are in sub-Sahara. Some scholars argue that African governments need to fight

corruption instead of relying on foreign aid. But anti-corruption efforts on the continent

have shown mixed results in recent years, and analysts fear that major international

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partners are unwilling to exert leverage over African governments. Some experts suggest

African interest in attracting foreign investment will serve to spur more substantive efforts

to fight corruption. Thus, native governments, market reforms and international aid had

a slight effect on the population (Nelson et al., 2009). This signifies that communities

have to solve their difficulties on their own, outside the system. However, the new

international policies, such as the United Nations’ Millennium Development Goal (MDG)

in Africa, have stopped overlooking the effect of politics on local economies on latter than

now. African governments are dishonest to an extent that transparency and

accountability, rule of law, management of public resources, free and fair election together

with an active civil society are now recognized as a vital factor of poverty alleviation. This

is what is known as good governance. Considering the level of corruption and violence of

local councils and governments, it is not shocking to know that the majority of the African

people fend for themselves most of the time, relying on a makeshift economic (Hanson,

2009). This makes them hard to reach by international aid but at least they have an

alternative system to fall back upon i.e. coping through sharing. Not only farmers in rural

areas but African urbanites as well succeed in avoiding the hooks of the law. Thus, this

makes many development policies totally unsuccessful together with the dilemma of

deadly diseases.

3.9.3 Diseases

HIV-AIDS is a diseases that has affected Africa and made it hard to attain economic

development. This disease deprives individuals, households and communities and this

has further established the roots of poverty in Africa (Whiteside, 2002). This is a malicious

cycle by which poverty boosts the spread of HIV which in turn increases poverty. The

case of the poor in South Africa shows that despite the country’s substantial growth that

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wealth is still too concentrated in the hands of an uninfected minority especially whites

and blacks in power. As a result the gap between the rich and the poor only gets bigger

and bigger. This makes it harder for the disadvantaged people to catch up with the well-

off. Some of the diseases like cholera are a result of poor hygiene and sanitation.

3.9.4 Hygiene and sanitation

The issue of basic sanitation and hygiene is attributed to educational issue. Hygienic

habits have regularly stopped millions of deaths worldwide in the past decades. Just like

in all the countries where it happened, massive full-scale educational campaigns are

needed to significantly alleviate poverty in Africa (Hanson, 2009). Below are the

theoretical foundations that explain poverty and its causes.

3.10 Individualistic theory of poverty The individualistic theory explains poverty as a result of the characteristics that are inborn

in the individual which includes the personality of the person as well as his or her personal

abilities in life such as intellect. This theory is of the view that people are poor in life

because of their inabilities to compete with others for resources. As a result of this, they

end up being caught up in poverty and its related effects (Bradshaw, 2006:6). For example

disabled people cannot compete with able bodied people over resources and as a result

they remain poor. Thus, this theory sees the cause of poverty as something that the

individual is born with and for that reason cannot do anything about the situation and as

a result, his or her life is being determined by his contemporary condition. However, the

theory fails to identify the abilities of people who are born with disabilities of doing

something that can push them out of their poverty situations. Disabilities will only result in

poverty when the individual concerned is not willing to do something to improve upon his

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or her condition and for that matter becomes comfortable with his condition (Paul, 2007).

With regard to the Binga situation the majority are born poor but CADEC and other NGOs

are helping people to escape poverty through providing basic needs and enhancing their

capabilities so as to have a sustainable livelihood.

Furthermore, another interpretation of this theory sees poverty as a result of acquired or

developed personality traits such as the character of an individual. Some people are born

with the personality of being lazy and as a result of that, they are not willing to participate

expressively in life and for that matter they depend on others for assistance in life. Thus,

it is people’s choices they make in life as well as their characters such as laziness always

that results poverty (Bradshaw, 2006:6-7). In other words the individualistic theory of

poverty explains and blames the individual for their poverty but it fails to recognize the fact

that, these factors in themselves cannot lead to poverty but it serves to establish causal

links that may in effect trigger and promote factors that can push the individual into poverty

(Pete, 2006). The idea of blaming the person for his or her own poverty based on morality

is often considered as an ideology and is not applicable in helping to shape the discourse

on poverty in relation to development because it lacks evidence. Also the theory is

criticised on the basis that, people who might appear to have inherited the characteristics

associated with poverty do not themselves become poor (Paul, 2007). Furthermore,

poverty can be attributed to result of cultural influences.

3.10.2 Cultural theory of poverty

This theory of poverty explains the persistence of poverty as a product of the culture of

poverty. The culture of poverty became a strong idea in the war on Poverty with the

writings of Oscar Lewis and Oliver La Farge in 1959 on their study of poor Latin American

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families in an effort to explain the similarities between lower class families in Mexico

and Puerto Rico. The culture of poverty presupposes that the poor have unique patterns

of behaviour and priorities of values that distinguish them and these unique

characteristics always cause them to be trapped by poverty. That is a set of values

are transmitted from generation to generation through the process of socialization

and have become the subcultural determinants of the lower socio-economic status of the

poor and this leads to a vicious cycle of poverty and is only a few who are able to get out

of the poverty cycle. An analysis of this theory to the explanation of poverty is very

important in development because it helps us to know how culture influences the

development because culture is a constitute part of development (Bradshaw, 2006:8).

This theory gives an understanding of how poverty can be undertaken by changing the

value system and motivations in a given society. Consequently, people are poor because

their values are embedded in personality characters which were acquired through the

process of socialization (Bradshaw, 2006: 7-80). Thus, in order to tackle poverty in such

an environment, there is the need to change the whole values of the people and

incorporate into them, a new set of values and motivations. In spite of the usefulness of

the culture of poverty model, it also has some weaknesses in the sense that the

application of the model was only limited to developing countries. Lewis and La Farge

(1959) assert that the culture of poverty is mostly likely to be found in developing

economies. This assumption does not hold since poverty is also widespread in developed

countries as well. Poverty is a global phenomenon and therefore it is not limited to 3rd

World or developing countries alone but also some developed countries are still battling

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with the issue of poverty. Poverty in some places can be attributed to societal structural

arrangements.

3.10.3 Structural perspective of poverty

As of the structural perspective, the poor manifest certain patterns of behaviour which are

not internally generated as a result of their unique values but their actions are influenced

by external factors as a result of their occupying an unfavourable position in a restrictive

social structure. Thus, the poor behave differently not because they have adopted the

dominant values but they do not have the opportunity to realize these values through the

socially sanctional avenues. The life courses and chances of people are usually

determined by the social forces and circumstances that surround them. Economic growth,

labour market opportunities, educational facilities in a country provides a framework in

which the standards of living as well as the social relations of people are always created

and recreated (Bradshaw, 2006:9 & 10). The structures that are inherent in the society

including the organisation of social relations such as race, gender, class and power

determines the destiny of people. In other words, it is the failure of the structures in the

society that causes poverty among people (Chaim, 1983).

In reinforcement of the above argument, failures resulting from government policies and

programmes can also result in poverty through cuts in government spending and welfare

programmes as well as inefficiencies and corruption in the administration. For instance,

the introduction of the Structural Adjustment Programme as a condition for loans and

repayment by the International Monetary Fund in most developing countries resulted in

cutbacks in vital social services, education and health and thus pushing more people in

poverty. Chinake (1997:41) believed that the structural adjustment programmes

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worsened poverty in many African countries including Zimbabwe. The structural theory

sees poverty as resulting from capitalism. In a capitalist economy, profit is the main

motivation for production. A capitalist wage labour market produces poverty in order for it

to operate efficiently through exploitation. A large number of the poor are usually not

employed on a full time basis and also the use of capital intensive methods of production

such as the use of machines and technology causes joblessness and as a result the poor

end up experiencing periodic unemployment and therefore creating a poll of excess

labour. This makes it possible for the capitalist to enjoy higher profits by way of reducing

wages of the labourers at the expense of the poor. In order to explain the dynamics of

poverty, there is the need to go beyond the level of the individual and community agents

and focus on political action. MacGregor (1981) in his book “Politics of Poverty” argued

that, policies to combat poverty are the products of political decisions. Poverty is seen as

a result of political failure. Poverty is also seen as resulting from the biases in the structure

of the society in the form of social exclusion and disadvantage. These biases usually tend

to work against people such as those with learning disabilities, the disabled as well as

those older people making them to be vulnerable in the society. Vulnerability is a result

of discrimination. In explaining poverty by the use of the structural approach, it helps to

address factors in the society that perpetuates poverty by not changing the poor

themselves but rather changing the situation of the poor by way of correcting the

restrictive social structures that perpetuates poverty. This helps in analysing deprivation

by looking at the broader view of the mechanisms and institutions in the society that

causes poverty rather than concentrating on the individual (Bradshaw, 2006:9-11).

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Therefore, an exploration of the individualistic, cultural and structural perspectives of

poverty is very important to efforts aimed at reducing poverty in the sense that, these

theories provide a framework for legislators in the field of development. The individualistic

theory helps to inform policy makers on poverty that giving the poor a better chance in

competition with others does not help in eradicating poverty but rather it improves the

individual prospects. These strategies will only reduce poverty in so far as it has a

collective impact rather than focusing on the relative positions of individuals and therefore

the need to focus on policies that aims at reducing poverty on a collective basis. The

structural aspect of poverty helps to address the issue of economic growth and

development being taken as a poverty reduction strategy (Ruth, 2004). Economic growth

is often perceived to lead to improvement in the living standards of people but an analysis

of the structural perspective has revealed that, it has rather pushed people into poverty

through displacement of work of people in a changing economy making people to be

unemployed. Economic growth is not a guarantee of human development. Meaning that

promotion of economic growth is sometimes done at the expense of inequality. For growth

to promote equality, there is the need to reduce poverty and create employment, it has to

be an inclusive growth rather than just an economic growth. Thus, the conclusion that can

be drawn from the theories of poverty in so far as development is concerned is that they

explain the causes of poverty rather than finding practical solutions to reduce poverty.

However, they provide a framework upon which poverty reduction strategies may be built

in that it addresses poverty from different perspectives and one’s perspective of poverty

determines the kind of strategies used in alleviating it (World Bank, 2000). Having looked

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at different concepts and theories of poverty there is need to provide a discussion on

poverty in Zimbabwe so as to have an overview of the study area.

3.11 Poverty in Zimbabwe

Poverty and unemployment are both prevalent in Zimbabwe, driven by the shrinking

economy and hyper-inflation. Poor economic growth, high unemployment and unequal

distribution of income and wealth are the roots of poverty in Zimbabwe. Thus, the

populaces living below the Total Consumption Poverty Line (TCPL) in Zimbabwe rose

from 55% of the total population in 1995 to 72% in 2003 (Mbiriri, 2010). This state was

intensified when the country experienced a 40% decline of GDP between 2000 and 2008.

The level of structural unemployment in Zimbabwe was 63% with the highest amongst

females (70%) than males (56%) in 2003. Rural areas had higher structural

unemployment rate (62%) than urban areas (35%). In general, the Human Poverty Index

(HPI) declined from 0.654 in 1990 to 0.513 in 2005. This was mainly due to the

deteriorated macroeconomic situation characterized by a hyperinflation, unemployment

and declining economic output as well as a rapidly shrinking manufacturing sector. Thus,

both unemployment and poverty rates run near 80%. As of January 2006, the official

poverty line was ZWD 17,200 per month which was equal to US$202. However, as of

July 2008 this had risen to ZWD 13 Trillion per month, thus US $41.00. Most general

labourers were being paid under ZWD 200 Billion which was equal to US 60c per month.

As of September (2006) a nurse’s salary was Z$12, 542 (12 US cents), less than the cost

of a soft drink. The current account balance of the country was negative, standing at

around US -$517 million. However the situation under the unity government was so hard

because the country did not have its own currency, it was using other countries’

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currencies like the South African Rand, United States dollar and Botswana Pula. In reality

this is not a healthy situation for a country (Ibid).

Furthermore, the proportion of people living below the Food Poverty Line (FPL) increased

from 29% in 1995 to 58% in 2003, and an estimated 1.3 million people were food insecure

at the peak of the lean season in February and March 2011 (World Bank, 2012).

Again, the percentage of half-starved under-fives rose from 13% in 1999 to 15% in 2010.

This indicates that undernourishment remains a serious problem in Zimbabwe, upsetting

a considerable number of children under the age of five. However, supportive land reform

policies, tailing pro-poor and inclusive growth, promoting governance reform,

strengthening the social protection system and strengthening consensual and

multidimensional partnership for adequate resource mobilization to support economic

recovery were some of the steps to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger in Zimbabwe.

The section underneath provides the causes of poverty in Zimbabwe.

3.12 Causes of poverty in Zimbabwe

The causes of poverty in Zimbabwe can be grouped into internal and external factors.

Internal factors causing poverty in Zimbabwe include contradictory economic and social

policies, corruption, political violence and oppression in the country (Chinake, 1997:42).

Chinake argues that poverty reduction strategies put in place during the early

independence period failed to address the root out causes of poverty and Economic

Social Adjustment Programme (ESAP) introduced in the 1990s worsened poverty in

Zimbabwe. Additionally, the exclusion of subsidies on social services also increased costs

of social services and reduced access to these services among Zimbabweans. As a

result, blame for the slow progress in achieving MDGs is put on a number of problems,

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such as, the weakening in the living standards due to the decrease of real incomes and

rising unemployment; increased food insecurity among the poor because of the decline

in agricultural production, caused by land reform; a sharp decline in the quality of social

services and infrastructure strangely in education and health sectors caused by lack of

sufficient resources and the mass departure of professionals (Chinake, 1997:39-40).

External factors causing poverty in Zimbabwe include persistent drought, removal of

donor aid from the public sector following the hotly contested parliamentary and

presidential elections in 2000, 2002, 2008 and 2013, the sanctions imposed by the

European Union (EU) and the United States of America (U.S.A) in 2000. In other words,

the Zimbabwean economy failed to support its social and productive sectors due to

reduced levels of aid, foreign investment, trade opportunities and travel warnings against

leading Zimbabwean politicians by countries bothered by the situation prevailing in the

country (Basilwizi trust, 2010:13). Hence the rising levels of poverty in Zimbabwe and in

districts such as Binga. However, CADEC came in to complement the role of the

government in alleviating poverty in remote areas like Binga by providing basic needs

and enhancing people’s capabilities as well as enabling the sustainability of projects that

benefit the poor. Thus, the findings of this study show that poverty in Binga is decreasing

because of the sustainable projects funded by CADEC, inclusion in decision making,

community gardens and participation in the projects.

3.13 Poverty in Binga district

Binga is one of Zimbabwe’s fifty-seven administrative districts. It is located in the north-

western part of Zimbabwe, bordering Zambia, and has an estimated population of over

138074. There are a few migrants from other parts of the country in the extreme eastern

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and south-western parts of the district; the vast majority of the population belongs to the

Tonga ethnic group, which is one of Zimbabwe’s ethnic minorities. Binga is one of the

country’s most isolated districts. The district headquarters is over 400 kilometres from

Bulawayo (the provincial headquarters and nearest major urban centre) and considerably

further from the national capital, Harare. Most parts of the district are not well suited to

agriculture, since temperatures are high, rainfall is generally low and very erratic, much

of the terrain is hilly and, except in the river valleys and the soils tend to be poor.

Furthermore, there is a large wildlife population, both within and outside protected areas

(Zimbabwe, 1996). Thus, it was because of this isolation and poverty concentration that

prompted CADEC to assist the Binga people.

The Binga district’s history and economy is dominated by the Zambezi River, which

constitutes the 150-kilometre-long border between Binga District and neighbouring

Zambia (see figures 1 and 2 on page 4 and 5). Until fewer than fifty years ago, most

people lived near the river, where they enjoyed a life of relative subsistence affluence,

cultivating in the fertile flood plain, fishing in the river and hunting wild game. The Tonga

people in Binga, Zimbabwe had close social ties with the Tonga people on the Zambian

side of the river. However, in 1957 the Kariba Dam was constructed 130 kilometres

downstream and the river was engulfed by the 5,200-square-kilometre span of water,

known as Lake Kariba, created by the dam. The people living along the river were forced

to move to escape the floodwaters but also because most of the land along the shores of

the new lake was designated for other purposes, including wildlife and forest reserves

and tourist development (Zimbabwe, 1996). The areas where they were resettled are too

dry for reliable dry land cultivation and floodplain cultivation is no longer possible, partly

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because the resettled areas are far from the lake. Once more, cultivation along the

lakeshore and stream banks is prohibited in order to prevent soil erosion and siltation.

Every chiefdom resettled was allocated a fishing camp on the lakeshore; however,

permanent residence in these camps was prohibited until recently and fishing is strictly

controlled. Moreover, and of particular significance to this study, wild animals frequently

attack both crops and people. Nevertheless, killing animals either for food or to defend

people or crops is strictly prohibited. Last but not least, the people’s social life was

disrupted since the graves of their ancestors were flooded and they lost contact with

relatives and friends on the Zambian side (Scudder, 1962).

However, the construction of the dam has brought some benefits to the district.

Commercial fishing and tourism industries have developed along the lakeshore, a tarred

road now links the district headquarters to Bulawayo and other parts of western

Zimbabwe. The district headquarters and a few other centres now have electricity.

However, since the fishing and tourism industries are dominated by outsiders, the local

people have not benefited as much as they might in terms of income or employment.

Furthermore, access to economic infrastructure and social services to the Binga people

continues to be poor as compared to other districts. As a result of all these factors, the

people of Binga are among the poorest and most disadvantaged in the country. For

example, in the only nationwide survey of household poverty undertaken in Zimbabwe

(Zimbabwe, 1996), Binga together with Buhera district ranked highest in terms of the

percentage of households considered to be living in poverty. Thus, for a clear

understanding of the suffering of the Binga people, one needs to contextualise poverty in

the district.

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3.14 Contextualising poverty in Binga

Binga district suffers from high levels of poverty, food shortages and lack the basic socio-

economic services. About 90% of the population in Binga are poor and requires

humanitarian aid every year. The predicament of the Binga people is largely due to the

involuntary displacement in 1957 to make way for the Kariba Dam. This displacement

remains a scar of cruelty to the Binga communities since no reparation was made either

at community level through the provision of basic infrastructure and services or at

household level for loss of entitlements, livelihoods, disrupted social networks, lands and

natural resources (Chege, 1999:2-8). Thus, the lives of the Binga people have been hard,

painful and a struggle year in and year out since they were taken away from their land,

their shrines, and the graves of their ancestors. Even now after the invasion of the Tonga

and Korekore territory, poverty and disaster risks have increased in both pace and

magnitude (Gugerty, 2008).

Furthermore, exclusion and marginalisation of these communities by the colonial, post-

independence and unity governments are another major cause of the vulnerability of the

Binga communities. Again, successive prohibitive legal and policy frameworks have been

used to exclude the communities from access to both internal and external resources to

meet their basic needs. In addition, lake-based industries which exclusively at their

proximity serve national rather than local interests. Increased control and access by local

groups to fishing rights, water resources and wildlife revenues remains one of the

strategies for reducing persistent poverty and vulnerability in Binga communities

(Suharko, 2007:17-19 and Gugerty, 2008).

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Since the 1960s, affected communities in Binga have made a number of initiatives to get

rid of their situation but were not successful. The government continued to treat displaced

people in the same way as communities that remained undisturbed in their localities.

However, churches and NGOs intervened but only succeeded in aid efforts that

addressed the results of the problem and not the problem itself (Oyugi, 2004 and Chinake,

1997:4). Binga is characterised by droughts, low rainfall, tsetse flies and tick-borne

diseases. These natural hazards can trigger, rather than cause humanitarian crises

manifest in malaria, diarrhoea and malnutrition (Redekop, 2000:145-148). Nevertheless,

focusing on natural hazards as a complete explanation for humanitarian crises causation

is myopic and diverts attention from major issues located in the social, economic, and

political development arenas. CADEC’s vision and mission of focusing on poverty of was

triggered by the first millennium development goal which is to eradicate extreme poverty

and hunger.

3.15 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs and poverty reduction strategies

(PRS)

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) brought poverty onto the global development

agenda and encouraged all nations to renew their commitment to the battle against

poverty. As a result, governments and development agencies all over the world are now

paying more attention than ever before to measures to improve the quality of life by

reducing poverty. The need to formulate Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRS) also brought

the issue of poverty to the fore in almost all socio-economic and political debates in

developing countries. The PRS process presents a range of challenges, from facilitating

and managing effective participation in identifying policies for pro-poor growth. By making

its PRS its main development policy instrument, the governments of developing countries

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are showing their commitment to poverty reduction and wealth creation, especially in rural

areas.

PRSs first emerged in 2000 as country strategies for addressing poverty. They act as

road maps, by setting out priorities for poverty-focused domestic policies and

programmes as well as for development assistance. They are developed under the

leadership of national governments, with the coordinated support of the International

Financial Institutions (IFIs), bilateral donors and the UN. PRSs are results-oriented,

containing targets and indicators. Most are set within a three to five year rolling time frame

(UN, 2011:1-4). Below is the discussion of international organisations that adopted the

PRSP and placed poverty reduction at heart.

3.16 International organisations and the PRSPs

This section considers how different international organisations and agencies have

adopted the PRSPs and placed them at the top of the global agenda on development and

fighting poverty. Four (4) international actors, and specifically their directorates concerned

with development and the fight against poverty: the European Union (Directorate General

for Development DG DEV), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and

Development (Development Co-operation Directorate and Development Assistance

Committee DCD-DAC), the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and the United

Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). The European

Union and the PRSPs. The European Union (EU) is a major actor in the global

architecture of development aid. Since the mid-nineties the European Commission (EC)

has become the largest multilateral donor in the world, surpassing the leading role of the

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World Bank specifically the International Development Association (IDA) (Lehtinen, 2003

and IDA, 2007). The EU’s development policy has expanded gradually by enlarging the

countries, thematic areas and mechanisms by which development aid is provided. It now

covers developing countries all over the world; it addresses sectorial development

policies in a wide variety of areas.

3.17 Conclusion

This chapter has discussed poverty as a multifaceted phenomenon viewed by different

people to mean different things. The causes of poverty are as numerous and complex as

the way it is viewed. This is the case as has been discussed with the use of the different

theories. The diversity of its causes also explains the diversity of how it is measured. It is

measured either as absolute or relative yet each country has its own poverty lines. This

only goes a long way to explain the diversity of this concept of poverty. The concentration

of poverty in Zimbabwe, in Binga to be specific, encouraged NGOs to chip in to help

reduce the plights of poverty. Due to political, economic and structural causes of poverty

in Zimbabwe, individuals and NGOs are focusing on developing themselves through

different projects. Similarly this study argues that the suffering of the Binga people cannot

be eased by provision of direct aid only, but by community participation and funding of

sustainable projects. This lines up with the views of Sen (1985:42-44) who believed that

human capabilities should be expanded so as to earn a sustainable livelihood. However,

will the NGOs succeed in reducing poverty in Binga district? The next chapter is going to

discuss the role of NGOs in poverty alleviation in Zimbabwe.

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Chapter 4: The role of NGOs in poverty alleviation in Zimbabwe

4.1 Introduction

This study investigated the strategies used by NGOs to reduce poverty in Zimbabwe and

used the case study of CADEC in Binga district. Being anchored on the Human Need

theory and the Capabilities Approaches, the core argument emanating from the study is

that although NGOs are criticised for focusing on immediate relief and the provision of

basic needs only (Treasure, 2009:7-10), CADEC’s operation in Binga shows that it can

operate in such a way that can enhance people’s capabilities and provide them with a

sustainable livelihood. As a result the NGOs’ desire to work in third world countries

emerged as a result of the MDGs. In the year 2000 the United Nation (UN) members

signed the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) so as to end poverty.

