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8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
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Philosophy
and
Education
The
philosophv
of the
classroom is
tJre
philosophl-
of the governrnent
in
the
next
generation.
- 1ltrahatn
LinL:oln
ii\ft r
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4
Chapter
I
Branches
of
Philosophy
Asadiscipline,philosophy-issaidtohavethreebranches:metaphysics,epistemology,
and
axiology.
These
brrr.h",
;;;
.."."r""a
with
answering
three
questions
that
are
i*pott'"ti"
describing
any
philosophy:
a
.
ffiI
I
H:
liH::
3f
',ji]#,10,"'
What
is
the
nature
of
values?
Metaphysics:
What
Is
the
Nature
of
Reality?
Metalhvsicsis
the
branch
of
philosophy
q':
is
concerned
with
the'
naflIre
of
reality
,rrd
.*iit.n.e,
as
well
u'-Utt'tl'tt
nature
of
th"
pt"on
ol
ltlfl
It
addresses
such
ques-
dons
as
whether
rr***
"r*r.
i,
basically
gooal
"uit,
spiritual,
mental,
or
physical'
:t
MJ;;hri*
can
be
subdivided
into
.ontof-
.*
;;
;;;
ologY'
ontolog
raises
some.tud'-
,i.l"ili-q".t,itr,,""bout
*Il^t
*t
mean
by
the
naflre
oi
e"istente
and
what
it
means
for
any-
'*rJnia
be."
Cosrnokg
raises
questions
about
the
oriein
and
organization of
the universe
or
cosmos'
"""-
di;;"th,."
b"i"
questions'
what
is
the
nature
of
reality?
is
perhaps
the
most
diffrcult
to
answer
because
its
elements
are
vazue,
abstract'
,,d
';l';Lid;'#;;i;'
r;;;;;'
ln
spite
of
its
abstracdon
and
.,,[',,",,..,,*o,tphiloffi
"--i11,:::*{**X1"""ril:ilXri-emeaninsof
ffi
il::;'tffi
:
:|il:
i"?
;"'"p"
i"Lderstandin
g
anv
philos
ophv'
Epistemology:
What
Is
the
Nature
of
Knowledge?
Thebranchofphilosophythatisconcernedwiththeinvestigationofthenatureof
knowledge
is
known
;y;i;;;";;;*
*]';'
th"
"'*"
of
knowledse
is
to
raise
questions
about
the
lt#;";;
k";*l"dg",
th"-rources
of
knowledge,
the
validity
ot
knowledge,
the
cognrtive
p-rocesses'
'."d
l'.?;
;;
mo*'
tn:::,:lt
many
"ways
of
knowing,"
including
rJ""tint
inquiry'
intuition'
experience'
sensing'
feeling'
trial
and
error,
scientin.
r",""tti,;;i"gic.
i-ogic
is
pti*'?ilv
cotrcerned
with
making
infer-
ences,
reasoning,
or
arguing
in
a.rational
:"'J";;
;#includes
the
subdivisions
of
de-
duction
and
inductio
i'
d'du'tl"
logic
i2
reas.oning
tc,*
1
g":ral
statement
or
principle
to
a
specific';"i';-;;;;'^it"'
naunne
lo"gic
is
reasoning
from
the
specific
,o
"
*or"
general
conclusion'
Axiology:
What
Is
the
Nature
of
Values?
whereas
epistemologv
explores
the
nature
of
knowledg
e,
axiologt
seeks
to
determine
what
is
of
value.
*
"JrtT#;,ii;lioq*;
o"J"a"'
fiErailv
means
to
applv
a
set
of
norm,
o.
,.rrriuii;;.
h;r"
.orrailt
o,
t"ro.y.
Axiology
is
divided
into
two
spheres:
ethics and
'*t'"tit''
Ethics rs
t"";;;J
with
the
stoJy
"f
human
conduct
T
@
ForYour
ReJlection
andAnallsis
Should.
schook
be
inaolaed'
in
discassions
of
the
olnisiru
of
tbe
tmiuerse? Wy,
ot'why
not?
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6 Chapter
I
Metaphysics
Idealisrn
stresses
mincl
over
lrlatter.