They agreed on 8 MDGs and the first one was to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.

In order to achieve this a target to reduce by half the proportion of people living on less

than a US dollar a day by the year 2015 was set. However, if the target can be followed,

there will be an opportunity to end the extreme poverty by 2025 (Sach, 2005: 25).

This shows that poverty is the greatest challenge of global societies. Nations are working

hard to eradicate poverty by all means. In developing countries the efforts of the state are

not good enough to help every citizen. As a result, NGOs chip in to complement the efforts

of the state (Suharko 2007:1). Thus, this study found out that the criticisms levelled

against NGOs that the cater for immediate relief and basic needs is wrong since NGOs

like CADEC in Binga are enhancing the capabilities people so as to have better lives

through programs that are designed and geared towards meeting their needs and the

needs of communities that are left behind in development. Again, from the results of this

study, it can be deduced that the enhancement of capabilities empowers people and

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promotes equality and reduces inequality and as a results participants are integrated by

working in different projects that benefit them. Therefore, NGOs are playing a crucial role

in poverty reduction in developing countries such as Zimbabwe.

4.2 Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)

Social scientists define NGOs as organizations which possess four defining

characteristics that distinguish them from Civil Society (CS). Rohman (2013) defined

NGOs as societies that are regarded as self-governing, non-profit and with a clear social

mission and vision. They are voluntary, dependent, non-profit making and self-serving

(Edwards and Hulme, 1996). The World Bank (1995) defines Non-Governmental

Organisations as private organisations that pursue activities to relieve suffering, promote

the interests of the poor, protect the environment, provide basic social services, or

undertake community development. In another dimension, Liebenberg (2000) refers

NGOs to autonomous, privately set up, non-profit-making institutions that support,

manage or facilitate development action by providing socio-economic activities for the

needy. NGOs can have their origin from outside the country (international) or within the

country (local).

Although the term NGO remains conceptually vague, in this study it refers to

organizations existing apart from governments, operating on a nonprofit basis with an

emphasis on voluntarism, pursuing a directive of providing developmental services and

complementing the role of the government in development. These organisations also

referred to as NGOs, Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), Private Voluntary Organizations

(PVOs), charities, non-profit charities or charitable organizations and third sector

organizations among others (Anheir, 1990).

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However, in the 20th century issues of poverty reduction in developing countries,

principally in Zimbabwe, have been mostly related with the successes of NGOs.

Nevertheless, regardless of the rising status that NGOs have won for themselves and

their work for the past years, their contribution to development remains limited (Edwards

et al., 1992:14). This is in spite the fact that various evaluations of the achievements of

NGOs view them as instigators of development wherever they are located. They play a

significant role in poverty reduction and provide services in the various communities in

which they are (De Beer et al., 2000). Nevertheless, these successes have not translated

into a thoroughgoing developmental breakthrough and therefore there must certainly be

something erroneous somewhere. Maybe the projects are not good or they are good but

poorly executed (Suharko, 2007:17).

Thus, the above criticisms are in contrast with the findings of this study since this study

argues that NGOs can operate in such a way that the capabilities of the participants can

be enhanced in a way that districts like the Binga can be capable of independently

engaging in sustainable livelihoods and development. The success stories of NGOs are

unseparated from their roles in reducing poverty itself, providing immediate relief services

and manipulating the government policies affecting the poor. Thus, as a new actor and

an autonomous organization, which is well-known for its participatory approaches, NGOs

have prospered in closing the gap left by the government’s and the market’s failure to

provide basic social services and reduce poverty. Furthermore, the credence that NGOs

represent the voices of poor people has made it much easier for them to work with the

poor people at the grassroots level which the government has found difficult to do. This

supports the findings of this study since CADEC works with the poor people in Binga so

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as to know their real situation. Therefore, this leads to the overall supposition that NGOs

always do good things and the over generalization that all NGOs are good. However,

people nowadays are more sceptical, realistic and objective in observing NGOs in the

context of their roles in poverty alleviation based on some cases which have shown a

decrease in NGOs’ performance (Rohman, 2013).

There are certainly thousands of either governmental or private organisations involved in

promoting or initiating development projects or programs in Zimbabwe. NGOs involved in

development activities provide direct employment for thousands of Zimbabweans. They

are found in both urban and rural localities throughout the country working across a range

of activities. They are a major source of foreign exchange to the national exchange. NGOs

deliver goods and services to a population that provides little feedback on the range or

quality of product delivered. Compared to usual market or political settings, beneficiaries

have a weakened ability to use market forces to penalize and reward NGOs. Citizens can

vote out an incumbent from office and consumers can choose not to purchase a product

from a for-profit provider, but the community may be captive to the particular development

scheme that happens to be funded by the designated local NGO (Banks and Hulme,

2012:5).

However, one consequence is that NGOs face more direct incentives to manage donor

satisfaction than beneficiary welfare. Indeed, donations are the only “market force” in the

non-government sector industry, where donors can be viewed as desiring to improve the

quantity and quality of the product of the NGO without having their donation expropriated.

Thus, looking at the donor and funding base of NGOs will reveal the primary set of

interests that an NGO is forced to manage (Anheir, 1990). Thus, this study’s findings are

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in harmony with (Nyathi, 2012:136) who recommends that for NGOs to prosper they

should move away from their role as service providers to that of facilitators and supporters

of development through the enhancement of people’s capabilities.

4.3 Why NGOs in development?

The failure of the developing countries’ government due to poor governance, corruption,

failure to lead fairly and to provide for their citizens triggered NGOs to chip in as a helping

hand to the government. Thus, it is within this context that alternative forms of

development have been pursued. CADEC decided to operate in Binga because it was

excluded from other districts and marginalised, the government does not intervene on the

dilemmas of the Binga people. Consequently, as from the 1980s, NGOs have been

increasingly supported as a means through which the gulf between citizens’ needs and

existing services can be bridged. Hulme (2012:2) believed that NGOs neatly fitted into a

gap created by the failure of the country to satisfactorily provide goods and services or

lack of a capacitating atmosphere that benefits inhabitants so as to gain meaningful

livelihoods. He went on to say that NGOs came into the development arena to help the

disadvantaged and marginalized groups who were excluded from the available state

organizations. As a result, one can say that NGOs came in the development arena to

back up the role of the government. In other words NGOs supplements the roles of the

government (Nyathi, 2012:5). However, NGOs are criticised for focusing more on service

provision than community development and empowerment (Treasure, 2009:7-10).

Nevertheless, this criticism was proved wrong by the results of this study since CADEC

is enhancing people’s capabilities and is implementing sustainable projects in Binga

district. The sustainability of projects brings long-term structural changes which lead to

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the acknowledgement of NGOs within the good governance agenda, given their strong

position for developing the state (Banks and Hulme, 2012:2-3). However, what triggered

the emergence of NGOs and their expansion in the development sphere?

4.4 The emergence and expansion of NGOs in development

The emergence of NGOs came as a result of the alleged calamities of state-led

development approaches during the 1970s and 1980s. Consequently, the calamities

together with the failure of the modernization and dependency theory brought about a

new development alternatives, which is NGOs that offer advanced and people-centred

approaches to service delivery, support and empowerment. Although, NGOs have won a

good status for themselves in the development arena, their classification is still a problem

(Vakil, 1997:2060). Some difficulty in classification is a result of their origin and levels of

formality (Lewis and Kanji, 2009). Usually there are different names that act like

classificatory elements namely NGOs and third sector and they help to understand a

diverse set of organisations. Consequently, Vakil, (1997:2060-2062) suggested that the

classification should be based on their functional areas, economic and financial

considerations, legal status and their organizational features that NGOs are both non-

state and self-governing. Furthermore, NGOs have been classified by what they are not,

for example, nor profit-making organisations. Some definitions specify that they aim to

meet the interests of poor and disadvantaged groups (Banks and Hulme 2012:3). Thus,

this study accepted the name Developmental NGO, although this classification still

embraces a diverse set of organisations, ranging from informal, small, community-based

organisations to large, high-profile, international NGOs working through local partners

across the developing world. For better understanding NGOs are defined and classified

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according to their type. NGOs based in one country and seeking development objectives

abroad are often referred to as International or Northern NGOs (INGOs or NNGOs).

These types of NGOs are very powerful and have huge sums of finance and resources,

but do not have grassroots knowledge of the countries they desire to assist. As a result

they work at the local level through local partners or Southern NGO partners (SNGOs),

who are in close proximity to poor communities that needs help. North-South

partnerships, tend to be unbalanced since the Northern NGOs exercises their power over

local NGOs and as a result the agenda of reducing poverty is lost (Banks and Hulme,

2012:3).

Accordingly, the unequal relationships make the strategies of reducing poverty ineffective

(Lewis and Kanji, 2009 in Banks and Hulme 2012:4). So the classificatory difficulties,

definitions and justifications for the emergence of NGOs have centred on their ability to

offer a development alternative, which is to fill in the gaps caused by the failure of the

country to provide for its people. However, NGOs’ strength is a result of their ability to

have grassroots linkages and the ability to influence community participation through

projects that aim to enhance the potentials of the disadvantaged groups and help them

gain a voice in the governance which they have so far been excluded (Bebbington et al.,

2008). Through the adoption of empowerment NGOs strive to meet the needs of the poor

through assist them in expressing their needs themselves through participatory, people-

centred, and rights-based approaches (Banks and Hulme, 2012:4-5). Thus, the central

argument of this study is in harmony with Banks and Hulme (2012) on the sense that

CADEC do not offer immediate relief and basic needs only to the Binga people, but it also

expands people’s capabilities through participation and facilitates the attainment of a

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sustainable livelihood. However, the modus operandi of NGOs in Zimbabwe is different

depending on their classification.

4.5 Classification of NGOs in Zimbabwe

NGOs working in Zimbabwe can be classified into seven groupings:

Foreign-based but locally-registered (international) NGOs

Independent Zimbabwean organisations, operating in more than one locality

Independent Zimbabwean associations, operating in only one locality

Church-based Zimbabwean organisations, operating in more than one locality

Church-based associations, operating in only one locality

Politically-linked Zimbabwean organisations, operating in more than one locality

Politically-linked Zimbabwean associations, operating in only one locality.

The seven listed classification distinguishes between formal organisations and loose

associations, between foreign and locally-based organisations, between associations

which are affiliated or linked to particular broader groups (mainly churches and political

parties) or which are independent and finally between groupings which are confined to

activities in one area and those whose geographical spread is wider - perhaps across a

district, throughout a particular province, or nationwide. Funding source differences are

often seen as important by the NGOs: foreign-based NGOs usually obtain all their funds

from outside Zimbabwe, while the range of domestic based NGOs receives varying

amounts of funds from abroad. In general, the more geographically dispersed and

therefore larger the NGO and the less it is linked to a major institutions such as a church

or a political party, the greater tends to be its financial dependence upon foreign funds

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(Banks and Hulme, 2012:4-7). Being given a classification of NGOs in Zimbabwe, their

role is of utmost importance to discuss.

4.6 The role of NGOs in Zimbabwe

In earlier years in Zimbabwe, almost all the NGOs were involved in some form of welfare

work especially during the war years (1964-1979) when emergency relief was of such

importance. However, since independence there has been a marked shift towards

development work, even if welfarism still plays an important and often prominent role in

the work of NGOs. Within the development category, one can also distinguish between

those for whom self-management membership is of central importance and those for

whom helping and assisting in a more paternalistic way is more the norm. The bulk of

NGO activities take place in the Mashonaland provinces, the least in the two provinces of

the Matabeleland North and South (De Graaf et al., 1991: 20).

In the development sphere, most NGO interventions in Zimbabwe are concentrated

around three broad areas of activity:

Designing and executing concrete projects for particular targeted groups

Imparting particular skills, usually on an individual basis

Organising or enhancing local groups, in order to increase their ability to take

responsibility and thereby to obtain better their more immediate requirements.

The NGOs’ insertion into development in Zimbabwe comes from marrying their particular

approaches to development to particular target groups within the country.

There have been some notable shifts in Zimbabwe over the past 33 years. At

independence in 1980, the country was emerging from war: basic rural infrastructure had

been destroyed and hundreds of thousands of people had been displaced. In this context

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the first major NGO’s effort was directed at the victims of the war largely through

immediate and direct relief activities rather than long term development approaches.

Furthermore, even at that stage, however, more emphasis was predominantly in the rural

rather than the urban areas. Thereafter, a variety of different paths were taken. A number

of NGOs, particularly those who had themselves been involved in relief have turned their

focus to the problems of rural development. In other words, NGOs are mainly involved in

delivering emergency relief or development services at low cost to many people in remote

areas. NGOs are innovative and flexible and they respond to financial and technical

needs at the grassroots level, development and poverty alleviation (Nyathi, 2012:62).

However, the role of CADEC in Binga proves that it goes beyond providing relief and

basic needs only. The organisation also enhances capabilities of people and enables the

Binga people to gain a sustainable development. Thus, NGOs in Zimbabwe are acting

mainly as service providers and developers.

4.7 NGOs as service providers and developers in Zimbabwe

According to Hulme 2008 in Banks and Hulme (2012:7, 8, 9) “the main two roles of NGOs

highlighted in this chapter are service providers and advocates for the poor. These roles

are called “ds”; big “D” and small “d”; where “Big-D” denotes development as a project-

based and planned accomplishments that include tangible project outputs with trim

objective to make fundamental changes that defy society’s institutional arrangements. On

the other hand, the small “d”, development views “development” as a continuing process,

highlighting fundamental, systemic alternatives that seek different ways of organising the

economy, social relationships and politics”. 90% of registered NGOs in Kenya, for

instance, are involved mainly in service delivery. In the process, NGOs and their actions

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have become professionalised and personalised (Brass, 2011, Kamat, 2004 and Banks

and Hulme, 2012:9).

Thus, the role of NGOs as service providers offer a wide range of services across multiple

fields, ranging from livelihood interventions, health and educational service to more

specific areas, such as emergency response, facilitating democracy, conflict resolution,

human rights, finance, environmental management and policy analysis. The contribution

of NGOs to service delivery did not rise only because of the enforced rollback of state

services, but also because of their perceived comparative advantages in service

provision. It rose because of their ability to modernise and investigate, their flexibility to

adopt new programs quickly and most importantly, their linkages with the grassroots that

offer participation in program design and implementation, thereby fostering self-reliance

and sustainability (Nyathi, 2012:62-63).

These strengths leads to more empowering and long term forms of development

(Bebbington, 2004). Again, grassroots linkages are the reason why NGOs work through

local partners. As a result, recognizing the objectives and priorities of international

organisations may not reflect those at the grassroots and closer propinquity at this level,

therefore, it is necessary for more effective participatory designs. Due to the death of the

top-down development approach, a new approach called bottom up approach should be

adopted by NGOs (Banks and Hulme, 2012:9). As a result donors started promoting a

second important role for NGOs, the role of organisational embodiments of civil society

that could support political change (Harsh et al., 2010:262-267 and Banks and Hulme,

2012:10). NGOs are known for promoting development through service provision but

sometimes participate in the political activities (Bebbington, 2005, Edwards and Hulme,

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1996). Clark (1998) believed that participating in political activities creates unfriendly

relationships between the state and the NGO and threaten prospects for sustainability of

projects and donors ignore the political agendas of NGO interventions. However, Banks

and Hulme (2012:11) believed that the role of NGOs as development assistances is a

priority over their role as political actors.

Furthermore, the role and contributions of NGOs in development and enhancement of

capabilities are difficult to define but their efforts can be looked at in a broad spectrum. At

one continuum NGOs that are involved in democracy-building and transforming state-

societal relations have their roots in Latin America. NGOs are massively labelled to be in

this sphere and they try very hard to convince governments that they are non-political.

On the other hand NGOs seek empowerment as an indirect outcome of their wider service

delivery activities. Thus, bottom-up and participatory approaches to development can

lead to grassroots capacity building in the long run (Banks and Hulme, 2012:11). NGOs

follow advocacy by secrecy through working in partnership with the state through which

they can prove strategies and methods for more effective service provision (Batley, 2011).

The incapability and unwillingness of NGOs to engage in political dimensions has forced

scholars to re-evaluate early claims that NGOs can promote democracy with a

forewarning that NGOs promote democracy only when they contribute to the

improvement of citizen participation (Hudock, 1999). However, NGOs have a strong

political dimension, even within service delivery and welfare provision. They advance their

and their clients’ interests in a highly political arena. Seeing NGOs as fighters for

democracy and civil society an important view because they embark on advocacy work

that result in transformation (Banks and Hulme, 2012:9-10).

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In the 20th century NGOs were viewed as civil organisations that intended to help in

difficult times but this was never a reality since they are not living up to their proposed

agendas (Banks and Hulme, 2012:9). However, NGOs are criticised for

misrepresentation, inefficiency, lack of empowerment and difficulties in sticking to specific

values. Again, the uncertainties of the NGOs weaken the innovative capability of the poor

(Lewis et al., 2009)

4.8 Criticisms of NGOs

The criticisms of NGOs are discussed below and they include NGOs and donor agencies,

the relationship between the state and the NGO, the scaling up of NGOs, participation as

a rhetorical flourish and organisational praxis.

4.8.1 NGOs and Donor agencies

NGOs have increased in number and have forged innovative and increasingly wide

ranging formal and informal linkages with donors and government agencies. The

relationships have deep paraphernalia on globalization and indigenous lives. Thus, the

embryonic of a new world order in which market and private organizations were expected

to play a greater role in economic activities led to a significant increase in official aid to

the NGO sector. Donor aid in promoting people-centred development is critical as far as

NGO development work is concerned. Zaidi (1999) argues that donor interest may be

more harmful than helpful to the NGO community. So as a compromise between funding

social programs through governments and a complete laissez-faire policy, NGOs became

an important vehicle for development funds with consequences that seriously undermined

their development potential. NGOs that received donor funding sometimes took a more

compromising, a political stance, if not an openly right wing one. However, there are

NGOs that meet the development agenda of their funders. Edwards and Hulme (1996)

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assert that NGOs become contractors implementing the funders’ agenda on the

economy. NGOs therefore become the provisional workers of development, useful to

national and international agencies for specific tasks, but easily discarded as situations

change and consequently limited in their ability to challenge the development practice.

NGOs are recommended for furthering the New Policy Agenda of efficient growth,

independent governance and sustainable poverty alleviation. However, from a critical

viewpoint, these goals are camouflage for policies that benefit a few. The major donor to

NGOs that is the World Bank, which had poverty elimination at heart now argues that it

does not have enough funds to contribute towards development, but can offer good

advice to poorer nations rather than contributing to satisfying poverty alleviation.

However, in spite of their efforts, NGOs have contributed to sustaining poverty at a

systematic level. Maintaining poverty and inequality is an integral part of the new policy

agenda of capitalism. The NGO phenomenon has supported this by contributing to the

deregulation of the state (Banks and Hulme, 2012:11).

The contribution of international donors in enabling the growth of NGOs has been widely

acknowledged. However, the support of donors has been a double-edged sword in so far

as organizational growth and the impact of programmes can be matched (Anheir, 1990).

Although donor aid has enabled the building up of a critical mass of civil society actors,

the over-reliance on external funding has forced organizations to refocus their activities

to address the programmatic interests of the funding agencies. One of the key results of

this is that many NGOs cannot claim independence in their choice of activities and focus.

Bebbington and Farrington (1993: 16) argued that by imposing an agenda and objectives,

the donors can distort the links between an NGO’s value base and development. This

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ultimately weaken the NGO whilst at the same time increasing its financial, technical and

human resources in the short term.

Furthermore, partnerships that are mediated by money are characterized by tension and

inequality. Nevertheless, inequality never builds capacity. Mnanji (1999) also argued that

as NGOs are always in horrible need of financial resources, it is easy for them to become

nominated by donors and consequently copy the agenda of the latter. To guard against

this, NGOs should be careful not to lend legitimacy to organisations and programs that

are, inherently, a part of the problem (Korten, 1987). NGOs should seek to secure positive

international assistance that does not threaten or weaken their voluntary care for the poor.

NGO donor cooperation is important in addressing the social and environmental problems

of development, and in meeting the basic objective of reducing poverty. In summary, the

donor and NGO relationship is criticized on the grounds that it diverts these agencies

from pursuing development as they strive to meet and satisfy donor priorities. The large

sums of money made available to them by donors gives rise to a patron-client relationship

which is donor-driven (Edwards and Hulme, 1992a:14-16). The other problem arises

when NGOs try to intervene in state affairs.

4.8.2 NGOs and the State

NGOs, have gained a reputation as leading practitioners of development in Africa. NGOs

have had a comparative advantage over the state, thus they tend to contribute to

institutional heterogeneity by complimenting the government. African governments have

responded ambiguously to the presence of these new agencies. Whilst on the one hand,

they value the economic resources that NGOs can raise but on the other hand, they resist

the political pluralisation implied by common development action. Traditionally, the

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relationship between NGOs and the state has been characterised by gentle neglect and

absolute hostility. The reason for this state of affairs is because African governments

perceive NGOs as a threat to their power and influence over the populace. According to

Edwards and Hulme (1992: 16), the nature of relations between NGOs and the state is

determined by regime type and the function served by NGOs. The NGO-State relationship

has been a major bone of contention in the area of development. In Zimbabwe, whatever

assistance these organizations might offer must be channeled through the relevant

government ministries. To that end, the government has to approve their projects before

they are allowed to operate on the ground. Thus, this requirement has been a source of

friction between the government and NGOs. This can lead to delays in the implementation

of projects since some NGOs do not have control as to when they revive funds. NGOs

have managed to work closely with department heads who then act as their link to the

relevant authorities who might be interested to know what they do on the ground.

On the other hand, NGOs see governments as corrupt and ineffective beyond any hope,

in terms of the development of the poor. McRobert (1991: 3), argued that the government

must keep out of the development field. However, there exists a need for NGO and

government collaboration to ensure effective development for poor people. Edward and

Hulme (1996:16) argued that there are sound reasons for NGOs to enter into a positive

and creative relationship with the institution of both the state and the government.

Governments remain largely responsible for providing health, education, agriculture and

other services on which people rely. NGOs ignore government structures at their threat.

Accordingly, if development is to be effective NGOs should work with the government and

challenge it when it drifted from its stated commitments. For example, the third generation

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that was referred by Korten (1987) to as development which occurs within national

borders and are subject to state control. Nevertheless, for Graff and Louw (1992) conflict

is unavoidable where different classes, interests, strategies and target populations are

represented by their state on one hand and NGOs on the other. Governments have found

ways of controlling NGOs’ involvement in development by formulating policies for the

registration and coordination of NGOs operating within their countries. Again, NGOs are

criticized for scaling up their operations in areas they operate

4.8.3 Scaling up of NGOs

The difficulty in scaling up activities is another criticism levelled against NGOs. Scaling-

up may take various forms (Uvin and Miller, 1996). Firstly, NGOs engages in quantitative

scaling-up when they increase the number of beneficiaries, either by servicing more

people in the same area, or by expanding the project to new areas. Secondly they also

undertake functional scaling-up by developing new activities and diversify the services

they provide. Thirdly, they may get involved in political scaling-up, to increase the

participation of the local populations in politics or influence policy on their behalf. Finally,

NGOs focus on organizational scaling-up when they try to increase their financial and

managerial autonomy by diversifying their funding sources, developing the skills of their

staff and maintaining accountability to their beneficiaries.

However, NGO’s strengths is their knowledge of local conditions, which makes them more

familiar with local problems and more responsive to local needs. If this claim holds, it

explains the difficulty in scaling-up. NGOs lose their privileged connections to locality if

they move to a new area or develop new activities with which they are not familiar. Critics

point out that if NGOs want to have a significant impact on development, they also cannot

confine their work to micro-projects (Sanyal, 1994). Whether NGOs can take up the

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challenge of scaling up without losing their specificity is an ongoing debate (Bebbington

and Farrington, 1993). In the case of CADEC, confining in one place (Binga) has enabled

the organisation to fully enhance people’s capabilities and enabling them to gain

sustainable development through community participation and financing development

projects.