For
thc iclcalist, nothing
exists or
is real
except
ideas
in
the
rnincls
of
people
or
the
rnind
of
(iocl,
the Unir.ersai ,\'Iincl. The
universe
can
be erplained as a creative
ancl
spiritual realitr,- that inclucles the notions of perma-
ncn(
c.,,r,ler.
:t ntl
t'erta
i rtrr'.
If
the
rnind is prior, or ultimate, then material thines either clo not exist
(i.e.,
are
not real)r
or
if
they
clo
exist, their existence
clepends
in
some
fashi
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8 Chapter
I
"..,,.ffi)
For
htr
ReJlection
and
Anallsis
What,
iJ-
oq,,
eterilal
ttttJss
or
i:alues
do
1'ott
heliet,e
slsould
be
shru'ecl
t-ith
nll
sndettts?
religion
is an
iuportant
aspect
of
their
value
ori-
entatioit,
the
curriculum
includes
a
variefi'
of
hol,v
and
secrecl
books
(Gutek, 200'+)'
-l'he
pref-erred
methocls
of
instruction
fbr
the
idealist
eclucator
are
lecture,
discussion,
re-
flection,
and
the
Socratic
method.
The
Socraric
methocl
or
tliaittgue
is
:r
questirlnine
process
used
bv
the teacher
that
las
enrploved
bt'
Socrates,
Piato's
teacl.rer'
The teacher
asks
ques-
tions
to
leed
stuclents
to
ceitain
conclgsions
baseci
on
their
oll'n
experiences'
Natur"e
of tbe
Leunrct.
Nthoush
the
iciealist
niigl-rt
perceive
the
student
as
imrnarure
and
perhaps
rnisgriirled,
the
basic
philosophy
of
idealisrn
is
that
every
stLl-
dent
h:rs
"
t',ir-t.l,
,,,.ri,
,,r,i
s-pirit
capable.f
etl.r,latinq
the
Abs
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8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
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l0
Chapter
I
Iiterature,
and
history.
Realists
give
theoretical
subjects
such
as
mathematics
and
the
sciences
a
higher
prioriw
than
dre "practical
arts'"
Realist's
p..i..
,
,ra.i"ty
of
insiructional
methods,
including
the
use of
deductive
logic;
obsen'ation,
classifi.rriorr,
ancl
categorization;
and
the
scientific
method'
The
.o-rr,".rt
of the
curriculum
is deterrnined
by
authority*
figures
or
experts'
l{atr.tre
of the
Learnen
Realists
view
the
student
as
an orderly,
sensing,.and
rational
being
lapable
of
understanding
the
q'orld
of things.
Both
the
teacher
and
the
srudent
"r"
.lo.,rid".ed
learners,
ancl
teaching
and
learning
are considered an
unend-
ing
interactive
process
flacobsen,
2003).
Role
of
tbe
Tbacber.
The
role
of
the teacher,
accordine
to
the
realist,
is to
em-
phasize
ani
model
reasoning,
observation,
and
experirnentation'
Teachers'
major
hrrr.tion
is to
teach
sntdents
h"o*'to
think
clearly
and
understarrd
the
rnaterial
u'clrld'
Theistic
Realism
(Thomism)
Theistic
realism
or
its
antececl
ent,
Thomisrn
(sometimes
referred
to as
neo-Thonti:'m
or
religious
realism),
dates
to
the
time
of
st.
Thomas
Aquinas
(1225-1271).
Theistic
re-
alisi-,
represents
a
combination
of
theism
(belief in
God)
and
realisrn
(belief
in
exter-
nal ".rd
tbj..ti""
reality
g'uided
by
natural
In1a,)(Gutek,
2004).
For the
theistic
realist,
God
exists
and
can
be
known
by
both
faith
and
reason'
Metaphysbs
Theistic
realists
believe
that
God
gives
meaning
and
purpose
to
the
universe.
God
is
the
pure
Being
that
represents
thJcoming
together
of
esse.ce
and.
eristence.
Things
exist
independ'ently
of
id.r..
Hou.ever,
both
physicai
objects.and
human
beings,
in-
;i.j"g
-lrrd,
,rrd
ideas,
are
creared
by God.
Thus,
although
both
phvsical
objects
and
God
are
real,
God
is
preeminent.'Iheistic
realists
believe
that
human
beings
are
rationai
beings
rvith
souls,
rnodeled
after
God,
the
Perfect
Being'
Episteruologt
Although
some
philosophers
believe
rhat one
can corne
to
know God
onlv
through
faith
oi
intuition,
theisiic
realists
believe
that
u'e
conle
to
know
God
through
both
our
faith
and
our
capaciqy
to
reason.