4.8.4 Participation

Community participation is a dynamic process by which beneficiaries influence the

direction and implementation of their programme not than merely being consulted by

NGOs. NGOs organize people so that they are able to make better use of their own local

resources, promote equity, alleviate poverty and establish new instructional agendas that

will sustain people (Brown, 1990). This could be termed actor oriented development (Hart,

2000). This new direction in thought is a reversal of conventional approaches that focus

on technology or financial resources alone and it deals with development in a more

humanistic approach. Brown and Korten (1999) also recognize the centrality of people in

development and the importance of self-organization. They highlighted the vocalization

of the NGO developmental approach that reduces dependence on foreign charity. It

seems reasonable to suggest that NGOs aim to empower indigenous people through the

equitable distribution of political and economic power, so as to achieve broad based

development participation.

However, participation is more of a rhetorical show and is not reflected in the actual goals.

Chambers (1997) have noted that top down planning, top down funding and upwards

accountability work against participation. The pursuit of participation by development

agencies frequently fails to live up to the rhetoric surrounding it, which seems to promote

it and yet amounts to no more than the restructuring of control. However, Cooke and

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Kothari (2001:12-15) opposed that the design of these projects is supposedly directed

towards the development of ideas yet it is often far removed from genuine community

participation. NGO personnel might find it difficult to fully understand the realities of

poverty experienced by the intended beneficiaries. Similarly, they are unlikely to have

much contact with the poorest sections of those communities in which they do work

regardless of the stated aims of their organizations (Nyamugasira, 1998:298-300).

Grassroots involvement or participatory development might further exclude specific

groups. This does not mean that NGOs that work with the poor and excluded are

incompetent as there are documented examples of effective work in such contexts

(Kolbilla and Wellard, 1993:132,133). These include heavy report demands of donors,

which inevitably encourage NGOs to select educated field staff that are able to write fluent

and reports. For Vivian (1994), the myth of participation is exposed and NGOs are less

participatory than they are expected to be and their staff end up thinking for the anticipated

beneficiaries and often suspending overruling popular decisions.

However, in some instances the intended beneficiaries of these development programs

merely serve as passive recipients without much leverage to alter the content of this

agenda. Again, the lack of balance between the NGO’s agenda and the needs of the poor

shows that there is virtually no participation by the latter; this leads to a lack of ownership,

misdirection of resources, wrong choice of priority areas, lack of sustainability and poor

coverage. In many instances, this has created doubts about NGOs as self-seeking

organisations, instead of being perceived as caring for the interests of the poor. This may

also, explain why NGOs are regarded as proxies acting on behalf of their funders. Arnold

(1998) contends that, contrary to popular belief, NGOs do not do what they do for the

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reasons of humanity. They are not in the business of providing charity, even though their

activities may appear humanitarian and lead people to regard them as humane. These

developmental activities could be seen as a front which allows them to carry out their own

hidden agenda. Therefore, one can infer that some NGOs working with the poor have

their own interests which differ from those that intend to benefit the marginalised

populace.

Although NGOs are said to work with grassroots organizations that are often comprised

of poor and marginalized groups, the survival and sustainability of projects hinder them

from attaining the expected results. In some instances, the projects are successful. They

usually remain small, especially when compared to the scale of their challenges and they

are also attacked on their organisation praxis.

4.8.5 Organisational praxis

The assertion that development NGOs are clearly value-based organisations does not

hold any truth these days. There is no authentication that NGOs put these values into

practice in their organisational structures and behaviour, or even that they are clear about

what their principal values are (Edwards, 1998). This is a major weakness since it is the

relationship between values and actions that is crucial in generating legitimacy when

arguing the case for change. Institutions should implement values as the bottom line in

their own practice if they are to build a partnership in support of those values on the wider

stage. The best way that NGOs can use to foster the mass movement that has been

missing from the field of international development since the end of the Cold War is for

them to be exemplars of the society they want to create. This can be done to indicate that

it is possible to be an operational organisation which values its employees as it does its

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partners, fights discrimination, practices internal democracy and always use the

organisational power it has in liberating ways.

Unfortunately, few development NGOs have over relied on foreign aid and the limitations

of predetermined relationships make it very problematic to expand into real values-based

action because there are simply too many compromises that have to be made.

Furthermore, NGOs are not insusceptible to class, race, and gender problems nor the

oppression and sexual exploitation they breed. Behind the screen of progressive attitudes

toward social change in the world outside, the world inside the organisation can be an

ethical chaos. Such organisations cannot be the basis of far-reaching social change.

Fortunately, NGOs are beginning to take this point to heart. The link between personal

change and organisational effectiveness is increasingly being recognised (Kaplan, 1997;

Chambers, 1996), even though in the practice of the application remains weak. These

pioneers stress that is certainly possible to help others effectively, but only if they realise

that in doing so they help themselves to grow to a fuller, more independent knowledge of

themselves - closing the circle once more between personal change and change in the

wider world. If their own practice is autocratic, closed and chauvinist it is unlikely that they

will be able to encourage others to be democratic, open and egalitarian.

What remains is for NGOs to experiment more seriously with management practices,

organisational structures, and personnel policies that create the feedback loops between

personal change, institutional performance, and wider impact. A start has been made in

this direction, but a huge area remains unexplored (Fowler, 1997). Perhaps a re-visioning

of NGO strategy around values-based action in programme work, constituency building

and organisational praxis would be a useful place to start.

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All in all NGOs must return to their roots if they are to promote poverty reduction on a

mass scale. Thus, one can posit a number of questions. Could it be that many Southern

NGOs are so involved in service delivery that the local level associations they create

empower NGO personnel and leaders but not the poor and disadvantaged? This can

certainly be argued for some of the large NGOs in the South. Southern NGOs got so

involved in lobbying donors directly that they have neglected their role in creating active

citizenries that, through more diffuse political processes, can demand effective aid

policies and other policy changes (for example, in trade, debt relief and foreign affairs)

that will assist the poor in poor countries (Hulme and Edwards, 1997: 20)

4.9 Conclusion

All in all despite all the criticisms levelled against NGOs, they remain important actors in

the development processes in the future. CADEC in Binga proved to be operating beyond

the expected operation of providing for basic needs and relief services but it is now

enhancing human capabilities and enabling the Binga people to attain sustainable

development. Thus, this study confirms the views of Max-Neef and Sen (Basic needs

approach and capabilities theory) since CADEC is operating beyond the expected NGOs

operation by providing both basic needs and expanding human capabilities in Binga.

NGOs play a very important role in poverty reduction but they do not provide total

solutions to the problems. The key validation behind the growth of NGOs is state failure.

It is deduced that the state and the public sector have not been able to deliver

development to the supposed beneficiaries and NGOs, as a form of development remedy

stepped in to fill in the gap. However, having discussed the role of NGOs in poverty

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alleviation in Zimbabwe the following chapter discusses the framework that underpinned

this study.

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Chapter 5: Theoretical Framework.

5.1 Introduction

This study was about NGOs and their poverty reduction strategies in Zimbabwe and it

used CADEC in Binga district as a case study. The study adopted the Model of Human

Scale Development and the Capabilities Approach as its theoretical framework. Thus, this

study argues that it is within the premises of the Model of Human Scale Development and

the Capabilities Approach that this study has revealed that CADEC do not provide for the

basic needs and immediate relief only but it also enhances the capabilities of the Binga

people so as to have a sustainable livelihood. The main argument of this study is based

on the belief that Binga people’s capabilities are enhanced through participating in the

projects of CADEC such as gardening and livestock production. Therefore, it is the

enhancement of capabilities that proved that CADEC’s operation goes beyond the

criticisms levelled against NGOs that they cater for immediate relief and basic needs of

people only (Treasure, 2009:7-10). The study adopted these theories because the Basic

Needs Approach is concerned about the human condition and the Capabilities are

concerned about the enhancement of human potentials in development. All the aspects

of this research that are problem statement, purpose, literature review, methodology, data

collection and analysis are anchored on the Model of Human-Scale Development and the

Capabilities approach.

5.2 Max-Neef’s human-scale development model

Human-scale development is concerned about the satisfaction of fundamental human

needs, about development of self-reliance, and about the building of organic articulations

of people with nature and technology, of global processes with local activity, of the

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personal with the social, of planning with autonomy and of civil society with the state (Max-

Neef, 1991). For Max-Neef human scale development, geared towards meeting human

needs requires a new approach to understanding reality, the one that compels people to

perceive and assess the world that is humans and their processes in a manner which

differs completely from the usual one. Thus, his theory is for development and it focuses

on the development of human needs and this research is anchored on it.

Max-Neef distinguishes between needs and satisfiers. For him human needs are few,

finite and classifiable. Human fundamental needs are constant through all human cultures

and across historical periods, the only difference is the way of satisfying them over time

and between cultures. He believed that human needs are interrelated and interactive but

he did not support the hierarchical structure of need. However, for him simultaneity,

complementarity and trade-offs are features of the process of needs satisfaction (Max-

Neef et al., 1987:12). Below is a detailed explanation of the fundamental human needs

by Max-Neef.

5.2.1 Max-Neef’s fundamental human needs

Manfred Max-Neef’s fundamental human needs can be seen as a practical model of

human needs. It was developed as a practical tool for assessing the merits of international

aid programs. He is of the view that most interventions have multiple effects and meeting

one need normally undermines or enhances another. Therefore, the Max-Neef’s plan can

be readily transferred to needs analysis in a wide range of contexts. It can be a useful

framework for diagnosing the possible effects of an intervention in a community or in one’s

life. Thus, the Max-Neef’s study seeks to reorient development in terms of stimulating

local self-reliance, satisfying fundamental human needs and more generally advocating

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a return of the human scale. Therefore, human scale development places much emphasis

9on the role of human creativity in development (Max-Neef, 1991).

Max-Neef (1991) argues that in most third world countries the development style imposed

tend to increase marginalisation of the poor without generating alternatives for

employment. Again, the growing industrialisation of agriculture tends to destroy existing

traditional skills. Thus the final result is that the poor are left alone to design their own

survival strategies. This fits well the dilemma of the Binga people which was mainly due

to the involuntary displacement in 1957 to make way for the Kariba Dam. This

displacement is still a scar of cruelty to the Binga people since no compensation was

made either at community level through the provision of basic infrastructure and services

or at household level for loss of entitlements, livelihoods, disrupted social networks, lands

and natural resources (Chege, 1999:2-8). This made the lives of the Binga people to be

hard, painful and a struggle year in and year out since they were taken away from their

land, their shrines, and the graves of their ancestors. Today, many years after the invasion

of the Binga (Tonga and Korekore speaking people) territory, poverty and disaster risks

have increased in both pace and magnitude (Gugerty, 2008).

Exclusion and marginalisation of these communities by the colonial, post-independence

and unity governments are another major cause of the vulnerability of the Binga

communities. Successive prohibitive legal and policy frameworks have been used to

exclude the communities from access to both internal and external resources to meet

their fundamental human needs. Furthermore, lake-based industries which are at the

proximity of the Binga people exclusively serve national rather than local interests.

However, increased control and access by local groups to fishing rights, water resources

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and wildlife revenues remains one of the strategies for reducing persistent poverty and

vulnerability in Binga communities since they are left alone to design their own survival

strategies. (Suharko, 2007:17-19).

Moreover, since the 1960s, affected communities in Binga made a number of initiatives

to get rid of their situation but were not successful because they do not have the means

to develop themselves. Even the unity government continued to treat displaced people

in the same way as communities that remained undisturbed in their localities. However,

churches and NGOs intervened but only succeeded in aid efforts that addressed the

results of the problem and not the problem itself (Chinake, 1997:4). Binga is characterised

by droughts, low rainfall, tsetse flies and tick-borne diseases. These natural hazards can

trigger, rather than cause humanitarian crises manifest in malaria, diarrhoea and

malnutrition (Redekop, 2000). Nevertheless, focusing on natural hazards as a complete

explanation for humanitarian crises causation is myopic and diverts attention from major

issues located in the social, economic and political development arenas. Thus, this is

when the role of NGOs is eminent to help people through difficult times through different

activities. Therefore, the objective of the human scale development should be to ease the

suffering of the poor and disadvantaged groups in societies.

5.2.2 Objectives of human scale development

Human Scale Development for Max-Neef should focus on a new approach based on

human scale development. Such approach to development should be concerned about

the satisfaction of fundamental human needs, on the generation of growing levels of

independence, and on the construction of organic articulations of people with nature and

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technology, of global processes with local activity, of the personal with the social, of

planning with autonomy and of civil society with the state (Max-Neef, 1991:29).

Furthermore, human needs, organic articulations and self-reliance are the pillars that

support Human Scale Development is supported. These three pillars are sustained by a

firm foundation based on the belief that the poor are the bosses of their own development.

Again, if development is to take place people should be the actors in human scale

development and the diversity and freedom of their choices must be respected. Thus,

development for Max-Neef is aimed at transforming the “object-person” into a “subject-

person” (Max-Neef, 1991:29-30). Thus, NGOs all over the world are focusing on

sustainable development project for individuals to be their own bosses. Likewise, CADEC

is initiating sustainable development projects in Binga so that communities will be

independent rather than dependent on aid which is mainly seasonal or temporal. These

projects include crop and livestock production, development of craft for women,

gardening, education initiatives, agro-forestry projects and the installation of boreholes

and water harvesting techniques to reduce soil erosion. These efforts have resulted in the

reduction of biodiversity losses by 40% and implementation of relevant environmental

management policies by 40%. Thus, CADEC has lived up to the church doctrine of

keeping the lord’s earth habitable today and for future generations to come (Jerie, 2010),

therefore by preserving the environment the community will sustain itself even without the

assistance of NGOs (Berry, 1981). The human scale development is however advances

three postulates as discussed below.

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5.2.3 Postulates of human scale development

The There are three postulates of human scale develop namely development is about

people and not about the objects, fundamental human needs are finite, few and

classifiable and what changes both over time and through cultures, is the way or the

means by which the needs are satisfied and poverties not poverty. These postulates are

discussed below correspondingly.

5.2.4 Development is about people and not about objects

This is the basic postulate of human scale development and it states that development is

about people and not about objects. Max-Neef believed that developmental process was

dominated by traditional development paradigm that include the Gross National Product

(GNP) which focuses on the qualitative growth of objects. However, now there is a need

of an indicator about the qualitative growth of people. Thus, the best developmental

process will be that which allows the greatest improvement in people’s quality of life. The

potentials that the poor have should adequately satisfy their basic needs and determine

their standard of living (Max-Neef et al., 1987:12-15). Hence, if all organisations focus on

the qualitative growth of people, the world will be a better place. The issue of human

needs brings in needs and satisfiers into play.

5.2.5 Needs and satisfiers

Max-Neef et al., (1987), argues that the traditional beliefs which says human needs tend

to be infinite, that they change all the time, that they are different in every culture and

environment and that they are different in each historical period are wrong since they are

a result of conceptional shortcomings. The shortcomings are in the prevailing literature

and debates about fundamental human needs which is that the main difference between

needs and satisfiers of those needs is either overlooked or is not clearly defined. A

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clarification of the difference between the two perceptions is important and is made in the

paragraph below (Max-Neef et al., 1987:13-16).

Firstly, human needs should the understood as a system meaning that all human needs

are interrelated and interactive. With the sole exception of the need of subsistence, that

is to remain alive, no hierarchies exist within the system. Secondly, simultaneities,

complementarities and compromises are characteristics of the process of needs

satisfaction (Max-Neef et al., 1987). Max-Neef’s Human needs can be satisfied in many

ways and there are no specific criteria of satisfying them. Max-Neef’s satisfaction of basic

human need is non-specific meaning that human needs can be satisfied at different levels

and with different satisfiers at different intensities. In addition, human needs can be

satisfied at the level of the individual and of the social group, or of the community. Human

needs which are not adequately satisfied result in human poverty. In his own work with

groups, Max-Neef (1991) dedicates substantial attention to the notion that poverty

generates social pathology. Max-Neef’s set of needs is intended to be exhaustive that is

to indicate all dimensions of human need that are universal, even though they may not

be observed in all communities because there may be unmet needs or poverties. Max-

Neef identifies nine fundamental human needs which are further defined by the categories

of being, having, doing and interacting. From these dimensions, a matrix is developed

which can be filled with examples of satisfiers for those needs. However, Max-Neef’s list

remains provisional and open to modification (Max-Neef, 1982).

Max-Neef’s (1991:32) demonstrates the interaction of firstly the needs of Being, Doing

and Interacting and secondly the needs of Subsistence, Protection, Affection,

Understanding, Participation, Idleness, Creation, Identity and Freedom. The fundamental

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human needs categorisation, food and shelter should not be perceived as needs but

rather as satisfiers of the fundamental human need for subsistence. In the same way,

education either formal or informal, studying, investigating, early stimulation and

meditation are satisfiers of the fundamental human need for Understanding. In addition,

the satisfiers of the fundamental human need for protection are hospitalisation, defensive

system and health care systems.

Max-Neef distinguishes between needs and satisfiers by saying a satisfier contributes

concurrently to the gratification of different needs and conversely a need may require

various satisfiers in order to be met. This relationship is not a one on one situation and is

not fixed but varies according to time, place and circumstance, for instance, a woman

breastfeeding her child is simultaneously satisfying the baby’s needs for Subsistence,

Affection, Protection and Identity. The situation is very different if the baby is being fed

mechanically (Max-Neef, 1991:33). The second postulate is that human needs are finite,

few and classifiable, what changes over time and through cultures is the way to satisfy

them.

5.2.6 Fundamental human needs are finite, few and classifiable, what changes both

over time and through cultures, is the way or the means by which the needs are

satisfied.

Communities and societies adopt different criteria for satisfying same fundamental human

needs. In every system human needs are fulfilled through the non-generation or

generation of different types of satisfiers (Max-Neef, 1991:33). Thus, a culture is defined

by the type of its satisfiers and the only changes occur in the choice of the quantity and

quality of satisfiers. In other words what are societal determined are not the fundamental

human needs but the satisfiers of those needs. Societal change or development takes

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place then the community or society forego traditional satisfiers at the expense of modern

satisfiers (Max-Neef, 1991:33-34).

Additionally, every need is satisfied at different levels and with different intensities and

within three contexts that is with regard to oneself (Eigenwelt), with regard to the social

group (Metwelt) and with regard to the environment (Umwelt). Again, the quality and

intensity, not only on the levels but also of contexts, will depend on time, place and

circumstances (Max-Neef, 1991:34-36). With regard to Zimbabwe, Binga, human needs

are satisfied by CADEC with regard to all the context identified above (oneself or

Eigenwelt, social group or Metwelt context and in other cases with regard to the

environment or Umwelt. Thus, Max-Neef did not limit human suffering to single poverty

so he proposed that we should talk about poverties not poverty.

5.2.7 Poverty and poverties

Max-Neef argued that we should not talk about poverty but of poverties. Max Neef

(1991:31) believed that the traditional notion of poverty is limited and restricted because

it wholly refers to the dilemmas of people who may be classified below a certain income

range. The traditional concept is too economistic. Max-Neef suggests that we speak of

poverties not poverty. Thus, unsatisfied fundamental human needs lead to human

suffering as a result of poverty. For example poverty of subsistence is as a result of

insufficient income, food and shelter among others, poverty of protection is caused by

bad health systems, violence and the arms race among others. Poverty of affection is due

to oppression, domination and manipulative relations with the natural environment among

others, poverty of understanding is as a result of too poor quality education; poverty of

membership is as a result of marginalisation and discrimination of women, children and

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minorities and poverty of identity is due to the imposition of alien values upon local and

regional cultures, forced migration and political exile among others. However, poverties

are not only poverties, much more than that unsatisfied poverty generates pathologies

(Max-Neef, 1991:31, 34, & 36). As a result a number of NGOs are working in developing

countries to satisfy some of the poverties identified by Max-Neef. In Binga CADEC mainly

focuses on the poverty of subsistence (food security), understanding and sometimes the

poverty of freedom. In other words CADEC Binga strives to satisfy the need of

subsistence, understanding and freedom. For the satisfaction of needs to be effective

human needs should be categorised.

5.2.8 Categorization of human needs

The categorization must be comprehensible, that is, the needs listed must be

readily understandable and identifiable as one's own.

The categorization must merge scope with specificity, that is, it must arrive at a

limited number of needs which can be clearly yet simply labelled but, at the same

time, be comprehensive enough to incorporate any fundamental felt need.

The categorization must be operational, that is, for every existing or conceivable

satisfier, one or more of the needs stated must appear as a target-need of the

satisfier that is the classification analyse the relationship between needs and

satisfiers.

The categorization must be well planned, meaning that it is not sufficient for the

relate satisfiers to needs. It is essential to detect needs for which no desirable

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satisfier exists. Again, it is important to identify and confine those satisfiers which

inhibit the satisfaction of needs actualization of needs.

The categorization must be prepositional to the extent that it is critical and capable

of detecting inadequacies in the relation between the existing satisfiers and the

fulfilment of needs, this categorization should serve as a mechanism to work out

an alternative order capable of generating and encouraging satisfiers for the needs

of every human being as integral beings. The categorisation replaces non-inclusive

satisfiers by others of a more comprehensive nature, thus attempting to objectify

several needs (Max Neef, et al, 1986).

All in all, basic human needs are physical, psychological, social and spiritual needs

without which existence is impossible. Human needs are not transmitted by a particular

culture or implanted or taught by local institutions, they are universally expressed and

every human is aware of them. These human needs can be satisfied differently; their

satisfiers differ from context to context and person to person and are gendered in nature.

However, if they are not fully satisfied they result in poverty and that leads to pathologies.

Therefore, one can argue that Community organisations, participation and involvement in

decision making processes are crucial premises for building sustainable well-being and

resilience to poverty and disaster in Binga, Zimbabwe. Development should focus on

promoting community agency where beneficiaries are the primary actors for development;

this is because Max-Neef believed that development is people-centred, participatory and

environmentally sound. It involves economic growth together with equitable distribution,

enhancement of people’s capabilities and widening of people’s choices. Thus,

development gives top precedence to poverty reduction, integration of women into the

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development process, self-reliance of people and protection of the rights of indigenous

people. As a result, it is within the above basis that the capabilities approach complement

the ideas of Max-Neef.

5.3 Capability approach

According to the Capability Approach (Sen), human capability is about enabling people

to have substantive freedom so as to lead the lives they have reason to value and pursue

the real choices they have (Sen, 1999). The Capability Approach is a comprehensive

normative framework for individual wellbeing evaluation. The approach evaluates a

number of human wellbeing aspects, such as poverty, inequality, the wellbeing of an

individual or the well-being of a community (Robeyns, 2005). According to Fukuda-Parr

(2003) the capability approach also provided the theoretical foundations of the human

development paradigm). However, the capability approach is not a theory that can explain

poverty, inequality or well-being but provides a framework and tool by which to

hypothesise and evaluate these phenomena.