They
aiso
believe
in a
hierarchy
of
knou'-ing'
At
the
low.est
level
is
s.iertific
or
sl,
rthetic
knowing.
At
the
second
level
is
analytic
or
in-
tuitive
knowing.
And
at
the
highest
ievel
is
mysticai
or
revelatory
knowing
(Morris_&
Pai,
1976i).
Aquinas
clarified
ihrt
t.trtl-t
or
knowledge
could
not
deviate
from,
or be
inconsistent
u''ith,
revelation
(Iacobsen,
2
00 3).
Axiologt
For the
theistic
realist,
ethically
speaking,
goodness
follou's
reason'
That
is,
values
are
unchanging
moral
lau's
estabiished
by
God
that
can
be
discerned
by
reason'
As a
corollair,
ilgrlor".,."
is the
source
of
evil.
If
people
do
not
kno'q''
rvhat
is
right,
they
E
8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
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8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
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12 Chapter
I
Contemporary
Philosophies and
Their
Educational Implications
The modern or contemporary
philosophies
have
their
beginnings in the early 20th
century and
include pragmatism, existentialism,
and anall'tic
philosophy.
These
philosophies
share
the
belief that there
are
no preestablished truths. At best there
is
a
relative truth.
Pragmatism
Pragmatism, also
known as
experimentalism
or insfi'umentalisrr"L
focuses on experience.
Metaphysics
Unlike
the traditional
philosophers, who view reality
as
a
given, pragmatists
regard
reality
as an event, a
process,
a
verb
(Morris
&
Pai, 1976). As such, it
is
subject to
constant
change and
lacls
absolutes.
Meaning
is
derived
from
experience,
which
is
simply an
interaction
with
one's
environment
(Garrison,
1994).
Epistemologt
According to
pragmatism's
theory
of knowledge, truth
is not absolute but
is
deter-
mined by function
or
consequences.
In
fact,
pragmatists
shun
t-he
use
of
the word
trutb
and at best speak
of
a
"tentative
truth"
that will serve the
purpose
until
experi-
ence evolves a new truth.
Knowledge is arrived
at by scientific
inquiry,
testing,
ques-
tioning,
and
retesting-and
is
never conclusive.
Axiologr
Whereas
traditional
philosophers concentrate
on metaphysics
and epistemology,
prag-
matists
focus primarily on axiology or
values. fu
\{.ith truths,
values to the pragmatist
are only
tentative. They are
also
constructed from experience
and are subject to test-
ing,
questioning, and retesting.
For
the pragmatist, whatever
works, or
leads
to
desir-
able consequences,
is
ethically or
morally good. The
focus
on
consequences
is not to
imply
that
the pragmatist is only
concerned
with
what works
for
the
self.
In
fact, the
pragmatist is concerned
with
social
consequences.
"What works"
is what worls for the
larger community. For
Dewey, democrary
was
the key
component of
pragmatism.
He
was
convinced
that democrary cannot
exist
without community.
Democrary is more
than government; it includes a
free
community
capable of influencing the
political,
so-
cia7,
and economic institutions that affect
its citizenry
(Brosio,
2000).
Regarding
aesthetic values,
for pragmatists what is
beautiful
is not determined
by some objective ideal but by what
we
experience
when we
see,
feel, and touch. Ac-
cordingly, art is
a creative expression and shared experience
between the artist and
the
public.
Leading
Proponents
fivo individuals
who
had a
profound impact
on the
pragmatist philosophy
were
Au-
guste
Comte
(1798-1857)
and Charles
Darwin
(1809-1882).
Comte
influenced prag-
matism
by
suggesting
that
science
could
solve
social
problems.
For
pragmatists,
8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
13/41
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8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
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14
Chapter
I
...,:ffi|u
For Your
ReJlection
and
Anallsis
Git'e
extntples
o.f'the
use
oJ-the
scientiJic
meth0d
itt
d
tttttsic
closs ttn.d
a
Sprtnish
clnss.
nretilods
thrrt
incorporate
deductive
thinking.