Therefore, one can argue that the core principle of the Capabilities Approach is its focus

on what people are excellently able to be and to do and. The mastermind behind this

approach is Amartya Sen (1980, 1984, 1985a, 1985b, 1987, 1990b, 1992, 1993, 1995,

1999a). However, it was developed more by Nussbaum (1988, 1992, 1995, 1998, 2000,

2003a, 2004). People’s evaluations and policies on development should focus on what

human beings are able to be and do, on the quality of their life and on removing obstacles

in their lives so that they can have more freedom to live the kind of life that they have

reason to value (Sen, 1999). However, Nussbaum advanced the approach as a

foundational partial theory of justice. Therefore, Nussbaum criticizes, diverges from and

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sometimes adds on to Sen’s work. Sen (1999) distinguishes between ends and means

whereby ends have intrinsic importance whilst means are helpful in reaching the goals of

increased wellbeing, development and justice. Nevertheless, in concrete situations these

distinctions often intertwined, whereby some ends are concurrently also means to other

ends (Sen, 1995). For instance, the capability of being in good health can be seen as an

end in itself and can play a role as a means to the capability to work.

According to Sen (1999) the Capability Approach, the ends of well-being, integrity and

development should be hypothesised in terms of human being’s capabilities to function;

that is their real prospects to assume the actions and activities that they want to engage

in so as to be whom they want to be. Capabilities also include beings and doings that Sen

referred to as functionings and they constitute a valuable life. Accordingly, functionings

are several things human beings prospers in doing or being such as working, relaxing,

being healthy being literate (poverty of Understanding in Max-Neef’s language) and

community participation among others. According to the capability approach, poverty is

the lack of basic human potentials. These potentials vary from simple ones such as being

well brought up, fully clothed and sheltered to more complex ones such as community

participation and being able to appear in public without shame. Sen suggested the notion

of the capability enhancement because he believed that the income measure on poverty

was not sufficient. Therefore, he argued that poverty should be measured according to

the capabilities that people possess. He believed that the capabilities are equally

important as income (Sen, 1995). This relates to the concept of direct and indirect

concepts of poverty where the direct concept is concerned about the decrease of the

standard of living below a certain level and assume that it is a result of a lack of resources.

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However, the indirect concepts of poverty is concerned on situations where resources fall

below a certain point and typically assume that it is because of a low standard of living

(Ringen, 1988).

However, such distinctions are of less significance if low income were a good substitute

for deprivation. Furthermore, the capability approach argues that this is improbable to be

the case because people have different and varying needs and they require different

levels of resources in order to achieve the same standard of living. Accordingly, Sen

(2009) believed that there are additional cost allied with disability since disabled people

require a larger amount of resources to reach the same standard of living as able-bodied

people. Moreover, Sen (2009) uses the term conversion factors to refer to this variability

in transforming means into the capabilities or ends. In this discussion of conversion

factors, Sen believed that the mismatch between indirect and direct measures of poverty

has been one of the primary empirical findings from poverty analysis in the field of Social

Policy (Rod, 2012). Thus, the capability approach supports the direct approach to poverty

analysis since it priorities the enhancement of capabilities. As a result the direct

conceptualisation of poverty, social exclusion and deprivation in the field of Social Policy

focus on what people are able to do and be; for example, whether they can participate in

the activities of a society. On the Bases of the above discussion, Townsend (1979)

believed that poverty is a lack of resources obtain the type of diet, participate in the

activities and have the living conditions and amenities approved by the society to which

people belong. Thus, this means that their resources are so poorly below those

commanded by the average individual or family that they are in effect, excluded from

ordinary living patterns, customs and activities (Townsend, Ibid and Rod, 2012). However,

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sustainability comes through enhancing capabilities like education that helps to transform

the individual being or the whole society.

5.3.1 The capability approach and education for sustainable development

Sen (1999) believed that education is seen as an end of development in itself, and he

identified it as a capability to meet basic needs. In this respect education is either facilities

or arrangements that facilitate freedom, as well as a hard set of outcomes, capabilities as

particular skills acquired (Unterhalter et al., 2003). If education is to fully enhance freedom

and development the learning needs of all should be met through equitable access to an

education of such quality that it leads to learning outcomes that ultimately enhance

individual freedoms to be and to do (Bakhshi et al., 2003).

Furthermore, with respect to the capability approach, education must therefore be seen

as a human right not only in terms of access and completion, but also in terms of learning

outcomes. Although the right to fair access to education is officially recognized in many

countries, access to it is still not a right for a large number of people. The capability

approach relates to this question as a person’s right to something must be coupled with

another agent’s duty to provide that first person with that something (Sen, 1999).

Therefore, for education to become a true human right, it has to be seen as a concept

that stretches beyond legislation and conventions signed by countries to include the

accountability of its provision. Furthermore, “while quality is impossible without access,

access without quality is often meaningless to those for whom access is made possible”

(UNESCO, 2003). As a result, quality education relates to effective application of all forms

of knowledge by individuals functioning independently and in relation to others, in order

to help people to see themselves as the main actors in building their own future and the

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future of society. With regard to the capability approach, good education provide valuable

opportunities that lead people to the kind of lives they want to lead, to do what they want

to do and to be the person they want to be (Robeyns, 2005). With regard to the Binga

people, CADEC is assisting young people through payment of school fees so that they

will do what they want and be what they want to be. As a result, this study is anchored on

the Capabilities Approach.

The life skills learning outcomes needed to know, be, and live together are directly related

to the capability set or opportunity set, that is the “potential functioning” or capabilities of

the individual. The practical skills of learning to do, can either be seen as related to the

individual’s basic capability, that is the basic actions that are necessary for survival and

to avoid or escape poverty, or is seen more broadly as the ultimate combined action linked

to achieved functioning, that is what people are able to do or be (Sen, 1999). However,

all theories are open to criticism, below is the shortcomings of the capabilities approach.

5.4 Shortcomings of the capability approach

The capability approach was referred to as an unworkable idea (Rawls, 1999:13) since it

is criticised for incompleteness. The problem indicated relates to the selection of

capabilities. Hence there is profound contestation as to what capabilities should inform

the capability lists for evaluative purposes. Nussbaum (2006) argues that a list of

capabilities chosen by the people may not amount to a morally justifiable list. Thus, a

basic list of capabilities is not acceptable merely because people have agreed on it or

because it has been chosen. The notion of public reasoning in the generation of

capabilities lists has been questioned considering that most African nations are not

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democratic. However, it is possible to draw a list of capabilities for Africa’s development

(Klasen, 2000).

Furthermore, the capability approach was criticised for focusing on the individual at the

expense of the community and other social structures. This is brought by the argument

which says there are many factors within the societal processes and structures that inhibit

the enhancement of freedoms and capabilities. Stewart and Deneulin (2002:68) suggest

an extension of the concept of capability to include valuable structures of living together,

thus, the inclusion of functional families and social contexts deserve more attention in

terms of how they facilitate and stall development. But Robeyns (2005) argues that there

are a number of studies on capabilities that have incorporated the factors that critics are

arguing to be non-existence in the capability approach.

Additionally, the capabilities together with the basic human needs theory did not take into

account poverty caused by economic, political, social and geographical factors. These

factors limit people’s opportunities and resources that enable the achievement of goals

and well-being (Bradshaw, 2006:11). Thus, certain groups in societies are vulnerable

because of discrimination. As a result regardless of the capabilities and competence the

poor are left to fall behind. Again, lack of facilities in the area increases poverty. Thus,

by virtue of living in a poor area, the poor are bound to remain poor (Bradshaw, 2006:

12). Thus, for Davids et al., (2005:41) the solution to poverty is to eliminate structural

poverty through redistribution of wealth and income. Bradshaw (2006:11) believed that

poverty can be eliminated by training and educating people. However, the poor cannot

afford basic education. In the case of Binga district the poor do not have access to

services that can help them to get out of their situation.

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Furthermore, politicians complained that Sen’s emphasis on access to lives we have

reason to value implies a commitment to some objective index for evaluating advantage

whatever those concerned might actually value, thus the capability approach is taken to

imply the political endorsement of a particular conception of the good whatever dissenting

individuals believe, which fails the requirement that the public conception of justice is to

be political not metaphysical. On the face of this appears to present a material dilemma

for Sen’s capability approach; either the capability approach is politically liberal or it is

perfectionist. If it is politically liberal then it must respect individuals’ sovereignty to decide

for themselves what the good life consist in, so it should stop trying to evaluate advantage

and instead support a procedural approach to removing unfreedoms and providing

general purpose freedoms. If it is perfectionist then it should specify and justify its theory

of value.

5.4 Conclusion

All in all basic human needs are physical, psychological, social and spiritual needs without

which existence is impossible. Human needs are not transmitted by a particular culture

or implanted or taught by local institutions. They are universally expressed. Every human

is conscious of them. The articulation of what they represent to each individual is what is

learned. Again human needs are irrepressible, demanding satisfaction no matter how a

society’s regime may seek to suppress or manipulate them. These human needs can be

satisfied differently; their satisfiers differ from context to context and person to person and

are gendered in nature. However, if they are not fully satisfied they result in poverty and

that leads to pathologies. Binga district’s pathologies may include marginalisation and

exclusion from other communities. Max-Neef’s and Sen’s theory advocates for

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development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of

future generations to meet their own needs (Sustainable Development). Nyerere (1967)

believed that sustainable development is achieved through participatory development.

Thus, the results of this study show that participatory development allows people to

express themselves so that they will become what they want to be in life. Accordingly,

this study argues that CADEC has managed to bypass the criticisms levelled against

NGOs that they cater or immediate relief and basic needs by using participation as a tool

to enhance Binga people’s capabilities. All these concepts are in favour of sustainable

development, because it puts the interest of the affected people at heart. Thus, the

government and NGOs that are involved in poverty eradication like CADEC should focus

on the fundamental human needs, put the needs of people to the fore, allow people to

express themselves and include them in decision making or any one of these. Thus, the

model of human scale development and the capabilities helps in assessing whether

CADEC provides for basic needs, whether it enhances people’s capabilities and whether

it is facilitating sustainable development.

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Chapter 6: Research methodology

6.1 Introduction

The aim of this chapter was to highlight the research methods utilised in this study. The

main objective of the study was to assess whether CADEC provides for the basic needs

of the Binga people or not, whether the capabilities of people are being enhanced through

its operations and whether its projects are sustainable. The results of this study show that

the Binga people are able to work on their own since CADEC only comes to check the

progress. Thus, the researcher collected data based on the research objectives which

included the following; the identification of anti-poverty interventions utilized by CADEC

and whether these strategies contribute to address the basic needs of people in Binga.

Additionally, the research objectives were to find out the perceptions of people in Binga

about CADEC’s poverty alleviation programme and ascertaining the extent to which

capabilities of the Binga citizens have been expanded through the organisation’s poverty

alleviation praxis. Having worked according to the objectives, this study argues that

CADEC provides more that the basic needs of the Binga people, its operation as shown

by the results of the study indicate that it funds development projects and enhances the

capabilities of the people through their participation in its projects. For these research

objectives to be achieved the study had a good population size, sample size and sampling

procedures and these will be discussed in this chapter. Again, the procedure used to

obtain data and the analysis of data will be discussed in this chapter. Below follows the

discussion of the research methodology and design.

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6.2 Research methodology and design

According to Maree (2007), research methodology refers to all the measuring tools,

techniques and procedures adopted in the research project in order to collect, analyse

and interpret research data so that research findings can be deduced. The research

method is described by Kothari (1990:10) as a way of systematically solving a research

problem. Suharko (2007) utilised qualitative research design to study the role of NGOs in

rural poverty reduction in Indonesia and India and found out that NGOs are helping people

to start self-help groups. Thus, in this case, Suharko’s study supports the findings of this

study since self-help groups aim to enhance people’s capabilities so that they can earn a

livelihood. Again, Nyathi (2012), in her study on the evaluation of poverty alleviation

strategies implemented in Zimbabwe in the Binga district, used qualitative research.

Banks and Hulme (2012) also used a qualitative research design in their work on the role

of NGOs and civil society in development and poverty reduction. Similarly, Chinake

(1997) also used qualitative methods to gather her data on the strategies of reducing

poverty in Zimbabwe. Abiche (2004) also used qualitative methods in his studies in

Ethiopia. Similarly, Oyemomi (2003) utilised qualitative methods in doing his research in

Nigeria. Many studies on the strategies used by NGOs to reduce poverty utilised

qualitative methodologies.

However, the qualitative methodologies utilised in the identified studies did not provide

the perceptions of people towards poverty reduction strategies used by NGOs. Again,

studies which employed qualitative methods lacked enough information on the

perceptions of people about poverty reduction strategies. It is against this background

that this study used both qualitative and quantitative methods. The findings of this study

indicate that CADEC is now going beyond the provision of relief and basic needs. It is

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now working on sustainable projects that enhance people’s capabilities. Furthermore, the

two methods were combined so as to cross check the findings. Thus, the mixed methods

approach utilised in this study was directed at ensuring the collection of valid and reliable

data.

Thurmond (2001:254) believed that the advantage of utilizing triangulation is that it

increases confidence in research data, creates innovative ways of understanding a

phenomenon, reveals unique findings, challenges or integrates theories and provides a

clearer understanding of the problem. The usage of both qualitative and quantitative

approaches helped in ensuring that the researcher gets an in-depth understanding of the

strategies used to reduce poverty in Binga. Furthermore, the two research methods were

combined to suite the research questions of this study. Quantitative methods were used

to measure variables that are linked to the research problem in the case study area, such

as the perceptions of CADEC’s beneficiaries about the NGO’s performance with regard

to poverty alleviation, to ascertain the extent to which capabilities of Binga citizens have

been improved through CADEC’s poverty alleviation praxis and to find out the extent to

which the strategies utilised by CADEC contribute to the process of catering for the basic

needs of the people in Binga. On the other hand, the rationale behind using qualitative

methodologies in addition to the collection of quantitative data was that qualitative

research strategies are mainly suitable when gathering social dynamic information related

to human behaviour and the interaction of people. That is, how people make sense of

their lives, experiences and their structure of their world (Baker, 1994). For this study in

particular the qualitative design aspect of this triangulation research strategy was geared

towards gathering information on the poverty alleviation strategies, their

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operationalization mechanisms and their utility in addressing the basic needs, as well as

in enhancing capabilities of the Binga people. The qualitative research methodology was

also used to find out about the sustainability of projects in Binga. Thus, a survey

questionnaire and in-depth interviews were the two research tools which were utilised

during the research process. A survey questionnaire was used to collect quantitative data

and in-depth interviews collected qualitative data.

6.2.1 Quantitative Research design

In order to achieve the objectives of the study the researcher inter alia utilized a

quantitative research design. Gubrium and Sanker (2005: 48-52) are of the view that

quantitative research requires that the data collected should be expressed in numbers

and should be quantified. Various factors will influence it. The methods used to conduct

quantitative research are explanatory, descriptive and experimental. The approach used

in the study involved the systematic collection of quantifiable information, meaning that

the approach used was quantitative. The data entry and statistical analysis were done

using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Since this study adopted a

triangulation methodological approach, it is therefore important to also justify the use of

qualitative research methodology.

6.2.2 Qualitative research design

The research also used the qualitative design in addition to the quantitative method

discussed above. The qualitative aspect of this triangulation geared at gathering

information on the poverty alleviation strategies, their operationalization mechanisms and

their utility in addressing the basic needs of people in Binga. Qualitative research seeks

to understand a social phenomenon within its cultural, social and situational context

without imposing pre-existing expectations upon the setting (Gubrium and Sanker, 2005:

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52; Mouton and Marais, 1990: 204). Hence, it provided a holistic picture about the

strategies utilised by CADEC and their implementation dynamics in the Binga district. This

study rests upon the assumption that a researcher can obtain extensive in-depth data

from ordinary conversations with people (Gubrium and Sankar, 1994:7). Qualitative

research aimed to describe and understand an individual’s experience and life-world

through descriptive processes. So by using in-depth interviews the researcher managed

to gain useful information about the Binga people and their experience with CADEC.

Below are the research instruments utilised in this study.

6.3 Research Instruments

Since the study adopted both quantitative and qualitative methodologies, it also utilised

two research instruments, which are the survey questionnaire and in-depth interviews. A

survey questionnaire was used to collect data on variables that are linked to the research

problem in the case study area, such as the perceptions of CADEC’s beneficiaries about

the NGO’s performance with regard to poverty alleviation, to ascertain the extent to which

capabilities of the Binga citizens have been improved through CADEC’s poverty

alleviation praxis and to find out the extent to which the strategies utilised by CADEC

contribute to the process of catering for the basic needs of people in Binga.

The questionnaire was divided into six parts and all questions aimed to answer the

research questions. The first part elicited data on respondents’ socio-demographics (age,

gender, education and marital status among others). The second part sought to answer

the first research question by asking about the basic of the Binga people needs and the

type of assistance offered by CADEC. Third part aimed to find out about the level of

satisfaction of the Binga people with the services of CADEC. The respondents were

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asked to rate statements ranging from very satisfied, satisfied, neutral, dissatisfied, very

dissatisfied and the positive answer was given the highest value (very satisfied) and a

negative answer was given the smallest value (very dissatisfied). The fourth part tries to

measure the performance and benefits from CADEC and respondents were asked to rate

statements on a Likert scale where 5 = very effective; 4 = effective; 3 = neutral; 2 =

ineffective; 1 = very ineffective. The firth part statements aimed to measure how effective

are the strategies used by CADEC to reduce poverty in Binga and respondents were to

indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement by marking with an X where 5 =

strongly agree; 4 = agree; 3 = neutral; 2 = disagree; 1 = strongly disagree. Lastly the last

group of questions on the questionnaire was about how helpful is CADEC in Binga and

respondents were to rank statements ranging from very helpful to very unhelpful and

neutral. Raw figures were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

(SPSS) software. Descriptive statistics were calculated for the sample and are provided

in the sections that follow. In the data analysis section, both the quantitative and

qualitative data were utilised, with the later providing a supportive narrative to the facts

already revealed by the former.

On the other hand, in-depth interviews gathered information on the poverty alleviation

strategies, their operationalization mechanisms and their utility in addressing the basic

needs as well as in enhancing capabilities of the Binga people. This also help in the

process of finding out about the sustainability of projects in Binga. The researcher used

two (2) separate in-depth interview guides to collect data, one aimed to collect data from

the beneficiaries of CADEC and the other to collect data from CADEC officials. The

researcher had tested the research instruments (Pilot study) with 32 questionnaires and

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8 in-depth interviews with beneficiaries only. The pilot study was important because it

enhanced the process of adaptation and development of the research instrument in order

to make it suitable for the purpose it was to achieve, and to enhance the researcher’s

familiarity with his tools and tactics. Appropriate adjustments were made before the actual

survey (Oppenheimer, 1992) was conducted at Binga.

6.4 Population

According to De Vos (2005), a population is a set of entities where all the measurements

of interest to the researcher are represented. This research focused on the estimated

population of 138074 people in 21 wards in Binga where there are 11 NGOs. For the

purpose of this study a sample was chosen from the beneficiaries of CADEC.

6.5 Sampling

A sample is a small portion of the total set of objects or persons that comprise the focus

of the study (De Vos, 2005). The study focused on 1 of the 5 NGOs involved in poverty

alleviation programs, namely, CADEC, and 384 of its beneficiaries in the Binga district.

The logic of selecting CADEC is that it is the most prominent NGO dealing with poverty

alleviation in Binga. A sample of 382 was calculated based on the estimated population

size of 138074 using the Raosoft sample size calculator online

(@http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html) at a margin of error of 5%, confidence level

of 95% and response distribution of 50%. On the other hand, 22 in-depth interviews were

constituted with 2 interviews with CADEC officials and 20 with beneficiaries and

respondents were selected on the basis of a purposive sampling strategy. However, out

of 384 questionnaires that were distributed among CADEC beneficiaries for the purpose

of quantitative data collection, the response distribution was very fair as 361

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questionnaires were returned. Thus, the researcher used 361 questionnaires during his

analysis. The researcher did a pilot study before the final collection of data to check the

need for instruments adjustment.

6.6 Pilot study

Prior to conducting the main study the questionnaire and the interview guide for data

collection for this project were pre-tested in the Binga district between January and

February 2013. This was done to enhance the process of adaptation and development of

the research instrument in order to make it suitable for the purpose it was to achieve and

to enhance the researcher’s familiarity with his tools and tactics while at the same time

suitable adjustments before the actual survey was conducted (Oppenheimer, 1992). The

researcher used a pilot study to test the rate of response and willingness of respondents

to answer the questionnaire and interview questions. In other words, the pilot was used

to establish the limitations of the instruments in order to ensure that the final research

instruments were valid and reliable tools.

The researcher had tested the instruments with 32 questionnaires and 8 in-depth

interviews with beneficiaries only. The selected sample size was taken as an

approximated 10% of the total sample size to be used in the actual survey. The total

sample size for the survey was calculated using the Raosoft sample size calculator online

(@http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html). The estimated population of the Binga

district based on census 2012 is 138074. Using the Raosoft online sample size calculator

(http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html) and on the basis of the estimated population of

Binga district, at a standard error margin of 5%, a confidence level of 95%, and a 50%

response distribution, a sample size of 384 was derived. It was on this basis that a sample

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of 32 was used for the pre-test. However, the response distribution was very low, maybe

because of the political situation that was prevailing in the country. The pilot test led to

the restructuring of both the questionnaire and in-depth interview guide so that they could

incorporate some variables that are specific to the enhancement of people’s capabilities

and the sustainability of projects run by CADEC in the fight against poverty. Moreover, it

was through piloting the study that the researcher found it important to interview the

CADEC officials and as a result a separate in-depth interview guide for CADEC officials

was prepared. In order to access the beneficiaries of CADEC’s projects for data collection

purposes, entry was sought from CADEC.

6.7 Gaining entry

Gaining entry was sought through contact by written and informed consent to access the

participants, that is, CADEC officials and CADEC beneficiaries. The informed consent

letter contained the following information in order to gain access and participation from

the participants, namely; the request for their participation in the research, the purpose of

the research, the voluntary nature of the research, the informants’ right to stop the

research at any time, the protection of confidentiality. Participants were invited to

participate by a letter explaining the study as well as their ethical rights during the

research process. Given the prevailing political situation, approaching community

members and other informants would have had the potential to raise suspicion and

threaten the safety of the respondents. The NGO’s support throughout the project was

critical to the success of the field data collection phase since the researcher was given

an official to travel with within different Binga wards which include Manjolo, Lubu and

Simatelele. In Zimbabwe, it is advisable to seek permission from both traditional and

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political structures before any research is conducted in an area. Given the political

instability at the time of the study, communities had been warned against talking to

strangers. For this reason the researcher obtained clearance to gain entry into the

community. The discussion below is about how the collected data was analysed.

6.8 Data analysis

Qualitative data was analysed through content analysis where information gathered

through in-depth interviews was broken down into different themes and categories.

Content analysis allowed the researcher to identify, establish and organize the

relationship between themes emerging from the data. The information collected was

synthesized and used to make valid and necessary inferences on the provision of basic

needs, enhancement of capabilities and on the sustainability of projects run by CADEC.

On the other hand, quantitative data was analysed using the Statistical Package of Social

Sciences (SPSS) which describe, categorize, order, manipulate and summarize the

features of the sample data (Bogdan et al., 1998). Charts, graphs and tables have been

used to illustrate the results of the study.

6.9 Significance of study

This study identified community gardens, the financing of sustainable growth projects,

supplementary feeding, livestock production and educational initiatives as strategies used

by CADEC to reduce poverty in Binga. It suggested possible measures that can help the

organisation to work on better strategies to achieve its goals such as participation and

funding development projects. It is hoped that the study will make the Binga people aware

of the contribution CADEC is making through its community gardens and livestock

production projects in reducing their level of poverty. Furthermore, the study revealed

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some of the challenges CADEC faces with regard to poverty reduction, which has

consequently made it hard for the NGO to achieve its major goals such as scaling up of

beneficiaries and focusing on donor objective at the expense of its goals. This can make

it possible for stakeholders to work out follow-up poverty alleviation turnaround strategies.

Additionally, the strategies for alleviating poverty like participation, financing projects,

educational initiatives and gardens can be used by stakeholders of poverty alleviation

efforts such as the public and private sector policymakers, managers, planners,

coordinators and evaluators of poverty reduction agencies, the poor and the general

public to influence community change or development. Lastly, as this work has social

scientific relevance it is hoped that its findings has added to the body of knowledge we

have, empirical or theoretical, and that other scholars might find new research questions

worth further investigation from the results of the study. Below are the limitations of this

study.

6.10 Limitations of the study

As far as this study is concerned, there are many limitations that the researcher

encountered. Being a case study which focuses on a small area with few NGOs, it may

be inadequate to draw conclusions that generalize the findings across several areas and

organisations dealing with the reduction of poverty in Zimbabwe. In addition, there was

little information on the case study area, Binga. Therefore, the researcher was forced to

use the limited available information with regards to the community profile. This being the

case, the researcher found it difficult to quantify the organisation’s contribution to poverty

reduction in Binga. Another limitation was getting interviewees within stipulated time. The

language was also a problem since the researcher did not understand Tonga language.

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In addition, there were challenges related to costs for transportation to the research sites,

considering the distance the researcher had to travel long to the various community

segments involved. Moreover, the time given was not sufficient enough for the researcher

to fully explore the organisation’s projects in some areas since there was a need to meet

academic deadlines. However, this study was carried out in accordance with the ethical

considerations that were identified in chapter 1.

6.11 Ethical considerations

The information that was gathered in this research was used solely for academic

purposes and was treated with strict confidentiality. Additionally, respondents were

guaranteed anonymity and their rights were respected, that is, they were questioned only

if they are willing. Lastly this study observed the University of Fort Hare ethical protocols

and respondents were required to sign a consent form before the commencement of the

fieldwork.

6.12 Conclusion

This chapter has provided a general overview of the research methods utilised in this

study. The research adopted the mixed methods methodology of both quantitative and

qualitative methodologies. The quantitative method aimed to collect data on quantitative

questions and a questionnaire was used to collect data. On the other hand, in-depth

interviews were used to collect qualitative data. These two instruments were piloted

before the actual study. This helped the researcher to finalise the instruments and to

make adjustments before going to the field. The instruments consisted of questions that

aimed to answer the research questions. Thus, through the utilization of the research

methodology discussed above this study put forward an argument that although NGOs

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are criticised for providing for relief and basic needs only, the operation of CADEC in

Binga shows that it is operating in such a way that enhances the beneficiaries’

capabilities. The results of this study indicate that participation in the projects run by

CADEC leads to the enhancement of capabilities and sustainable livelihoods in the long

run. The following chapter will discuss CADEC’s poverty alleviation strategies and the

satisfaction of the Basic Needs of the Binga people.

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Chapter 7: CADEC, poverty alleviation and the satisfaction of the Basic Needs of

the Binga people

7.1 Introduction

The study’s core argument was that despite the criticisms levelled against NGOs that they

provide for immediate relief and basic needs only (Treasure, 2009:7-10), the activities of

CADEC in Binga indicates in contrast that it enhances people’s capabilities and enables

people to gain a sustainable development. This is supported by the findings of this study

that indicate that the enhancement of capabilities was made possible by involving

beneficiaries in the activities that concern their wellbeing such as gardening, livestock

production and training. The aim of this chapter was to present the findings of this study.

The study presents that the objective of the study was investigating NGOs and their anti-

poverty reduction strategies in Zimbabwe using the case study of CADEC in Binga. As a

result CADEC works with the poorest of the poor so as to reduce their poverty. The results

of this study substantiate that CADEC is practically implementing its goals particularly,

funding sustainable growth projects successfully and involving the poor in decision

making and execution of projects. For the research to measure both the basic needs and

the capabilities of the Binga people, the study was anchored on the fundamental human

needs theory and the capabilities approach.

The fundamental human needs helped in gathering information about the provision of

basic needs such as supplementary feeding, educational initiatives and sustainable

projects that addresses the basic needs of the people. The capabilities focused on the

enhancement of capabilities through participating in projects training, and educational

initiatives. However, some of the anti-poverty interventions such as sustainable projects

and educational initiatives provide for the basic needs and at the same time enhances

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the capabilities of people. As a result there was straddling between this chapter and the

next chapter.

This chapter deals with the presentation and analysis of data that was collected from the

field. This study’s aim was information collection and analysis of data with regard to the

provision of basic needs, enhancement of people’s capabilities and the sustainability of

projects in Binga district. In this chapter data collected was about NGOs and poverty

reduction in Binga in Zimbabwe. Since this study triangulated its research methodologies,

quantitative data collected was analysed using the SPSS and qualitative data was used

to make valid and necessary inferences on the interaction of the Binga people and

CADEC thus qualitative data backed up quantitative data. Hence, due to the size of the

sample, the analysis was limited to frequency distribution tables and cross tabulations

among others and this is explained by the results of the study. Furthermore,

generalisations in the chapters on the research findings or results are made on the basis

of information from the interviews and documents.

This study contends that in spite of the criticisms raised against NGOs that they cater for

immediate relief and basic needs (Treasure, 2009:7-10), the operation of CADEC in Binga

shows in contrast that NGOs can operate in such a way that the capabilities of the

participants can be enhanced or expanded in a way that enables the Binga district to

independently engage in sustainable livelihoods and development. Thus, this study found

out that participating in projects has enabled CADEC to realise and expand people’s

capabilities and participation was identified is a means of gaining a sustainable livelihood.

The results of this study show that CADEC targets the poor. The organisation uses

supplementary feeding, gardens, livestock production, payment of school fees and

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participation among others as strategies for alleviating poverty in Binga. CADEC’s

activities are guided by its mission and vision which are based on the evangelism teaching

of the Roman Catholic Church. The organisation assists the deprived people regardless

of gender, age, marital status and education among others. The results of this study

indicate that the majority believed that CADEC has been able to reduce poverty in Binga

to a greater extent. Clean water was identified as the most pressing human need followed

by food in Binga district. Both men and women are CADEC’s target and they participate

in activities that are enhancing their capabilities.

7.2 CADEC’s target

The results of this study demonstrate that CADEC targets the most marginalised and

deprived people in the societies. Its operations are guided by its vision which is “to see a

society in which the dignity of the human being is paramount and in which exclusion,

discrimination, violence and dehumanising poverty are no more”. Its mission is “to

improve the quality of life of the deprived families by promoting, supporting and sustaining

the development of a whole human being as part of the evangelisation mission of the

church” (Interviewee no. 1 male, June 2013 and documents 1, 2, 3 and 4). Thus, the

results of this study are in line with the vision and mission statements of CADEC since

the organisation is enhancing people’s capabilities and facilitating sustainable livelihoods

through projects aimed at eradicating poverty in Binga. So one can say that CADEC’s

objective comes from the vision and mission statement of the organisation. Thus, table 2

below shows presents the results of the views of people in the target group of CADEC.

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Table 2: CADEC’s target

DO CADEC TARGET THE POOR?

Frequenc

y

Percent Valid

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid

Not at all 12 3.3 3.3 3.3

Don’t know 111 30.7 30.7 34.1

To some

extent

157 43.5 43.5 77.6

A lot 81 22.4 22.4 100.0

Total 361 100.0 100.0

Source: A Printout of a table derived from the data and findings of this study.

As indicated in the table 2 above (81) respondents believed that CADEC really targets

the poor and 157 respondents believed that it targets the poor to some extent. However,

12 respondents believed that CADEC do no target the poor and 111 respondents were

not sure. Targeting the poor is very crucial since NGOs empowers the poor. The

organization (CADEC) targets marginalized and deprived groups in society regardless of

their faith, political affiliation, gender, age, marital status and level of education. A CADEC

official said “we work with poor people so as to enhance their dignity” (Interviewee no. 1

male, June 2013). Another participant said “CADEC helps those who are poor and those

who cannot afford to have basic needs like food, shelter and clothing” (Interviewee no. 3,

June 2013). Thus, a CADEC official said “…our role is to bring happy faces to enhance

their dignity…” (Interviewee no. 1 male, June 2013). Nyathi’s (2012:67) findings are in

harmony with the results of this study since she believed that NGOs seek to improve

access of services to disadvantaged people. In implementing its programs, CADEC seeks

to capacitate target communities in the districts of operation to be highly participatory in

the development of their communities so as to break the dependency syndrome (Finger,

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2004). In support of this, the coordinator of CADEC said that “we are an arm of the church

mandated to do development and relief in Binga” (Interviewee no. 2 female, June 2013).

For Smillie (1995) CADEC provides a beacon of hope for millions of women, men and

children in times of need and contributes to the development of poor communities. The

section below discusses the gender composition of CADEC’s beneficiaries.

7.3 Gender composition of CADEC’s beneficiaries

The results of the study as shown that CADEC works with both males and females. The

table below shows the gender composition of the respondents of this study who are

CADEC’s beneficiaries.

Table 3: Gender composition of CADEC beneficiaries

Gender

Frequen

cy

Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Valid

Male 158 43.8 43.8 43.8

Femal

e

203 56.2 56.2 100.0

Total 361 100.0 100.0

Source: A Printout of a table derived from the data and findings of this study.

From the Table 3 above 43.8% (n=158) of the respondents were males and that 56.2%

(n=203) were females. This implies that both male and females are CADEC’s target and

they participate in its projects. Thus, participating in CADEC’s project means they are

being empowered and their capabilities are expanded to a greater extent. Again, 22

respondents were in-depth interviewed, 20 CADEC beneficiaries and 2 officials. This is

in harmony with Nyathi’s (2012:123) work which also acknowledges that NGOs in Binga

work with both male and females. The subjects interviewed were willing to respond to all

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the questions asked by the researcher, in some instances they went out of their way to

provide the researcher with detailed information that provided useful intuitions on the

activities of CADEC in Binga. However, projects run by CADEC varies according to age

groups of the beneficiaries.

7.4 Age groups of CADEC’s beneficiaries

The researcher managed to distribute questionnaires to both the youth and the elderly.

The ages of the beneficiaries of CADEC are presented in the table 4 below.

Table 4: Age

Age

Frequen

cy

Percent Valid

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid

Below

15

10 2.8 2.8 2.8

16-25 151 41.8 41.8 44.6

26-35 119 33.0 33.0 77.6

36-45 52 14.4 14.4 92.0

46+ 29 8.0 8.0 100.0

Total 361 100.0 100.0

Source: A Printout of a table derived from the data and findings of this study.

As presented in table 4 above, 10 respondents were under the age of 15, 151

respondents were between 16 and 25, 119 respondents were between 26 and 35, 52

respondents were between 36 and 45 and 29 respondents were above 46 years. This

question was meant to investigate whether the organisation targets all age groups. The

age groups of those who were interviewed were mixed; there were both youth and adults.

This is also in line with Nyathi, (2012:122) who interviewed 20 youth and 20 elderly people

and found out that NGOs in Binga assists both youth and adults. CADEC has

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programmes that are run by the youth and others run by the elderly. CADEC assists the

poor regardless of age, thus the youths are assisted through payment of school fees and

adults are involved in different projects such as gardening, livestock production and craft

that are aimed at alleviating poverty. A Binga community member supported the issue of

fees payment by saying “…CADEC is helping through payment of school fees…”

(Interviewee 19 male, June 2013). Thus, this study indicates that CADEC does not

provide basic needs and cater for immediate relief only but also enhances people’s

capabilities, fosters the attainment of a sustainable livelihood and to facilitate access to

basic human needs.

7.5 Pressing human needs in Binga

The Binga people who were interviewed by the researcher identified clean water,

employment, food, shelter and skills as the pressing human needs in Binga. These needs

are presented in the bar graph below.

Figure 3: Basic needs of the Binga people

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Source: A Printout of a graph derived from the data and findings of this study.

From the figure 3 above water is the most pressing human need (about 172 out of 361

respondents identified it as the most pressing need) in Binga. In Simatelele Ward, rivers

are dying and boreholes are drying down, so people are now travelling long distances to

fetch water. The worst part is that in some rivers like in Simatelele ward crocodiles are

killing livestock and people. This situation is now affecting some of the gardens that were

run by CADEC near rivers and its now making it hard for the Binga people to gain basic

needs and the sustainability of those projects is affected by lack of water. Employment

was identified as the second pressing human need (about 85 respondents), followed by

food (about 47 respondents), then shelter (about 45 respondents) and lastly skills (about

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30 respondents). According to Cohen (1999: 47), poverty is a lack of basic human needs,

such as enough nutritious food, clothing, housing, clean water and health services.

Pressing human needs can be explained by what one man in Binga reported “basically

the basic needs of Binga people are food, clothing and proper health care” (interviewee

no. 4, male, June 2013). Another one said “…The basic needs are jobs…” (Interviewee

20 male June 2013). This is the main cause of dependency and suffering of the Binga

people. Therefore, extreme poverty can cause terrible suffering and death. This implies

that the majority of the Binga people suffer from hunger since Binga is an arid area. Binga

District also suffers from harsh climatic conditions for example extreme high temperatures

and this makes it a drought prone area (Marten, 2010). Again, most parts of the district

are not well suited to agriculture, since temperatures are high, rainfall is generally low and

very erratic, much of the terrain is hilly, soils are poor except in the river valleys. However,

there is a large wildlife population, both within and outside protected areas (Conyers,

2002). As a result the Binga people cannot produce enough food for subsistence

purposes.

Thus, CADEC used supplementary feeding to help those who could not produce enough

food and it is now extending its operations to enhancing the capabilities of the local people

and at the same time enabling them to gain sustainable development. Some identified

employment as the second pressing human need. Employment is a need because there

are few industries and the people are not educated, this makes it hard for them to be

employable (Nyathi, 2012:124). The results of this study show that CADEC’s projects

provides employment to the Binga people and as a result poverty is reduced to some

extent. This was supported by interviewee 21, (male June 2013) who said “…CADEC is

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creating employment for the youth, it’s contributing a lot to our community…” Thus, NGOs

like CADEC chip in, to help people through food aid, education initiatives, shelter

employment and skills among others. All in all, the satisfaction of the identified human

needs can lead to the reduction of poverty in Binga district.

7.6 Assistance from CADEC

CADEC has managed to assist many people in Binga, some of the beneficiaries

acknowledge the assistance from the organisation. The table below presents the findings

on whether people receive aid from CADEC.

Table 5: Assistance from CADEC

Do you get assistance from CADEC?

Frequen

cy

Percent Valid

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid

YES 335 92.8 92.8 92.8

NO 26 7.2 7.2 100.0

Total 361 100.0 100.0

Source: A Printout of a table derived from the data and findings of this study.

From the table above the majority of the respondents (92.8%) agreed that they get

assistance from CADEC and 7.2% do not get assistance any more this shows that

CADEC is still helping a number of people in Binga. One of the respondents from

Simatelele ward said “... I give credit to CADEC for everything that I have...” (Interviewee

no. 4, male, June 2013). This shows that she thanks CADEC for helping her to escape

poverty. Another man acknowledges the assistance from CADEC “… I thank CADEC very

much because it gives me maize, cooking oil, beans and other food stuffs. It is also paying

fees for my children….” (Interviewee no. 4, male, June 2013) Another one said “takapihwa

mpongo gore rapfuura” (Interviewee no. 7, male, June 2013), meaning we were given

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goats last year. Another woman said “...Now I feel better because of the aid from CADEC”

(Interviewee on. 10, female, June 2013). All these respondents acknowledge the

importance of CADEC in their everyday lives. Therefore, one can conclude that CADEC

has and is still helping a lot of people to get out of poverty. Thus, this study contends that

the criticism levelled against NGO’s that they cater for immediate relief and basic needs

is not true since the results of this study show that CADEC is helping through sustainable

projects and enhancing local people’s capabilities. The table above shows the number of

beneficiaries who are still benefiting and those who are no longer benefiting from CADEC.

335 of the respondents were still benefiting from CADEC’s activities and 26 were no

longer benefiting. This implies that those who are no longer benefiting are now

independent and are able to provide enough for basic needs.

7.7 The nature of assistance from CADEC

In contrast to the criticisms levelled against NGOs that they cater for immediate relief and

basic needs, the operation of CADEC in Binga shows that NGOs can operate in such a

way that the capabilities of the participants can be enhanced or expanded in such a way

that the Binga district can be capable of independently engaging in sustainable livelihoods

and development. This study argued that participation in projects has enabled CADEC to

realise and expand people’s capabilities and participation is a means of gaining a

sustainable livelihood. The nature of assistance from CADEC ranges from the provision

of basic human needs, enhancement of capabilities, education and facilitating the earning

of a sustainable livelihood.

Figure 4: Nature of assistance from CADEC

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Source: A Printout of a graph derived from the data and findings of this study.

The bar graph above shows that about 98 people were under the food aid program, about

70 were assisted with shelter, about 100 received educational assistance, 67 were

enskilled and about 20 specified the assistance they got from CADEC, ranging from

livestock and different projects. This implies that CADEC focuses on the above named

assistance. However, Nyathi (2012:137-138) believed that some nature of assistance are

not suitable for the Binga people for example food aid is no longer important because

people can produce more for themselves. Those who gained skills did so by participating

in different projects offered by the NGO. One respondent said “… I learnt how to use my

own hands so that I don’t depend on the help of NGOs every time…” (Interviewee on. 3,

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male, June 2013). Another Binga man said “… I got the skills from working in NGOs

borehole maintenance projects and I can repair borehole…” (Interviewees no. 5, 6 and 7

June 2013). CADEC officials testified that “… if there is a specific skill we make sure that

at least three people per ward get it...” (Interviewees no. 1, 2 June 2013). I learnt to make

baskets and am now self-reliant (Interviewees no. 22, June 2013). According to

Document (no. 2), 319 garden members underwent a training on garden management,

nursery management and herbal utilisation. These were plot holders drawn from 15

gardens. The trainings were conducted in conjunction with Tree Africa. Two field days

were conducted during the period under review for the farmers to showcase their garden

produce. The gardens are sustained by group participation. Thus, in this case

participation means that all families in every village or habitation are covered by a program

specifically the poor and most marginalized people. The poor must be involved in the

development processes and benefit from such (Giffen, 2002). This is in harmony with the

words of CADEC official who said “…the community is fully involved and we brought

people on board, we use the problem tree analysis in decision making, and we have never

gone wrong through that approach…” (Interviewee, 1, June 2013).

For Giffen (2002) participation of the poor creates a strong sense of ownership of the

projects and as a result they work whole heartedly. Others were helped through the food

aid programme that gives food to those affected by hunger. About 98 respondents were

under the food aid programme.

However, CADEC stopped giving food to the Binga people in 2012 August and is now

focusing on community projects to help people to start their own initiatives. Some

respondents received education from CADEC. A young man testified that “… I am

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currently doing a course in agriculture and CADEC is paying for everything and I will be

able to find a job and to help my family and to be self-reliant…” (Interviewee no. 4, June

2013). In some instances CADEC pays their fees for them to go to school “… CADEC is

paying school fees for my children...” (Interviewees no. 8 and 10 June 2013 supports the

testimony). However, the majority were not sure about how school fees for their children

was paid by CADEC. This issue of school fees was made clear by one CADEC official

who said “we do not pay school fees directly but we are building blair toilets (latrines) in

schools like Simatelele and Lubu primary and secondary, then we liaise with the

headmaster to exempt students who cannot afford to pay fees from paying” (Interviewees

no. 1 and 2, June 2013). Others were given shelter by the organisation. Through all these

initiatives CADEC has managed to reduce poverty in Binga district. The majority

expressed their gratitude to CADEC for helping in repairing boreholes, food aid, payment

of school fees and being given livestock. Thus, the fulfilment of these needs reduces

poverty to a greater extent.

7.8 Did you get any aid in the last 3 months?

This question aimed to investigate whether CADEC is still operating in Binga district. The

results of this question are presented in the table 6 below.

Table 6: Aid in the last 3 months

Have you received aid in the last 3 months

Frequen

cy

Percent Valid

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid

Yes 205 56.7 56.7 56.7

No 156 43.3 43.3

100.0

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Total 361 100.0 100.0

Source: A Printout of a graph derived from the data and findings of this study.

From the results provided in the table above it shows that the majority (205) respondents

received aid in the last 3 months and 156 respondents did not. However, some admitted

that they were helped by CADEC but they are no longer getting any help maybe because

they are now independent and they can support themselves. Clark (1995) believed that

NGOs use (two) 2 approaches to reduce poverty, supply and demand or micro or macro

approach. The supply or micro approach, NGOs provides for various basic human needs

of the poor for example food, provision of shelter and payment of school fees among

others. The demand or micro approach, NGOs mobilises and ask what is needed by the

people then work according to people’s needs. Therefore, CADEC uses both approaches

proposed by Clark (1995) to reduce poverty in Binga. But for Nyathi (2012:142), NGOs

are not sufficient enough to reduce poverty. As a result the study identified the main

human needs in Binga and strategies of satisfying them. This enabled CADEC to utilise

properly the ant-poverty alleviation strategies in Binga.

7.9 The anti-poverty interventions utilized and strategies operationalized by

CADEC to fight poverty in Binga

A number of anti-poverty interventions utilized by CADEC in Binga were identified by this

study such as supplementary feeding, sustainable projects such as gardens and livestock

production, educational initiatives and the provision of shelter.

7.9.1 Supplementary feeding

Zimbabwe Red Cross Society Report (2009:3) views supplementary feeding programmes

as deliberate actions by the government and NGOs to assist vulnerable members of

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communities facing food insecurity with highly nutritional food. As the name suggests

supplementary feeding schemes are meant to provide vulnerable community members

with food which is high in nutritional content such as beans, nutritional maize meal and

cooking oil. These nutritional meals if adequately prepared by the recipients help to

reduce incidences of malnutrition. As a result poverty will be minimised. Supplementary

feeding comes as to fill the gap of food insecurity in Binga. Thus, one man said “…I thank

CADEC very much because it gives me maize, cooking oil, beans, and other food stuffs,

on top of that takapihwa chikafu gore rapfuura” (Interviewee no.11 June 2013), meaning

we were given food last year. However, this study found out that the project on food

security (supplementary feeding) stopped in 2012 since people were taught to grow food

for subsistence and were given livestock to keep for themselves. Nyathi (2012:138)

supports the stoppage of food aid because it was no longer necessary since people were

able to produce for themselves. This means that the majority of the Binga people was

suffering from hunger since Binga is an arid area. This is because the Binga district suffers

from harsh climatic conditions for example extreme high temperatures and this makes it

a drought prone area (Marten, 2010 in Nyathi, 2012:2). Thus, most parts of the district

are not well suited for agriculture, since temperatures are high, rainfall is generally low

and very erratic and the terrain is hilly and sandy except in the river valleys. Again, there

is a large wildlife population, both within and outside protected areas (Conyers, 2002:6-

10). Because of the harsh climatic conditions the Binga people grow drought resistant

crops like millet, and sorghum. As a result the Binga people could produce enough food

for subsistence purposes until they started growing drought resistant crops. Therefore,

extreme poverty has been causing terrible suffering and death. In response to the

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situation in Binga, CADEC used to offer food to the Binga people through its

supplementary feeding programme. CADEC used to give food stuffs like beans, cooking

oil, porridge, peas, and maize to the Binga people. On the question of the satisfaction

about supplementary feeding the majority of the respondents (56.5%) were very satisfied,

38.0% respondents were satisfied, 3.6% were undecided, and 2.0 were not satisfied by

CADEC’s supplementary feeding.