Prismatists
also
piace
a
high
prioriq-
on
in-
structional
meLhods
that
involve
social
interac-
tion
and
group
'.rctivities.
l{ature
of
the
Leat'nen
Pragrnatists
con-
sider
sruclents
tci
be
et'olving
and
active
beings
capable
of interacting
rvith their environment'
Srudents
are
seen
as
individuals
capa-
b1e
of
setting
objectlves
for
their
or,vn
le:rrning.
Thev
are
also
cap:rble
of
rvorking
rog.ethcr
ao
iol""'colnmolr
probiems,
establishing
the
rules
for
governing
the
class-
.o'orrr,
ancl
testing
and
cvaluating
ideas
for the
irnprovelnent
of
learning
and
class-
room
life
(Noddings,
199,5).
Role
of
tbe
Tbacber
Prasmatists
belier.e
that
the
teacher
should
model
the
most
lutheritic
Bpe
of
knou,ledge,
namel1.,
expcritnentrl
knttri'1edge'
'l-he
teacher
is
vierved
rs
the
reiearch
or
project
clirector
and
is expected
tci
model
reflective
think-
ing,
u.hich
questions
a1l
assurnptions,
claims
of
knorvledge,
er''idence,
and
one's
or'r'n
th'ought
p,ro."rr.r.
-fhe
pragrnatist
teacher
also
stresses
t1-re
applic:rtion
of the
scien-
tific
inetir6cl,
u.hich
inchides"the
svstematic
reportinq
and
analvsis
of
t'hat
is observed
and
the
retesting
of
hrpotheses
formuiated
fror-n
clbser-r''ation'
Existentialism
E:cistentiali-vn
appeared:r
centur
ago
as
I
re'"'olt
against
the
mathematical,
scientific,
and
objective
philosophies
thar
prececled
it.
Existentialjsrn
voiced
clisfavor
u'itl-r
:rny
effbrt
clirected
at social
controi
oi subjueation.
Existenti:rlism
tbcuses
on
pcrsonal
and
Pragmatists encourage
instructional methods
that
stress social activities.
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8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
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l8
Chapter
I
Epistemolngt
Philosophical
cause
of
their
.r.,,..@
For
Your
ReJlection
and
Ana\sis
Gice
extm.ples of u:ords 0r
Phroses
in
1ou"
disciptitte
that
cottld
be
considered
jorglil
0r
h ate
.t
r r hj ettiue
n u
lt
i
pl c
m
ett
t t i tt.qs.
analvsi.
assutnes
that
language
statements
have
irnmediate
meaning
be-
irr,r",
logi.,
or
th'.rt
they
have
the
possibilitl'
of
being
rnade
meaningfirl
6y
being
siated
in
empirical
terms,
that
:?."
b"
".An.d
*a
rcsted.
According
to
analytic
philoso-
phers,
if lang'uage
has
no
rnethod
of
verification,
it
has
no
rneaning.
Manv
of
the
v'ords
or
state-
ments
\\re
use
are emotional
or
subjective
and
have
tneaning
specific
to
the
person
r'vho
used
them
(Clutek,
2004).
For
example,
the
terms
or)nptatiott,
ittcltuiott,
otljustrnent,
pt'rtssiona.lism,
,r1orro,
grouth.
and
tolerance-
irnpll'
multiple
meanings
and
r.r.oulcl
be defined
in
iiffererit
$'avs
bv
different
discipunes'
Simi-
inA,u,
pliforophical
statements
such
:rs "Existence
prececles
-
essence"
or
"Sell--
actualization
is
the
highest
goal
fcrr
mar.rkind"
ilre
not
verifiable
and
hence
have
limited
meaning.
Axiologt
Analwic
philosophers
differ
with
the
trac'litional
and
contemporary
philosopl-rers
in
theirconcern
*-ith
dre
foflnation
of
values
and
the
encouragement
of
particular-bel-rav-
io.r. .t rrl1.ti.
philosop1rers are
not i,terested
i,
v.hich
val,es
are
true,
u'-hich
behaviors
u."
good,'o.
-1rl.t
"i,
is most
beautiful.
T'hey
are
onlv
concerned
with
questions
such
^r,
do,
these
e
olues
or
behoaiors
he
testecl
empit'iull4,
and
do
they
haoe
meatting
to
the
reader?
Leading
Pt'oPonents
Tivo
leading
ancl
earlv
spokespersons
for
the
anall,tic
philoloph"v
lnovement
\''ere
Bertrancl
Rissell
(f
S;i-iq;O)
ancl
Israel
Scheffler
(b.
1921).
Russell
fbcused
on
the
connectioll
betrveen
language
and
reality
and
espoused
that
reality
-could
be
analyzed
ancl
reclucecl
to
,,irredulibl
elements
or
relations"
Qi-oddings,
1995).
Scheffler,
in
The
Langtroge
of
Efurctticut(1960),
focused
attention
on
hov'philosophical
analvsis
can
fr.fp
i"rif-r.?,
io.rr,rlrt.
their
beliefs,
argurnents,
and
assumptions
about
topics
that
are
particularlY
important
to
the
teaching
and
learning
process'
Amorecontelnporaryanalyicphilornphe.,JonasSoltis(1978),alsounder-
scored
the
import:rnce
of
philosophical
analvsis
for
teachers:
\re
must
be clear
about
its
intent
[ar1guage
of
education]
and
meaning
and
not
be
sr.avecl
bv
its
imagery
and
poetn.
The
anll.vtic
telnPeralnent
and
techniques
should
prove
very.,..firli,
all
prtrcticing
edtLcators
in
getting
thern
to
think
through
*'ith
.r."
,r-rd
precision
just
u,hat
it
is thet'
are
buying
from
theorists,
and
more
irr-rpor-
tant\,,
jusi
u.hat
it
is rhev're
aler
and
hou.best
it
might
be
achieved.
(p.
88)
E
duc
ati
o
n al
Irup
li c
ati
o
n s
Purpose
of scbooling.
furalltic
phiiosophers
.are
not
concerned
with
state-
ments
relatir.e
to
the
p.,.pJr.
of
educatitn.
Instead,
thel'
are
concerned
u''ith
making
certain
that
the
lrrlg.rrg.
,r.d
bv
educators
in
the
school
is
not
vague
or
ambiguous
and
can
be
understood
by
thg
student
ar-rd
the
public'
Philo
8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
19/41
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8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
20/41
20
ChaPter
I
TABLE
I.I
Educational
,lications
of
Traditional
and
faf
Role
of
the
Teocher
Leoding
Id,ealisrn
Realism
Pragruatisrn
Existentiaksm
Analytic
PbilnmPhY
Purpose
of
I
Promote
sPiritual
and
intellectual
develoPment
.
Tiansmit
eternal
mrths
and
values
Curriculum
ond
lnstruction
.
Liberal
arts
.
Great
Books
.
Socratic
dialogue
o
Lecture
.
Discussion
.
Reflection
.
Liber:-ri
arts
.
Basic
skills
.
Drill
and
Practice
.
Demonstration
.
Recitation
.
Rules
of
concluct
t
InteEratecl
.
Problem
solr-ing
.
Deductive
logic,
scientific
method
r
Group
projects,
etperitrentation
'I{umanities
.
Student
centered
'
.
Self-discoverv
.
Personal
truth
'
Socratic
methocl
'\ralues
education
'
r\nal)tsis
of
lanquage,
conl-
tnunicatirin
ski1ls
Noture
of
the
Learner
.
Mind
'Soul
'SPirit
Stress
eternal
ideas
of
past
.
Stress
faith
and
reason
.
Plato
.
Descartes
'Kant
'Hegel
.
Aristode
.
Bacon
.
Locke
.
Comenius
'
Rousseau
.
Pestilozzt
t
Augustine
'Aquinas
.
Teach
moral
and
'
Liberal
arts
t
C)r
8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
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8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
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72
ChaPter
I
Role
of
the
Tbacher
Perennialists
r.ieu.
the
teaclrer
u.ho
is
\vell-
educatet]
in
the
liberal
arts
to
be
tlre
,.ru-
rhorifi,
figure
and
i"r.t"'-tl"
thnt
p'o"it1"t-;;;
;l'tt
dissemination
of
truth'
If
the
teacher
is
the
dissemil;;;;';#.i.