Surprisingly, in their effort to reduce poverty, the majority of the respondents reported that

they do not receive any aid from the government, one beneficiary said “… we do not get

any aid from the government…” (Interviewee no. 9, June 2013). Someone said “no

government help at all” (Interviewees on. 11, female, June 2013). Another one said “…

Kana...” (Interviewee no. 3, June 2013) meaning not at all. These are some of the

responses about whether the Binga people get assistance from the government. Since

NGOs supplement the role of the government poverty remains a problem if the

government does not help its people (Riddle et al., 1992:143) because NGOs alone

cannot fully end poverty in Binga (Nyathi 2012:142-143). However, the role of the

government was made clear by the CADEC manager who said “… sometimes we work

with the government and sometimes we use its facilities and resources to assist the Binga

people in providing feeding to the public…” (Interviewee no. 1, June 2013). The local

people are not aware of the invisible hand of the government. It is very unfortunate that

CADEC reported that it had stopped giving food directly to the Binga in 2012 August, but

it is fortunate that it is helping people to produce their own food. This is based on “don’t

give me fish but teach me how to fish” motto used by the organisation to encourage

participation in its projects that aim to benefit the local Binga people. Nyathi (2012:136)

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advocates for the development of social amenities rather that the provision of foodstuffs

since poverty is not a lack of food only.

However, CADEC’s supplementary feeding program in Zimbabwe stopped because it

was facing challenges that were a result of macroeconomic instability experienced in the

country since 2000. The characteristics of this macroeconomic instability are

hyperinflation, cash shortages, unemployment, increasing poverty and food insecurity

(Red Cross Society, 2009:2). Macroeconomic instability made it almost impossible to

adhere to the set budgets as the food costs increased beyond budgeted amounts and the

attendant food insecurity and poverty meant that the supplementary feeding programmes

become oversubscribed and as a result CADEC and other NGO’s could not cope with the

large number of beneficiaries (Red Cross Society, Ibid).

7.9.2 Educational initiative

CADEC in Binga is helping people through educational initiatives and the educational

achievement of the respondents are presented in the table below.

Table 7: Educational achievement of the Binga people

Educational achievement

Frequen

cy

Percent Valid

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid

No formal education 23 6.4 6.4 6.4

grade1-7 153 42.4 42.4 48.8

form 1-6 151 41.8 41.8 90.6

university

degree/degree

34 9.4 9.4 100.0

Total 361 100.0 100.0

Source: A Printout of a table derived from the data and findings of this study.

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The results shown in the table above indicates that the Binga people are able to acquire

basic education that is form 1 to form 6 (151 respondents). Some manage to acquire the

minimum education of grade 1 to 7 (153 respondents). There were 34 respondents with

university degrees or diplomas and 23 respondents without formal education. The low

literacy rate can be a result of lack of money to send children to school. The Binga people

are generally regarded as very backward, underdeveloped and illiterate (Schuthof and

Boerenkamp, 1991:14).

However, some of those who managed to acquire education acknowledge that they were

assisted by CADEC. CADEC has managed to help a number of people to acquire

education and as a result the poverty of the Binga people will be minimised in the long

run because they will get jobs and earn better incomes. Some who received education

from CADEC reported that “… I am currently doing a course in agriculture and I will be

able to find a job and to help myself to be self-reliant” (Interviewee no. 3, June 2013). The

organisation is also paying school fees for children to go to school. This is in line with

what was said by one respondent in Binga who said “… CADEC is paying school fees for

my children...” (Interviewee no. 8, June 2013). CADEC developed a strategy to pay school

fees for the deprived students, the manager of CADEC said “we are building blair toilets

in schools like Simatelele and Lubu and we liaise with the headmaster so that he exempt

those who cannot afford to pay fees from paying school fees” (Interviewee no.1, June

2013). This will enable the Binga people to get formal jobs and to earn better incomes.

For Sen (2000:5) poverty is more than income, it includes capability deprivation and

income can be seen as a means of enriching capabilities. Thus, Sen (1985:78) argues

that the solution to poverty is to expand human capabilities such as education. This is in

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line with Tom’s (2010) argument which says the principal route out of poverty is work and

it is hard to get a proper job without an education. Sen (2000:5-6) went on to say the

enhancement of human capabilities should also go hand in glove with the expansion of

productivities and earning power. This means an emancipated man should produce

results and earn more so as to reduce the level of poverty. On the same note, Davids et

al., (2005:41) believed that the poor will never get out of poverty irrespective of the

capabilities and competencies they have without exposure to services like education.

However, Nyathi (2012:123-124) attributes low literacy in Binga to deprivation of the rights

of the girl child who did not have equal opportunity to acquire education as the boy child.

Thus, Tom (2010:5) in support of (Nyathi, 2012), argues that without rights the poor will

never get out of poverty. This is the other reason why Binga is still underdeveloped

because it still practices traditional or cultural values and does not respect the rights of

the girl child. Some families in Binga prefer to educate a male child as compared to a girl

child. This worsened poverty among women as compared to man. However, CADEC is

working of such inequalities to empower the girl child and to reduce poverty in the long

run. The next section discusses the sustainability of projects run by CADEC.

7.9.3 Sustainable projects

CADEC has sustainable projects that are run by the local people. These projects include

gardening, livestock projects, craft, agricultural projects and water harvesting projects that

help to provide for basic needs. Basing on the results it shows that CADEC is able to

help a number of people in Binga through different activities. Again the craft industry is

believed to be very helpful (56.3%) in providing employment for women in Binga and

43.8% of the respondents believed that it is helpful. Suharko (2007:57) argues that the

involvement of NGOs in alleviating poverty has changed the life of the poor in developing

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countries. This is evidenced by the results of this study where one respondent said “... I

give credit to CADEC for everything that I have; my life has changed as a result of

CADEC’s help. I was given goats and now I am a man among man....” (Interviewee no.

8, June 2013). In the Tonga culture wealth is measured by the number of livestock one

has. Therefore, NGOs by designing and implementing innovative program interventions,

they have enhanced the quality of life of the poor. They have facilitated the poor to reach

a first foothold on the development ladder and reduces dependency syndrome and at the

same time sustainable projects make the attainment of basic needs possible (Suharko,

2007:57). Projects like gardens are mostly run by both men and women. They grow

vegetables such as rape, tomatoes, carrots, beetroot, sweet potatoes, potatoes and

bananas among others. CADEC has stopped supporting these projects and locals are

running them on their own. CADEC only visits at times to check the progress. The

manager said “… we stopped assisting them directly and we only check the progress from

time to time. They are managing everything on their own and they are succeeding…”

(Interviewee on. 2, June 2013). The results of this study show that people are satisfied

with the gardening projects since they get food and money from them. CADEC’s role in

these projects is to link them to the market. The coordinator of CADEC said “… to make

it easy for the Binga people we managed to link them to the markets like TM, OK

supermarkets and local vendors…” (Interviewee no. 1, June 2013). However, the gardens

could not reach out to outside markets due to the poor road network. The size of the

gardens could also not produce much to cater for consumption and large scale selling.

Nevertheless, the projects seem to be continuing smoothly except the problem of water

to water the vegetables. One participant suggested that “… we need an underground

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water pump for our project to continue because rivers are drying up…” (Interviewee no.

12, June 2013). The other problem encountered is the one of animals both domestic and

wild that attacked their crops. Fortunately CADEC has managed to fence the gardens for

the Simatelele and Lubu ward people. However the fencing does not help when it comes

to animals like elephants and buffalos because they can easily break the fencing and

attack the crops. But to a greater extent the projects have assisted the in reducing the

poverty of the Binga people. The section below examines the extent to which CADEC’s

strategies contributed to the basic needs of the people in Binga.

7.9.4 The extent to which CADEC’s strategies contribute to the basic needs of the

people in Binga

The results of this study indicate that the strategies used by CADEC contribute to the

basic needs of the Binga people to a greater extent. The food aid of the organisation

provided for the basic need of the Binga people. Agro inputs like seeds and fertilizers also

help the local people to be able to produce food for subsistence purposes. This is in line

with CADEC report (2011) which says a total of 511.1 million tons of fertiliser were

distributed in the three years (2008-2010). The fertilizer distributed comprised of basal

fertilizer, the top dressing fertilizer and the gypsum. For 2008/9 a total of 86.6 million

tonnes was distributed in two wards (Simatelele and Lubu), while 162 million tonnes were

distributed in 2009/10 and 262.5 for the 2010/11 cropping season in Lubu, Sinamagonde,

Kabuba and Simatelele. There has been a change in the attitude of people towards the

utilisation of fertiliser. Ammonium Nitrate fertiliser was highly valued by farmers in Lubu,

Sinamagonde and Kabuba as compared to Simatelele (Document no.2). This enabled

many people to produce food for subsistence.

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Again, CADEC offers the poor livestock so that they will own for themselves. Community

participants also contributes to the attainment of the basic needs of the Binga people

because they work to earn a living. As a result they also become enskilled through

participating in different activities. A number of respondents reported that “we were taught

to fix boreholes and how to keep livestock” (Interviewee no.5, June 2013). The manager

of CADEC added on by saying “if there is a particular skill we make sure that at least

three people in each ward get it” (Interviewee no. 1, June 2013). They gain skills because

they fully participate in different projects offered by the NGO. Another respondent from

Manjolo ward in Binga said “I learnt to use my own hands so that I don’t depend on the

help of NGOs every time. I got the skills from working in NGOs’ projects” (Interviewee

no.3, June 2013). Thus, participation means that all villagers are covered by a project

specifically the poor and most marginalized people. They must be involved in the

development processes and benefit from such (Giffen, 2002:1-4). This is the same as

what the Binga people are doing, they are involved in different activities and they benefit

by being able to acquire basic needs for survival. The women in bee keeping projects

reported that “… honey is used for medical purposes, subsistence purposes, and some

of it is sold and the money is shared among the members...” (Interviewee no. 13, June

2013). For Giffen (2002:2), participation of the poor creates a strong sense of ownership

of the projects and as a result they work whole heartedly. Participation creates

employment and it enskills the local people and the end result is that the Binga people

are helped by CADEC’s projects to a greater extent to escape poverty.

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7.9.5 The perception of the Binga people about CADEC’s poverty alleviation

programme.

Beneficiary’s perceptions on the performance of CADEC in poverty alleviation processes

are represented in a table below.

Table 8: Performance of CADEC in poverty alleviation

5 4 3 2 1

A How effective is CADEC in facilitating a

process by which the Binga people make

their own initiatives about development?

48.2% 48.2% 2.2% .6% .8%

B How effective is CADEC’s food aid as a

way of reducing poverty in Binga?

29.1% 61.2% 5.5% 3.0% 1.1%

C How effective is CADEC’s food aid in

meeting the basic needs of people in

Binga?

36.0% 51.2% 10.5% 1.7% .6%

D How effective are the activities of CADEC

such as crop and livestock production in

reducing poverty in Binga?

36.0% 50.1% 9.1% 4.4% .3%

E How effective is CADEC’s projects in

enhancing people’s capabilities.

35.7% 47.1% 11.1% 4.2% 1.9%

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How effective is CADEC’s decision making

process with regard to community

development in Binga?

36.6% 46.0% 11.6% 5.0% .8%

Source: A Printout of a table derived from the data and findings of this study.

From the table above the majority (48.2%) believed that CADEC’s facilitation process in

decision making are very effective. Again 48.2% believed that it is effective, 2.2% were

not sure, 0.6% believed that it is ineffective and 0.8% said it is very ineffective. Thus, the

results indicate that CADEC facilitates people to make their own initiatives to a greater

extent. This freedom to make their own initiatives give them a strong sense of the project,

hence the success of the initiative.

Food aid is another strategy used by CADEC to reduce poverty in Binga, 29.1% of the

respondents believed that it is very effective and 61.2% were of the view that it is effective

whilst 5.5% were undecided, 3.0% said it is ineffective and 1.1% were of the view that it

is very ineffective. Again food aid also meets the basic needs and has impacted many

lives of the Binga people to a greater extent. Food aid was important because the Binga

people require food aid every year because they have been deprived of their needs in all

facets; first the government relocated them to create Lake Kariba for the hydroelectric

plant. They were not compensated. They were dumped on very arid, tsetse fly infested

mountainous areas adjacent to game reserves and national parks where they have to

suffer from wildlife like elephants that destroy their few crops and hyena’s and lions that

kill them or their domestic animals (Musona, 2011:4). However, for Nyathi (2012:133)

supplementary feeding was no longer necessary since people were producing enough by

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themselves. Thus, Nyathi (2012:137) believed that some strategies of reducing poverty

are not suitable in Binga and they end up not being sustainable.

Crop and livestock production are perceived to be very effective (36.0%) and effective

(51.2%), 10% not sure and 2.3% respondents perceived crop and livestock production to

be ineffective in reducing poverty in Binga. The ineffectiveness of the project can be

caused by what some called greediness, they believed that if they are to work without the

supervision of CADEC some will take advantage to dominate others and as a result the

projects will fail in the long run. This is illustrated by the table below where respondents

were asked a question on the event that CADEC ceases to operate in Binga, will the

projects successfully provide for the basic needs for the present generation and the

generation to come.

Table 9: If CADEC stops operating in Binga will the projects continue?

CADEC’s projects will continue in its absence.

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Valid

strongly disagree 75 20.8 20.8 20.8

Disagree 99 27.4 27.4 48.2

not sure 91 25.2 25.2 73.4

Agree 78 21.6 21.6 95.0

strongly agree 18 5.0 5.0 100.0

Total 361 100.0 100.0

Source: A Printout of a table derived from the data and findings of this study.

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The results in the table above indicate that in the event that CADEC ceases to operate in

Binga, the majority disagrees (99 respondents disagree) and 75 respondents strongly

disagree that the projects will continue to provide for the basic needs of the Binga people

and the generations to come. This means that they doubt the continuity of the projects

without the assistance of CADEC. However, 91 respondents were not sure about the

continuity of CADEC’s projects wen CADEC stops operating in Binga. Interviewee on. 4,

male June (2013) said “… without CADEC’s help projects will not address the basic needs

of people and projects will stop...” On the other hand a few have a positive mind about

the continuity of projects wen CADEC is gone. 78 respondents agree that the projects will

prosper in the absence of CADEC and 18 respondents strongly agree that projects will

continue. Hume (2001:136-141) believed that projects can be successful only if NGOs

move away from direct service delivery to advocacy. Mpofu (2011:17) attributed the

failure of projects to inadequate and unreliable information on the target beneficiaries.

Nyathi (2012:141) is of the view that the failure of projects is due to homogenization of all

communities and as a result some strategies are not suitable for other communities. In

the event that CADEC cease to operate in Binga, the projects will not fully provide for the

basic needs for the present generation and the generation to come.

7.10 Conclusion

All in all the current chapter has given an overview of CADEC, poverty alleviation and the

satisfaction of the Basic Needs of the Binga people. It has been argued throughout this

chapter that CADEC provides basic needs through supplementary feeding, gardening,

livestock production and educational initiatives. Some of the strategies like sustainable

projects and educational initiatives provide for the basic needs and straddle for the

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enhancement of capabilities. This study concludes that CADEC is an organisation of the

people. This is because CADEC is committed at assisting communities that live in

marginalized rural areas to have better lives through programs that are designed and

geared towards meeting the needs of concerned communities that are usually left behind

in development. As a result CADEC reduces poverty and manifests the idea of charity,

loves and sharing in the bid to eliminate poverty. The research found out that the Binga

people have been assisted to a greater extent by CADEC. The services of CADEC satisfy

the Binga people, the performance and benefits are effective, the strategies are good and

CADEC is helpful in Binga. As a result poverty has been reduced to a greater extent in

Binga. The following chapter discusses the findings of the study with regard to the

enhancement of people’s capabilities. The following chapter confirms the argument of this

study by presenting that CADEC goes beyond the criticisms of providing for basic needs

only by enhancing capabilities through strategies that were identified in the following

chapter

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Chapter 8: Enhancement of capabilities and sustainable development of the

activities of CADEC

8.1 Introduction

To reiterate the argument of this study, most NGOS have operations limited to relief and

satisfaction of basic needs only. However, CADEC goes beyond that in such a way that

it facilitates long-term and sustainable development through enskilling and capability

enhancement. The previous chapter indicated the satisfaction of the basic needs of

people through supplementary feeding, sustainable projects, and community gardens.

However, some antipoverty alleviation strategies like sustainable projects and

educational initiatives transgresses from providing for the basic needs to the

enhancement of capabilities. Thus, the previous chapter utilised much of the fundamental

human needs element and this current chapter utilised the elements of the capabilities

approach. As a result this chapter argues that CADEC enhances the capabilities of the

Binga people through training, educational initiatives and participating in projects. The

argument in this chapter is in line with the core argument of this study since CADEC’s

operation proves that it enhances the capabilities of people together with providing for the

basic needs. Therefore, this study investigated beyond the provision of services, it

investigated the enhancement of people’s capabilities and the sustainability through the

utilization of a combination of the fundamental human needs and the capabilities

approach. The results of this study show that enhancement of capabilities empowers

people and promotes equality and reduces inequality. Again, empowerment also

determines the ability to extend opportunity and to enhance capabilities. This is ensured

through participatory development, where community members are fully involved in the

activities that concern them. Thus, De Graff (1986:15-16) argued that NGOs should

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encourage community participation so as to mobilise resources and increase direct

decision making. Similarly, Interviewee no 3, June (2013) believed that the mobilization

of people and resources reduces poverty in the long run. Nyathi (2012: 65-66) supports

the findings of this study to some extent since she identified income generating projects,

advocacy, agriculture, short term loans and relief and welfare as strategies to reduce

poverty in Binga. Thus, participation and sustainable projects seem to be the best

strategies of alleviating poverty in poor communities like Binga.

By so doing CADEC is using participation as a tool to reduce poverty and at the same

time the beneficiaries are being empowered. Thus, the results of this study indicate that

CADEC together with the community people are the one running sustainable these

projects. To be specific CADEC is there to check progress. CADEC official witnessed this

by saying “…. We stopped doing the projects for them; we now check the progress and

link them to the markets…” (Interviewees on 1 and 2, June 2013). This links well with the

Capability Approach which is conceptualized in terms of people’s capabilities to function

which is their effective opportunities to undertake the actions and activities that they want

to engage in and be whom they want to be (Sen, 1999). The capability approach regarded

poverty as the scarcity of some basic capabilities. These capabilities vary from that vary

from being well raised, being amply clothed and sheltered to community participation and

being able to appear in public without shame (Sen, 1995).

However, one element of the theoretical framework of this study, i.e. the capabilities

approach is against the income poverty measurement and it demonstrates a distinction

between the actual capabilities an individual has. Sen argues that they are essentially

important and their income, which is merely a means to such opportunities and whose

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importance is both instrumental (Sen, 2009: 233) and contingent (Rod, 2012). Thus, this

again relates to the distinction between direct and indirect concepts of poverty (Ringen,

1988). The direct concept of poverty focus on cases where living standards fall below a

certain level and typically assume that this is because of a lack of resources. On the other

hand, indirect perceptions of poverty focus on cases where resources fall below a certain

point and typically assume that this results in a low standard of living. However, such

distinctions are of little significance if low income were a good alternative for deprivation.

But the capability approach holds that this is unlikely to be the case since people have

varying needs and they require different levels of resources in order to achieve the same

standard of living (Ringen, 1988).

Again this study went on to look at the sustainability of these projects, whether they can

produce for the basic needs of the present generation and the generation to come.

Enhancement of capabilities through participation goes along sustainability since

participation gives the poor a part in initiatives designed for their benefit in the hopes that

development projects will be more sustainable and successful if local populations are

engaged in the development process. Accordingly, sustainable is both an end and means

that is sustainable stewardship of resources is an end in itself and it provides conditions

or means for livelihoods to be sustained for future generations. Thus, this study was

anchored on both Max-Neef’s basic needs and Sen’s capabilities approach. These

theories are concerned with the human condition, the basic need focused on the

satisfaction of human needs and the capabilities approach on the enhancement of human

capabilities. The researcher used questions that are directed to the enhancement of

capabilities and sustainability of CADEC’s projects to gather useful important information

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about the Binga people’s experience. These questions are analysed in the paragraphs

below.

8.2 The enhancement of capabilities in Binga

The capabilities of the Binga people are enhanced by CADEC through participating in

different activities like gardening, livestock keeping, repairing boreholes and fixing fences.

In table 10 below the Binga people rated on a scale their level of satisfaction on how their

potentials are enhanced through participating in different activities run by CADEC.

Table 10: the satisfaction of people by the way their potentials are enhanced

I am satisfied with how people's potentials are enhanced

through participating in different CADEC's activities

Frequ

ency

Percent Valid

Percent

Cumulativ

e Percent

Valid

very dissatisfied 1 .3 .3 .3

Dissatisfied 5 1.4 1.4 1.7

Neutral 9 2.5 2.5 4.2

Satisfied 147 40.7 40.7 44.9

very satisfied 199 55.1 55.1 100.0

Total 361 100.0 100.0

Source: A Printout of a graph derived from the data and findings of this study.

The majority 199 respondents were very satisfied, 147 respondents were satisfied with

how their potentials are enhanced. 1 respondent was very dissatisfied, 5 respondents

were dissatisfied and 9 respondents were undecided. Their capabilities are enhanced

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through participating in various activities. Some are practicing gardening projects in their

wards, they were assisted on how to grow, what to grow and when to grow. However,

CADEC stopped directing the projects and the Binga people are now running the projects

on their own. In Lubu and Simatelele wards the gardens are a success and CADEC only

assesses the progress in these gardens and it links the beneficiaries to the markets.

These gardens are run by both men and women. Thus, by assisting through asking them

on what to do helps CADEC to run away from what Nyathi (2012:146) calls the

dependency syndrome. This dependency is causing the failure of many projects because

donors decide for the poor and some project will be useless to the benefit of the poor.

Accordingly, the central argument of the study says CADEC provides for more than just

immediate relief and basic but also enhances people’s capabilities and facilitates

sustainable livelihoods in Binga through participation as to run away from dependency

syndrome. Participation also empowers women in Binga since they are the ones involved

in projects like craft and bee keeping. Furthermore, CADEC has managed to integrate

people since they work together in community gardens water point committees and other

different projects. Thus, one can contend that the shortcomings levelled against NGOs

that they provide basic needs only are wrong since CADEC in Binga has proved to be

enhancing people’s capabilities and facilitating sustainable development. In support of

the above, Hume (2001:136-141) believed that NGOs are now shifting from direct service

provision to sustainable projects. However, some NGOs end up supporting political

advocacy so that their interest will be supported.

8.2.1 Community gardens as an integral strategy to sustainable livelihoods

The introduction of gardens by CADEC in Binga aimed at assisting households to

contribute to food security and income generation to the households. There are gardens

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in Lubu, Sikalenge and Simatelele wards. There were not even a single garden when

CADEC got into Lubu and Simatelele. CADEC hoped that group members would benefit

not only through increased household income but also through diversifying their diets.

Community gardens are reinforced by the fact that members share vital resources such

as water point(s), latrine(s), garden inputs and markets. These resources are not

available to individual households but only to garden group participants. Again,

participating in groups around a commonly shared natural resources improves the

management of such resources. These are also working well in bringing together the

support group members. So far there are 27 gardens, 16 in Lubu, 8 in Simatelele and 3

in Sikalenge. In Sikalenge ward gardening was being implemented at household level.

However in some ward like Sianzyundu gardening could not be implemented due to water

challenges. According to the outcome evaluation for CADEC in 2011, the challenges are

experienced because 58% of the households rely on a perennial river, 28% rely on a

borehole, 9% use water from springs, while the other 5% rely on a seasonal river,

perennial dam, and perennial well, seasonal well or sand abstraction. The common

watering system across the garden is the use of watering cans or buckets. The members

of the gardens were trained in various aspects including garden establishment, nursery,

nutrition, crop production, pest and disease, market linkages and record keeping control

among others (Documents 1, 2 and 4).

Gardening used to be seasonal but now because of CADEC it is an all year round activity

and production levels have increased. The food security situation has improved

particularly for Simatelele as they cannot rely on field crops because its either they are

destroyed by elephants or climatic challenges resulting in low yields. This has not gone

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well with the neighbouring ward Manjolo as they no longer have a market and production

levels in these two wards have increased. The common vegetable in the gardens were

dark green leaves, tomatoes and onions. These gardens are run independently without

the help of CADEC. The gardens are providing for the basic needs of the people and their

potentials are being enhanced. The projects are sustainable to a greater extent since

community members are able to train others on the activities of gardening. Consequently,

these gardens prove that CADEC do not only provide for immediate relief and basic needs

but is also concerned about expanding the capabilities and sustainable livelihood of the

Binga people.

8.2.2 Water Point Committees

Since water is a big problem and was identified as the most pressing human need by this

study, CADEC has been working with the newly formed Water Point Management

Committees with the aim of improving the management and maintenance of village based

water points. It was hoped that group members or Binga community would eventually

benefit through sustainable access to water. The organisation has managed to establish

6 water point committees (Documents 2 and 4). These water point committees have

managed to equip people with the technique that brings clean water to the communities.

These techniques include repairing boreholes and digging wells. Despite enhancing the

capabilities of the Binga people the effectiveness of CADEC’s facilitation needs to be

measured.

8.3 The effectiveness of CADEC’s facilitation in development

The results of this study show that CADEC helps the Binga people to start their own

initiatives about development. In the gardens the Binga people are able to decide what to

grow, this shows that they have control over the project and it increases a sense of

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ownership. Thus, one can believe that the Binga people have been empowered with the

ability to make and influence decisions that affect their wellbeing. Oakley (2001:39)

believed that empowering people is relevant to poverty reduction strategies. The Binga

people are guided by motivational statements for example the walls of CADEC offices are

written “don’t give me fish but teach me how to fish”. Thus, this statement talks a lot, it

implies that people should work for a living not just depend on aid from the NGOs. The

statement is true since it means, simply giving food to a poor or needy person is the least

one can do for people because they will not be hungry today. However, they will get

hungry tomorrow again. Therefore, if you teach people to get food by themselves or to

earn money to get food and other things they needs, it means a lot to them for their

lifetime. Consequently, this study argues that community organisations, participation and

involvement in decision making processes are crucial grounds for building sustainable

well-being and pliability to poverty and disaster in Binga, Zimbabwe. Development should

focus on promoting community activities where beneficiaries are the primary actors for

development and advocacy and development of social amenities (Nyathi, 2012:137).

This is in line with the views of Max-Neef (1991) who believed that development is people-

centred, participatory and environmentally sound. As a result, development should

involve economic growth, equitable distribution, enhancement of people’s capabilities and

expansion of their choices. It gives top precedence to poverty elimination, integration of

women into the development process, self-reliance of people and protection of the rights

of indigenous people. Thus, sustainable agriculture makes a community mostly self-

sufficient and resilient. CADEC provides this level of needs for the majority of the Binga

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people through different agricultural projects like, gardening, animal husbandry and

access to clean water. Therefore, criticisms levelled against NGOs that they cater for

immediate relief and basic needs only does no hold since the organisation has improved

its services to the enhancement of capabilities and sustainable development. The

facilitation of CADEC in people making their own initiatives is effective as indicated in the

table below.

Table 11: The effectiveness of CADEC’s facilitation of development initiatives in

Binga

Effectiveness of CADEC in facilitating development initiatives?

Frequen

cy

Percent Valid

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid

very

ineffective

3 .8 .8 .8

Ineffective 2 .6 .6 1.4

Neutral 8 2.2 2.2 3.6

Effective 174 48.2 48.2 51.8

very

effective

174 48.2 48.2 100.0

Total 361 100.0 100.0

Source: A Printout of a graph derived from the data and findings of this study.

The table above shows that 174 respondents believed that the facilitation process is very

effective. Similarly, 174 respondents believed that the facilitation process is effective, 8

respondents were not sure, 2 respondents were of the view that it is ineffective and 3

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respondents believed that it is very ineffective. The Binga people are also empowered

through decision making; they are included in the decisions about projects that affect

them. In the case of CADEC assisting the Binga people they should be put first and

participate in development because they know their real situation and they are aware of

what they really need. In other words, the enhancement of Binga people’s capabilities

can be called Sustainable Livelihood since it puts people at the heart of development. It

recognizes that the poor are the bosses of multifaceted assets. The sustainable approach

searches for an understanding of the numerous livelihoods that people follow and the

changes occurring over time, the resources used in livelihood activities, the constraints

faced and available opportunities. In Binga livelihood depends on agriculture, hunting,

fishing and trade. Their opportunities are very limited since the resources in their proximity

are used to benefit the whole country not the Binga people. The approach aims to build

the capacity of the local people so that they can be able to develop or propose their own

livelihood strategies. The sustainable livelihoods approach involves action in enhancing

the participation of people in planning their livelihood intervention options and adopting

people-centred strategies; raising the human capital status of households and

communities; promoting formal and informal employment and ensuring appropriate

utilization of natural resources (UNDP, 2001: 24). In the case of CADEC assisting the

Binga people they are being put first and they are participate in development activities

because they know their real situation and they are aware of what they really need. Thus,

development in this case should be a bottom - up approach. Nyerere (1967) suggests

participatory development as a means of developing people. Hence, participatory

development is good since it involves people in planning, development, implementation

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and evaluation of projects and activities that affect them (Nyerere, Ibid). Thus, the Binga

people are being given the opportunity to realize their potential and be the authors of their

own history and achieve self-actualization through the socialisation of skills as part of the

experience of being a participant in CADEC’s projects.

8.4 Socialisation of skills through crop and livestock production

In this study, it has been established that the skills of the Binga people has been

socialised through crop and livestock production. The Binga people are enskilled through

working in agricultural projects of CADEC and livestock projects. In Manjolo ward the

majority of the beneficiaries reasoned that “… we received goats from CADEC and we

are breeding them for our own benefit…” (Interviewee no. 5, statement supported by

interviewees 6, 7, 9, 12 and 14, June 2013 and documents 1 and 2) they learnt how to

keep and breed goats in their community. Some learnt to breed guinea fowls. One

respondent explained how they breed guinea fowls, “…. We take the eggs of a guinea

fowl and put them in a hen’s nest so that the hen will hatch and keep the chicks as hers,

an individual has more than 50 guinea fowls, even the youth and school going age groups

owns some guinea fowl. We sell the guinea fowls to nearby lodges and hotels in Victoria

Falls. Each guinea fowl is sold for 7 dollars…” (Interviewee no. 11, statement supported

by interviewees 2, 12 and 14).

The beneficiaries of small livestock underwent some training prior to receiving the

livestock. This was to equip them with the skills in the management of the livestock. One

training per year was conducted. The trainings were conducted in conjunction with Vet,

Agricultural Extension (AGRITEX) and CADEC. Zimbabwe Republic Police (ZRP) was

also involved in the trainings wherein they gave a talk on stock theft. These projects have

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created employment for a number of people in Binga and poverty has been reduced to a

greater extent in Binga district. Thus, this study argues that CADEC goes beyond the

provision of basic needs and catering for immediate relief but also enhances people’s

capabilities and promotes sustainable development through educational activities and

other enskilling processes

8.5 Enskilling through educational initiatives

The findings of this study indicate that, CADEC has managed to enskill a number of

people through assisting them to further their studies or through payment of school fees.

One respondent reasoned that “... I am currently doing a course in agriculture and CADEC

is paying for my studies...” (Interviewee no. 4, June 2013). Some were enskilled through

participating in different activities for example fixing borehole. About 4 individuals in

Manjolo and Simatelele wards said “we were trained to repair boreholes and now we can

earn a living from that, they have managed to provide clean water for the communities of

Binga” (Interviewee no. 5, June 2013). Furthermore, the youth in Binga are assisted to go

to school through payment of school fees, one CADEC official specified how they are

helping the poor to pay their fees, “... We are building latrine toilets in schools to avoid

diseases and we liaise with the headmaster to exempt students from paying school fees.

We target those who cannot afford the fees...” (Interviewees no 1 and 2, June 2013). The

educational needs of people in Binga are satisfied with CADEC in collaboration with other

NGO’s like Ntengwe for Community Development. They use a motto derived from Nelson

Mandela’s quotation which goes like, “… education is the only weapon we can use to

change the world...” (Mandela brainyQuote.com retrieved 15 august 2013). Therefore,

the youth in Binga are being armed to face challenges of the world through education. In

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support of this Sen (1999:4) contended that education is a foundation of development in

itself and is a capability of meeting the basic needs of people. Another woman said “…

our children can now go to universities to pursue their careers…” (Interviewee 22 female,

June 2013) Thus, education for Sen, (Ibid) is perceived as either facilities or

arrangements that enable freedom, as well as a “hard” set of outcomes, capabilities as

particular skills acquired (Unterhalter et al., 2003:2). For education to fully enhance

freedom and development the learning needs of all people should be met through

equitable access to quality education that leads to learning outcomes that finally enhance

individual freedoms to be and to do (Bakhshi et al., 2003).

The statement “don’t give me fish, teach me how to fish” (documents 1, 2 and 3) also

applies to enskilling. This means that if you give a person human basic needs he wants

for example food, he will not gain the necessary knowledge to be able to get it himself. If

one teaches it means giving knowledge to someone. Give man knowledge on how to get

basic needs for himself, and he will be able to get food himself. Thus, this supports the

argument of this study as CADEC is enhancing people’s capabilities through teaching

them different things that enables them to gain a sustainable livelihood. Interviewees 1,

19, 20, 21and 22 support this by saying they have leant different skills from interacting

with CADEC and they are now able to utilize those skills for the benefit of the community

or personal.

8.6 Possibilities for the projects to continue operation without CADEC in Binga

This is a very important question concerning the continuity of CADECs projects when

individuals are running them on their own. The majority doubt the continuity of the projects

in the absence of CADEC. The failure of projects in the absence of CADEC is attributed

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to individual greediness, mismanagement of resources, inequality and vandalisation. One

respondent argues that “… I don’t see the projects going anywhere in the absence of

CADEC, we need its guidance all the time…” (Interviewee no 4, June 2013). This shows

that they cannot work on their own. This respondent’s view is in line with Nyathi (2012:

87) who believed that NGO’s projects are not sustainable because they bring superficial

change in the communities they work in and some strategies are not suitable for Binga.

However, from a capability perspective the capabilities of the Binga people have been

enhanced to a greater extent since they are now able to start development projects on

their own than depending on aid. One CADEC official said “…In some areas we have

stopped operating directly, once in a while we visit the projects to monitor the progress...”

(Interviewee, 1 June, 2013)

The Binga people are now able to fix their own boreholes to get clean water; they are also

able to grow agricultural products for themselves and for commercial purposes and to

keep domestic animals. CADEC officials supported this by saying “…We have trained

people on environmental health and Para vets-people who were trained to cure animals

and prevent some diseases…” (Interviewee 1, June, 2013)

The agricultural projects are reported to be a success as well as the guinea fowl and goat

projects. Thus, sustainable projects also provide for the basic needs and at the same time

they create employment for the Binga people. As a result, CADEC is helping people a lot

since 90% of the population in Binga is poor and requires humanitarian aid every year

(Chege, 1999:2-8). The Binga people are actively involved in CADEC’s projects; this

increases a sense of ownership and control over their projects and as a result they benefit

from such. The respondents in this study showed a positive attitude towards the activities

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of CADEC in their community. All in all, one can say that Binga has the capabilities for

development and has a sustainable livelihood since a household may be enabled to gain

sustainable livelihood security in many ways, for example, through ownership of land,

livestock, aid, right to grazing land, fishing, hunting or gathering and employment with

adequate remuneration among others. However, the question remains, has CADEC’s

goal of poverty reduction been achieved?

8.7 Has CADEC’s goal of poverty alleviation been achieved?

The table below presents the results on the question about whether the goal of alleviating

poverty of CADEC has been achieved.

Table 12: Has CADEC’s goal of poverty reduction has been achieved?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Valid

Yes 277 76.7 76.7 76.7

No 84 23.3 23.3 100.0

Total 361 100.0 100.0

Source: A Printout of a table derived from the data and findings of this study.

From the table above almost everyone admitted that CADEC has managed to achieve its

goal of reducing poverty in Binga; 76.7% (277) respondents believed that the goal was

achieved. 23.3% (84) respondents are of the view that the goal is not yet achieved. This

shows that the assistance from CADEC is satisfying the majority of the Binga people.

However, CADEC officials said “we are trying hard to reduce poverty but we have not yet

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fully achieved our goal of a poverty free Binga” (Interviewees no 1 and 2 June 2013).

However, “…from evaluations and testimonies I think we are in the right direction in terms

of reducing poverty in Binga district…” (Interviewee 1, June 2013)

Thus, Nyathi (2012:134) agrees with the officials since she is of the view that the goal of

poverty reduction has not yet been achieved since the strategies used by NGOs do not

address the needs of the poor. For her, NGOs use the wrong strategies in communities

they assist. However, Mpofu (2011:15) believed that NGOs are a pillar of development

and growth providing a firm foundation that enables people to sustain and maintain their

lives. It is believed that their primary objective is to achieve improvements in the quality

of lives of deprived individuals through a process that unites people and adds meaning

and value to their lives (Mpofu, 2011:15-17). Accordingly, one can say NGOs like CADEC

has managed to integrate people since they work together in different projects like bee

keeping and craft. All this is done with the hope to reduce poverty in Binga. However

people completely lack the freedom of choice Gasper, (2002:456-8).

8.8 Conclusion

This chapter has demonstrated how the capabilities of the Binga people have been

enhanced by CADEC and how sustainable the projects are. The results of this study

indicated that people’s potentials have been enhanced through participation, working in

CADEC projects as teams, training for example, to fix boreholes and to keep animals like

goats, cattle, guinea fowls and hens. Some sustainable projects were supported through

CADECs funding. Thus, some of the projects seem to be sustainable, since CADEC

reported that it stopped assisting people, it only checks the progress of the projects now

and then. The findings discussed in the this chapter authenticates the argument advanced

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in this study that despite the criticisms levelled against NGOs that they provide for

immediate relief and basic needs, the operation of CADEC in Binga proves that it has

enhanced the capabilities of people through participating in projects, training and

education. This argument emanated from the utilization of triangulation that enabled the

collection of data related to the provision of basic needs and enhancement of capabilities.

Furthermore, it is through the usage of a combination of the basic needs approach and

the capabilities theory the study managed to identify how CADEC has transgressed from

being a charitable organisation focusing on basic needs and immediate relief only to

enhancing the capabilities through enskilling, educational initiatives and funding

sustainable projects. However, some of the community members doubt the continuity of

the projects because of individual interests. But from the researcher’s point of view there

is a high probability of the continuity of the CADEC’s projects in the absence of CADEC.

This is evidenced by the way projects are being run now without CADEC’s assistance

although with constant check of the organisation. The results of this study are novel in the

sense that they presented what CADEC is doing in Binga. The results have demonstrated

that CADEC has crossed the border from focusing on basic needs to the expansion of

people’s capabilities in Binga. This also makes the argument put forward in this study

novel since the operation of CADEC has straddled the general criticism levelled against

NGOs of catering for immediate relief and basic needs alone to the enhancement of

capabilities and enabling the attainment of sustainable livelihoods. This was supported

by CADEC’s operations that aim to educate and train people to do things for themselves.

Thus, this is based on the organisation’s aphorism “don’t give me fish but teach me how

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to fish” (documents 1, 2 and 3). The following chapter will conclude the study and give

recommendations to other researchers.

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Chapter 9: Conclusion

9.1 Introduction

The central argument advanced by this study is that despite the criticisms that NGOs

cater for immediate relief and basic needs only, the operation of CADEC in Binga proved

in contrast that it can operate in such a way that enhances people’s capabilities so as to

ensure sustainable development. This is evidenced by the results of this study that proved

that CADEC is enhancing people’s capabilities, financing sustainable projects, taking

educational initiative and encouraging participation together with training to expand the

skills of the Binga people. Again, some anti-poverty interventions used by CADEC such

as sustainable projects and educational initiatives satisfy both basic needs and enhance

the capabilities of the Binga people. This chapter presents the conclusions of the study in

relation to the research questions in order to put forward the outcomes of the study. The

rationale behind the research was to investigate NGOs and poverty reduction strategies

in Zimbabwe using the case study of the Catholic Development Community (CADEC) in

Binga. Since the study aimed to gather information on the expansion of capabilities and

the catering for human needs, it was framed within the Max-Neef model of fundamental

human needs and the capabilities approach of Amartya Sen.

The model of human fundamental needs focused on the provision of basic needs to the

people and the capabilities approach focused on the enhancement of people’s

capabilities. CADEC is working towards this through different activities like gardening and

livestock production. An integration of elements of the two theories was employed to

answer the research questions, using a mixed methods research approach. Thus, this

study employed qualitative and quantitative research methods in undertaking the

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research. The core principles of the integrated model include the fact that the NGO should

provide for the basic needs at the same time as enhancing the capabilities of the affected

people and ensuring sustainability of projects in areas they operate. This is in harmony

with the argument put forward in this study that the criticisms levelled against NGOs that

they cater for immediate relief and basic needs only (Treasure 2009:7-10) is wrong since

the operation of CADEC proved in contrast that it can operate in such a way that

enhances people’s capabilities so as to ensure sustainable development.

The use of triangulation in this study enabled the researcher to use both a survey

questionnaire and an in-depth interview for data collection. The theoretical and

methodological frameworks utilised therefore enhanced our understanding on how anti-

poverty strategies are used to alleviate poverty in Binga. The mixed method approach

employed was meant to obtain information on the research objectives relating to the

identification of anti-poverty interventions utilized by CADEC and the extent to which

these interventions contribute to addressing the basic needs in Binga. Additionally, the

study aimed at determining the perceptions of people about poverty alleviation

programme and ascertaining the extent to which the capabilities of Binga citizens have

been improved through CADEC’s poverty alleviation praxis. Below is the core argument

of the study.

9.2 Core argument of the dissertation

The study examined NGOs and poverty reduction strategies in Zimbabwe through an

evaluation of the activities of CADEC in Binga. The results of the study indicated that

Binga is very poor and marginalized and its people require humanitarian aid every year.

As a result, a number of NGOs have been working to reduce poverty in Binga and up to

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this point they are perceived to be efficient, effective and flexible (Marschall, 2002:22).

However, regardless of the rising status that NGOs have won for themselves and their

work for the past years, their contribution to development remains limited (Edwards et al.,

1992:14). This is despite the fact that various evaluations of the achievements of NGOs

view them as instigators of development wherever they are located. NGOs play a

significant role in poverty reduction and provide services in the various communities in

which they operate (De Beer et al., 2000). Nevertheless, these successes have not

translated into a thoroughgoing developmental breakthrough and therefore, there must

certainly be something erroneous somewhere. Maybe the projects are not good or they

are good but poorly executed (Suharko, 2007:17). Specifically the study was mainly

concerned about whether CADEC provides for the basic needs, whether it enhance

people’s capabilities and whether its projects are sustainable.

Therefore, it is against this framework that this study was motivated. It is argued in this

study that despite criticisms levelled against NGOs that they cater for immediate relief

and basic needs, the operation of CADEC in Binga shows in contrast that NGOs can

operate in such a way that the capabilities of the participants can be enhanced or

expanded in such a way that the Binga district can be capable of independently engaging

in sustainable livelihoods and/or development. This study argued that participation in

projects has enabled CADEC to realise and expand people’s capabilities and participation

is a means of gaining a sustainable livelihood. For Sen, livelihood means gaining a living

whilst capabilities are both an end and means of livelihoods and a livelihood provides the

support for the enrichment and exercise of capabilities (an end) and capabilities (a

means) enable a livelihood to be achieved. Therefore, it is argued in this study that

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sustainability is both an end and means, that is, sustainable stewardship of resources is

an end in itself and it provides conditions or means of livelihoods to be sustained for future

generations. Thus, livelihood can be defined as adequate stocks and flows of food and

cash to meet basic needs. As a result a household may be enabled to gain sustainable

livelihood security in many ways. For example, this study found out that through

ownership of land, livestock, right to grazing land, fishing, hunting or gathering,

employment with adequate remuneration and participating in development projects, such

as, gardening, the Binga people have managed to have a sustainable livelihood. It can

be argued in this study that the sustainable livelihoods approach involves action in

enhancing the participation of people in planning their livelihood intervention options and

adopting people-centred strategies; raising the human capital status of households and

communities; promoting formal and informal employment; and ensuring appropriate

utilization of natural resources.

Many studies on the strategies used by NGOs to reduce poverty have placed much

attention on the provision of immediate relief and basic needs. However, this study

investigated CADEC’s provision of immediate relief and basic needs, the enhancement

of people’s capabilities and the sustainability of the projects run by CADEC in the Binga

district. The study found out that, CADEC has been present in Binga for over 25 years,

carrying out long-term activities in poverty alleviation and assisting communities that live

in marginalised rural areas to have better lives through programs that are designed and

geared towards meeting the needs of concerned communities that are left behind in

development. From the results of this study, it can be deduced that the enhancement of

capabilities empowers people and promotes equality and reduces inequality and as a

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result participants work on the projects wholeheartedly. This is in line with the view of

Giffen (2002) who believed that the participation of the poor creates a strong sense of

ownership of the projects and as a result they work wholeheartedly and are able to escape

poverty. However, the detrimental impact of inequality is that it is a barrier to reducing

absolute poverty and hinders the fulfilment of a variety of human rights, including the

capacity to be heard. Empowerment also determines the ability to extend opportunities

and to enhance capabilities. Thus, this study argues that empowerment is ensured

through participatory development, where community members are fully involved in the

activities that concern them. In support of this, De Graff (1986, in Chinake, 1997: 49)

argued that NGOs should encourage community participation so as to mobilise resources

and increase direct decision making.

Since this study looked beyond the provision of relief aid and basic needs, it identified

community gardens, livestock production, educational initiatives and participation as

strategies to reduce poverty in the Binga district. Belshaw and Coyle (2001: 60) identified

orphanages as a way of reducing poverty in Ethiopia. For Chinake (1997:48) land reform

in Zimbabwe and community participation are the other strategies used to reduce poverty

in Zimbabwe. Chinake’s (1997: 49) findings correspond with the findings of this study

since she believed that NGOs should encourage community participation so as to

mobilise resources and increase direct decision making. Nyathi (2012: 65-66) supports

the findings of this study to some extent since she identified income generating projects,

advocacy, agriculture, short term loans and relief and welfare as strategies to reduce

poverty in Binga. Hence, it can be argued that participation and sustainable projects are

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the best strategies that NGOs should use to help alleviate poverty in poor communities

like Binga.

This study identified participation as a tool to reduce poverty and at the same time the

beneficiaries are being empowered through projects like gardening, livestock production

and craft. The community’s people are the ones running these projects. Although, CADEC

only helped the community to start the projects, it is the community which is now running

them own its own. Thus, development should include the emancipation of people’s

capabilities to function and to take advantage of the available opportunities to undertake

the actions and activities that they want to engage in so as to be whom they want to be.

In fact according to the capability perspective, poverty is lack human capabilities (Sen,

1995). For this reason, the role of income has some question marks in poverty

measurement. Sen (2009) believes that the capabilities an individual has are also as

essentially important as income.

Furthermore, this study went on to look at the sustainability of these projects, whether

they can produce for the basic needs of the present generation and the generation to

come. It is argued that the enhancement of capabilities through participation brings about

sustainability since participation gives the poor a part in initiatives designed for their

benefit in the hope that development projects will be more sustainable and successful if

local populations are engaged in the development process. Sustainable is both an end

and means, that is, sustainable stewardship of resources is an end in itself and it provides

conditions or means for livelihoods to be sustained for future generations. Hence, it can

be argued that by designing and implementing innovative program interventions, NGOs

have enhanced the quality of life of the poor. They have facilitated the process through

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which the poor can have a first foothold on the development ladder thus reducing the

dependency syndrome amongst them. Similarly, sustainable projects makes the

attainment of basic needs possible. It is for these reasons that this study was anchored

on Max-Neef’s basic needs and Sen’s capabilities approach. The study argues that these

theories are concerned with the human condition, the satisfaction of human needs and

the capabilities approach on the enhancement of human capabilities. The data collected

and the literature review indicate that CADEC has managed to reduce poverty and

empower the Binga people through participation.

The results of this study show that CADEC embarked on the enhancement of people’s

capabilities and sustainable projects since it had stopped its supplementary feeding

project in August 2012. Supplementary feeding programmes are deliberate actions by the

government and NGOs to assist vulnerable members of communities facing food

insecurity with highly nutritional food. Supplementary feeding schemes are meant to

provide vulnerable community members with food which is high in nutritional content such

as beans, nutritional maize meal and cooking oil. These nutritional meals if adequately

prepared by the recipients help to reduce incidences of malnutrition (Red Cross Society

Report, 2009:3). The results of this study indicate that the majority of the respondents

reported that they do not receive any aid from the government. However, the role of the

government was made clear by the CADEC manager who reported that they work with

the government and sometimes use its facilities and resources to assist the Binga people

in providing feeding. The local people are not aware of the invisible hand of the

government. It is very unfortunate that CADEC reported that it had stopped giving food

directly to the Binga in August 2012, but it is fortunate that it is helping people to produce

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their own food. This is based on “don’t give me fish but teach me how to fish” aphorism

used by the organisation to encourage participation in its projects that aim to benefit the

local Binga people. This statement talks a lot as it implies that people should work for a

living and not just depend on aid from the NGOs. Accordingly, it can be argued that in the

case of CADEC the statement is true since it means simply giving food to the poor or

needy people is not enough as they will get hungry again tomorrow and in the future.

CADEC believes that if it teaches people to get food by themselves or to earn money to

get food and other things they need, it means a lot to them for their lifetime.

Therefore, this study argued for community organisations, participation and involvement

in decision making processes as crucial grounds for building sustainable well-being and

pliability to poverty and disaster in Binga, Zimbabwe. Hence, it can be argued that

development should focus on promoting community activities where beneficiaries are the

primary actors for development. This is in line with the views of Max-Neef who believed

that development is people-centred, partaking and environmentally sound. As a result,

this study confirms the theoretical framework of this study since the operation of CADEC

in Binga shows that development is not just economic growth but equitable distribution of

resources, expansion of grassroots’ capabilities and increasing their choices. It should

give top priority to poverty elimination, integration of women into the development

process, self-reliance of the people and protection of the rights of indigenous people. For

instance, sustainable agriculture makes a community mostly self-sufficient and resilient.

This is why CADEC is trying to alleviate the poverty of the majority of the Binga people

through different agricultural projects like gardening and animal husbandry.

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However, CADEC’s supplementary feeding program in Zimbabwe was facing challenges

that were a result of macro-economic unsteadiness experienced in the country since

2000. This caused macroeconomic instability like hyperinflation, cash shortages,

unemployment, increasing poverty and food insecurity (Red Cross Society, 2009:2). It

also made it almost impossible to adhere to the set budgets as the food costs increased

beyond budgeted amounts and the attendant food insecurity and poverty meant that the

supplementary feeding programmes become oversubscribed. Consequently, CADEC

and other NGO’s could not cope with the large number of beneficiaries in Binga district

(Red Cross Society, Ibid)

The projects of CADEC are said to have enskilled a number of people to acquire basic

needs and participation in these projects has helped people to escape poverty. This

enskilling is ensured through participation and CADEC has managed to integrate people

since they work together in different activities. For Sen (1985:78) the solution to poverty

is the expansion of human capabilities such as education. This is in line with Tom’s (2010)

argument which says the principal route out of poverty is work and it is hard to get a

proper job without an education.

All in all, one can say that Binga has the capabilities for development and sustainable

livelihood since households may be enabled to gain sustainable livelihood security in

many ways. Community participation also contributes to the attainment of the basic needs

by the Binga people because they work to earn a living. As a result they also become

enskilled through participating in different activities.This study argues that the strategies

used to alleviate poverty are effective, although the Binga people are still in poverty but

the strategies are helping in the reduction of poverty in the district. However, Nyathi’s

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(2012:136) study found different. For her the strategies used for poverty reduction are not

very effective and the Binga people are still in poverty.

9.3 Recommendations

Based on the strength of this study, with its comprehensive conceptual framework and

analysis of primary data, other research programs can use this study as their starting

point. The results of this study were derived from a particular socio-economic context, in

particular, a rural context. Similar research projects in other geographical areas,

especially poor rural areas and groups with different socio-cultural backgrounds, are

needed in order to assemble a more comprehensive understanding of NGOs and their

poverty alleviation strategies.

Owing to the fact that NGOs do not usually employ qualified personnel, reliable

knowledge on the needs of the community and is wanting projects that suits their

beneficiaries. Hence, the study recommends that NGOs should employ more qualified

personnel who know and understand the implications of certain situations, particularly

those related to poverty alleviation. They also need to source some more donations in

order to ensure that there is enough resources for poverty alleviation.

Owing to the fact that the dependency syndrome associated with NGOs has made their

projects to fail in the long run, Nyathi (2012:137) recommended that NGOs should

undertake projects that assist community members to learn to help themselves.

Furthermore, Nyathi recommended that NGOs should not do everything for the

community members, but should work with them. In addition, the proper application of the

sustainable livelihoods approach can help NGOs to assist the poor realise their

capabilities.

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Similarly, welfare departments focus more on the provision of relief and immediate aid

need which solves the problem but not the root cause of the problem. As a result, this

study recommends for NGOs to change from service delivery to developmental activities

in bringing about an outlook change which is more oriented towards empowering

communities. Again, the Department of Social Welfare should develop strong links with

the community in order to provide inputs such as methodological expertise, administrative

support and financial assistance. With the help of NGOs, the Welfare department should

also take a down to business approach in supporting community strategies, by

encouraging and supporting the poor in the community. This may include recruiting,

training and supervising support persons in the community to enhance their potential to

assist the poor.

Moreover, the poor people in remote areas are said to have been forgotten by the

government (document, 2), they are in deep poverty and cannot come out of their situation

on their own or with the assistance of NGOs alone. Therefore, this study is recommending

for the governments to redress the deepening poverty at the national level to implement

relevant and effective policies which can protect the rights of the poor especially the

marginalised including the Binga people. Free social services should be accessible to the

poor living in difficult conditions. In addition, subsidized services should be accessible to

the poor who cannot afford to procure them. The study revealed that some Binga people

are poor because they were forced to resettle in arid and sandy areas not suitable for

agriculture; such poor need the help of the state.

The results of this study indicated that the growth of plants and the survival of animals

are made difficult in Binga as a result of the shortage of water. Hence, in order to ensure

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the survival of their plants and animals in Binga, it is recommended that a powerful water

pump be made available to enable them to access water and to continue providing for

their basic needs through agriculture.

9.4 Limitations of the study

This study has some limitations; the researcher sampled only 384 individuals thus being

a case study which focuses on a small area with few NGOs it is inadequate to draw one

conclusion across several areas and organisations dealing with the reduction of poverty.

The research was affected greatly by the political situation in Zimbabwe making the

researcher’s instrument the focus group discussions difficult to implement. Since the

focus group discussion involves a number of people, it was going to raise a political alarm

against the political parties. To avoid this, the researcher utilised in-depth interviews to

collect qualitative data. However, the later instrument did not have enough questions to

address the issues of capability enhancement of the local people and sustainability of the

projects offered by CADEC in Binga. The researcher had to probe for more information

relating to the capabilities and sustainability of their projects during these interviews.

9.5 Conclusion

This chapter concludes that CADEC is helping the Binga people to a greater extent. The

people of the Binga district are being helped to cater for their basic needs by working in

gardens, keeping livestock and other projects. Some of the projects such as sustainable

projects and education straddle from satisfying the basic needs to enhancing people’s

capabilities. This supports the argument of the study that rest upon the idea that the

criticisms posed against NGOs that they cater only for immediate relief and basic needs

(Treasure, 2009:7-10) is not correct because the operation of CADEC in Binga proved

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that through training, education, sustainable projects and participating, the capabilities of

people have then enhanced. Thus, it can be deduced that CADEC is a charitable

organisation mainly aimed at assisting marginalized communities to have better lives

through programs that are designed and geared towards meeting their needs. Its

operation is guided by the role of the church in community and environmental

management (Redekop, 2000). As a result, this study concludes that the Binga people

have been assisted to a greater extent by CADEC. The services of CADEC satisfy the

Binga people, the performance and benefits are effective, the strategies are good and

CADEC is helpful in Binga.

This was achieved through the use of triangulation. The use of triangulation in this study

increased confidence in research data, created innovative ways of understanding the

phenomenon under study, revealed unique findings and integrated the basic needs and

capabilities theories. This was done through direct referencing using qualitative data to

back up quantitative data. It also provided a clearer understanding of the anti-poverty

strategies and how they are operationalized in Binga by CADEC. The usage of both

qualitative and quantitative approaches helped in ensuring that the researcher gets an in-

depth understanding of the extent to which the capabilities of the Binga people are

enhanced and it also ensures that the findings of the study are valid and objective as the

two approaches do complement each other. As a result poverty has to a greater extent

been reduced in Binga.

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Appendix 1

Survey questionnaire on NGOs and poverty reduction strategies in Binga,

Zimbabwe

Dear participant

This questionnaire is meant for obtaining information on NGOs and poverty reduction in

Zimbabwe: The case of the Catholic Development Commission (CADEC) in Binga. The

study is part of the requirement for the Master of Social Science (Sociology) qualification.

I therefore request your cooperation in completing the questionnaire. The information you

provide will be used for academic purposes only and I assure you of the confidentiality of

your responses and anonymity as a respondent.

Thank you for your participation

Yours sincerely

Walter M Mhaka

206 | P a g e

Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities

Department of Sociology

Informed consent and declaration of participation

Participant’s name……………………………………………….

Researcher: Walter M Mhaka

Title of the study: NGOs and poverty reduction in Zimbabwe: The case of CADEC in

Binga.

I declare that I will voluntarily participate in this research that has been explained to me

and I will cooperate by sharing my honest experience. I understand that the interview is

part of a research project and that the information will be treated confidentially and

published anonymously for research purposes only. I agree to being interviewed and my

participation is voluntary, I am at liberty to withdraw from the interview at anytime.

Signed at………………………………. date………………….

Signature: (participant)…………………………..………..

Signature: (researcher)……………….…………………….

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Section A. Demographic information

1. What is your gender?

Male 1 Female 2

2. What is your age?

Below 15 16- 25 26-35 36-45 46+

1 2 3 4 5

3. What is your highest level of educational achievement?

No formal education Grade 1-7 Form 1-6 University degree/ diploma

1 2 3 4

4. What is your occupation?

Employed Self-employed Unemployed Other (Specify)

1 2 3 4

5. What is your income in US dollars ($) if employed?

150 and below 151-250 251-350 351-450 451+

1 2 3 4 5

6. What is your marital status?

Single 1 Widowed 2 Divorced 3 Married 4

Section B. Assistance from CADEC

7. What are the most pressing basic needs of people in Binga?

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food shelter employment Clean water Skills Other specify

1 2 3 4 5 6

8. Do you get assistance from CADEC?

Yes 1 No 2

9. What is the nature of assistance do you get from CADEC?

Food aid Shelter Education Skill acquisition Other

1 2 3 4 5

10. Have you received any form of aid (e.g. food aid) in the last 3 months?

Yes 1 No 2

11. In terms of the assistance from CADEC, has it been successful in reducing your level

of poverty?

Strongly agree Agree Not sure Strongly disagree Disagree

5 4 3 2 1

12. Would you say that your life as an individual or family has changed because of the

aid you get from CADEC?

13. In your view, do the strategies or projects (food aid, education initiative, agro-forests

projects) of CADEC really target the poor and their basic needs in Binga?

Changed

significantly

Changed little Don’t

know

Did not change Did not change at all

5 4 3 2 1

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A lot To some extent Do not know Not at all

4 3 2 1

Section C. Level of satisfaction

14. The following questions try to measure your degree of satisfaction with the services

of CADEC in Binga. Please indicate your response by marking with an X where

appropriate (where 5 = very satisfied; 4 = satisfied; 3 = neutral; 2 = dissatisfied; 1 = very

dissatisfied.)

5 4 3 2 1

a I am satisfied with CADEC’s supplementary feeding in

meeting basic needs of people in Binga.

b I am satisfied with the role of CADEC in poverty reduction

through the provision of seeds and fertilizers

c I am satisfied with the facilitation role of CADEC in poverty

reduction processes in the areas of crop and live stock

production

d I am satisfied with the approach of CADEC in solving

community development problems

e I am satisfied with the participation of the local people in

CADEC’s projects in Binga

f I am satisfied with how people’s potentials are enhanced

through participating in different CADEC’s projects in

Binga.

Section D. Beneficiary’s perception on the performance of CADEC in poverty alleviation

processes.

15. The following questions try to measure the performance and benefits from CADEC.

Please indicate your response by marking with an X where appropriate (where 5 = very

effective; 4 = effective; 3 = neutral; 2 = ineffective; 1 = very ineffective.)

5 4 3 2 1

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a How effective is CADEC in facilitating a process by which the

Binga people make their own initiatives about development?

b How effective is CADEC’s food aid in meeting the basic

needs of people in Binga?

c How effective are the activities of CADEC such as crop and

live stock production in reducing poverty in Binga?

d How effective is CADEC’s decision making process with

regard to community development in Binga?

e How effective is CADEC projects in enhancing people’s

capabilities

f How effective is CADEC’s decision making process in

including locals to make their own decisions about the

projects they benefit from

Section E. Effectiveness of the strategies used by CADEC

16. The following statements try to measure how effective are the strategies used by

CADEC to reduce poverty in Binga. Please indicate your degree of agreement or

disagreement by marking with an X. (Please rank these statements, where 5 = strongly

agree; 4 = agree; 3 = neutral; 2 = disagree; 1 = strongly disagree.

5 4 3 2 1

a CADEC’s crop and live stock projects are directed to the

poor and they socialise skills and create opportunities for

self reliant practices among the Binga people.

b CADEC’s poverty reduction strategies address the various

aspects of poverty such as lack of education, hunger and

lack of freedom in Binga.

c Community members actively participate in CADEC’s craft,

bee keeping and agro-forest projects.

d Community members are fully involved in decision making

about projects directed at achieving long term goals.

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e CADEC’ supplementary feeding has impacted many

people’s lives since its creation by providing for basic needs.

f CADEC’s supplementary feeding/food aid are meeting the

basic needs of the people in Binga.

g CADEC is willing to assist Binga people to meet their basic

needs through supplementary feeding and different

projects.

h CADEC has enskilled a number of people through its

educational initiative and by so doing increased their

capability for self reliance.

i CADEC’s agro-forest projects are a source of employment

to the Binga people.

j CADEC’s poverty reduction strategies do not address the

various aspects of poverty such as education, hunger and

freedom of the Binga people

k Through water harvesting techniques, CADEC has

managed to assist towards the reduction of soil erosion in

Binga.

Section F. CADEC’s help

17. The following statements try to measure how helpful CADEC is in Binga. Please

indicate your answer by marking with an X. (Please rank these statements, where (5 =

very helpful; 4= helpful, 3= neutral; 2 = unhelpful, 1=very unhelpful).

5 4 3 2 1

a How helpful is CADEC’s supplementary feeding in satisfying

basic needs

b How helpful is CADEC’s craft industry in providing

employment for women in Binga.

c How helpful is CADEC’s bee keeping activities in providing

for the basic of the Binga people.

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d How helpful is CADEC’s water harvesting techniques in

preserving the environment?

18. In the event that CADEC cease to operate in Binga, the projects will successfully

provide for the basic needs for the present generation and the generation to come?

Strongly agree Agree Not sure Disagree Strongly disagree

5 4 3 2 1

19. How effective are CADEC’s activities such as crop and live stock production, craft,

bee keeping, agro-forest in enhancing people’s capabilities?

Very effective Effective Neutral ineffective Very ineffective

5 4 3 2 1

20. In your view has CADEC’s goal of poverty reduction has been achieved?

Yes No

213 | P a g e

Appendix 2:

Interview guide for CADEC beneficiaries

Dear participant

This interview guide is meant for obtaining information on NGOs and poverty reduction in

Zimbabwe: The case of the Catholic Development Commission (CADEC) in Binga. The

study is part of the requirement for the Master of Social Science in Sociology qualification.

I therefore request your cooperation in answering interview questions. The information

you provide will be used for academic purposes only and I assure you of the confidentiality

of your responses and anonymity as a respondent.

Thank you for your participation

Yours sincerely

Walter M Mhaka

214 | P a g e

Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities

Department of Sociology

Informed consent and declaration of participation

Participant’s name……………………………………………….

Researcher: Walter M Mhaka

Title of the study: Non-government organisation (NGOs) and poverty reduction in

Zimbabwe: The case of CADEC in Binga.

I declare that I will voluntarily participate in this research that has been explained to me

and I will cooperate by sharing my honest experience. I understand that the interview is

part of a research project and that the information will be treated confidentially and

published anonymously for research purposes only. I agree to being interviewed and my

participation is voluntary, I am at liberty to withdraw from the interview at any time.

Signed at…………………………………..…………. date………………….

Signature: (participant)…………………………..………..

Signature: (researcher)……………….…………………….

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Questions for beneficiaries

1. How long have you been a beneficiary of CADEC?

2. How did you feel before you were a beneficiary of CADEC?

3. How do you feel now being a beneficiary?

4. Did you receive any aid from CADEC in the last 3 months?

5. If your answer is yes state how or what was the nature of service rendered to you?

6. In what year was the service rendered to you?

7. What projects are run by CADEC?

8. Do you think the organisation is meeting the basic needs of people? If yes how/If no

why?

9. What significant contribution has the organisation made in your life?

10. Is there anything you dislike about the organisation?

11. If yes, state them.

12. Do you think the organisation is achieving its goal of assisting in the processes of

poverty reduction in Binga?

13. If not, what do you think are the problems the organisation faces in meetings its goals?

14. Has the organisation assisted in the processes of reducing poverty through food aid,

supplementary feeding, and crop and livestock production?

15. Do you receive any support from the government?

16. Do you think bee keeping and craft are important part of your organisation’s work?

17. What do you think can be done to improve the poverty reduction strategies of

CADEC?

18. What have you learnt from interaction with CADEC which can assist you in the fight

against poverty in future?

19. Did you learn any skills from CADEC’s projects which can assist you in the

establishment of your own or community initiated projects in future?

20. Did participation in CADEC’s activities socialise you to be self-reliant?

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21. Have the skills and experiences gained from CADEC’s activities trained you to be in

the position to initiate, plan and sustain long term projects?

22. Does CADEC involve women in its projects like bee keeping, crop and livestock

production, gardening and craft?

23. Do the projects offered by CADEC empower and enable the Binga people to be able

to continue benefiting from them in future?

24. How helpful is the educational initiative of CADEC?

25. Are the local people included in the decision making process about CADEC’s

projects?

26. What do you think CADEC should do to improve its services?

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Appendix 3:

Interview guide for CADEC officials

Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities

Department of Sociology

Title of the study: Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs) and poverty reduction

in Zimbabwe: The case of CADEC in Binga.

Dear participant

This interview guide is meant for obtaining information on NGOs and poverty reduction in

Zimbabwe: The case of the Catholic Development Commission (CADEC) in Binga. The

study is part of the requirement for the Master of Social Science in Sociology qualification.

I therefore request your cooperation in answering interview questions. The information

you provide will be used for academic purposes only and I assure you of the confidentiality

of your responses and anonymity as a respondent.

Thank you for your participation

Yours sincerely

Walter M Mhaka

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Department of Sociology

Informed consent and declaration of participation

Participant’s name……………………………………………….

Researcher: Walter M Mhaka

Title of the study: Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs) and poverty reduction

in Zimbabwe: The case of CADEC in Binga.

I declare that I will voluntarily participate in this research that has been explained to me

and I will cooperate by sharing my honest experience. I understand that the interview is

part of a research project and that the information will be treated confidentially and

published anonymously for research purposes only. I agree to being interviewed and my

participation is voluntary, I am at liberty to withdraw from the interview at anytime.

Signed at………………………………. date………………….

Signature: (participant)…………………………..………..

Signature: (researcher)……………….…………………….

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Questions for CADEC officials

1. What is CADEC’s role in the poverty alleviation processes in Binga?

2. What specific programs and projects do you have for these poverty alleviation

processes in Binga?

3. What structures and processes do you have for the implementation of the poverty

alleviation strategies in Binga?

4. How effectively do members of the Binga community participate in the conception,

planning and implementation of poverty alleviation project?

5. Are community members fully involved when decisions about the whole processes

relating to poverty alleviation projects for Binga are made?

6. To what extent do CADEC’s poverty alleviation strategies address the basic needs of

the Binga people?

7. What skills are socialized during Binga community member’s participation in the

poverty alleviation activities of CADEC?

8. To what extent are the capabilities of the Binga people enhanced during their

involvement with CADEC’s poverty alleviation activities?

9. Should CADEC cease its poverty alleviation activities in Binga, Do you think the skills

and capabilities gained during community members involvement in CADEC’s projects

could assist in the long term sustenance of the projects?

10. What was the nature, if any, of the reciprocal relationship between CADEC and Binga

community during the processes of planning and implementation of the poverty alleviation

projects?

11. What were the challenges faced either by CADEC or the community during the

implementation of these poverty alleviation strategies in Binga?

12. How were these challenges overcommed?

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Appendix 4

Interviews and documents

Interviews

Documents

Interviewee no. 1, male, June 2013

Interviewee no. 2, female, June 2013

Interviewee no. 3, male, June 2013

Interviewee no. 4, male, June 2013

Interviewee no. 5, male, June 2013

Interviewee no. 6, male, June 2013

Interviewee no. 7, male, June 2013

Interviewee no. 8, male, June 2013

Interviewee no. 9, male, June 2013

Interviewee no. 10, female, June 2013

Interviewee no. 11, female, June 2013

Interviewee no. 12, male, June 2013

Interviewee no. 13, female, June 2013

Interviewee no. 14, female, June 2013

Interviewee no. 15, female, June 2013

Interviewee no. 16, male, June 2013

Interviewee no. 17, female, June 2013

Interviewee no. 18, female, June 2013

Interviewee no. 19, male, June 2013

Interviewee no. 20, male, June 2013

Document 1. Monitoring Rural

Livelihoods in Zimbabwe; An Insight from

Binga Rural Site PRP LIME Outcome

Analysis

Document 2. Caritas Hwange Outcome

Evaluation Report

Document 3. Participatory Health and

Hygiene Education Index PRP Report

Caritas Hwange

Document 4. Caritas Hwange PRP ii

year 4 log frame

Document 5. Caritas Zimbabwe-Hwange

PRP ii final report July 2008 – June 2011

Document 6. Monitoring Group Level

Interventions under the PRP in

Zimbabwe. Understanding Group

Interventions through the Group Maturity

Index (GMI) Caritas Hwange

Document 7. Binga

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Interviewee no. 21, male, June 2013

Interviewee no. 22, female, June 2013

THE END