.*a.rr.
ir'tL.
receptacle
for
lear^ins'
The
rnet:rDhor
,,director
"tr-.ir"r
.rlisthenics"
i-r".-rr"",-,
,rr.,1
tt'
d""ribe
the
perennialist
*"\i.],til::ti,:,il;i#1f'r..",*,oes
the
perennialist
teacher-rs
air
"intellectual
coach"
r.ho
can
engage
snrdents
in
Socratic
tiitlt-rgttt'
fhc
pcreunixlist
teacher
lnllst
be
a
mocrer
of
i,,,te1r.il,ri,.,J
.r,ioo.r
lr.*.;;:H:-,;.
rl-,.
,ust
be
capairle
of
logical
anal\-sis,
be
cornfbrta;il;;;h
ti"
"it"tifit
**t]na'
be
$'e1l
lersed
in
the
classics'
ha'e
a
soocl
rnemor*
lici;;'ta;'t'tt
or
tnt
hiehest
fbr'rs
of
rnental
reus,ninq'
Assessntent
fl:':ffi
:'clize
d,
ob
j
e
ctive
eraminati
on
i s
the
f'ar
?i:i
:1,,*::i::1 J::i,:,1:;:,Ti'J-
Ili*'.:T:ii:l:1il"'1'#';;;-;';;;i""q':i:,1:l:1:":'1,'*u'"*spromo'[esanex-
1ai1st.
l1ecaustr
LrtL
rlu\
ation
is
also
used.
.tr"r-rg"
of
icleas
and
insights'
the
essav
exalnln
i':#::
:;::,::;il'r
r
r
-,
r
r,,,
a
French
c athoiic
phil
os.
ph
er,
u'ho
s
er-v
err
a
s
ambas
-
\ador
t{)
rhc
llolr
Sce'
srs
pcrhrlps.rlle
lr1:1
'pokt'pt"''rr
ii'r
the
ecclcsirstic'll
per(r'r-
rrialist
p,sitio,,.
fttt"ai"g
lo
f
tt'i"in
t
ttr+ir'
inrelligencc
'tlone^i'
n.t
suiltcicnt
to
c,,rnprelrcn.l
,t,"
unlr.l=.=li,il,
o
"
.il.ri,,nrhip
to
i
Sq.,irit'rul
Beinq
is
alsc'
ncccs--
san.
Rolrert
f f .
H,,,.f.,ilr','i*niir;ri
,t,.
U,...
c',rrrcellor
"[
the
L
rrircrsin
ol
Chicr{ro
t'liscus'e
J
'"
.. lt;;;;
;'
-
il.t,
""::1
'1'okt'1't"t'n
lor
the
lrr
ocrennialist
per-
srecrirc.
B,rlr
\lrrirai,
(lqJ.i)arrd
Hurchi"rl'i;;;".rg-r.,1
thrt
the
i'leal
ctlucatio,
is
one
dcsigrred
ro.l.,.l'op',lf;;fir;;.n.1
tl,rt'.,rn
rr..,'-r-,..lune
h'I
ctrrritulttrtt
thrtt
I"r..""rira.t
on
the
Great
Books
of
\\Iestern
civihzation'
Asdiscusseclirrclr:rpteri0,thelgE0su,itnesseclaresr.rrgenceofpercnnialism,In
Tbe
pildeitt
proposil:
l,r''aa,u,rtirtar
ktrtnifesto'iifirt,
N{ortiiner
Adler,
lrke
Hutchins'
opposerl
the
clifterentitttJ
t"";*ttt
-:^::iiio'''"1'
t"tl-'nic"r1'
acadenic)
and
con-
tendecl
that
a1l
students
in
.
denrocratic
societv
sltot-'iti
hal'e
access
to
the
same
high-
qualitl,
education'
'u'",'iir"iit"tr""t'
Adr;;'i.;;;cl
the
Great'Books
tradition
ancl
riraintaineci
that
bv
'tt,jvi''tg
ti-re
great
*"k"-,iirtt
f'ut'
u'-tt
can
learn
enduring'
rele-
vant
lessons
about
life'
NlanBloorrr,anotlrerprotninentpererrnialistfigureofthel9S0s,\vitsCon.
ccrtlcJ
rrith
rrhrt
lre
pcrt'eiretl
as
rhe
crisis
,l
lil,.,,l
edtrcrtion.
o.trtictrl.trlr
irr
tlre
rrnir
crsiri.
trr
hi,
book?
,c
L,lusitts,
o1'tt
,
A,,,.i,'irln,i,
it;,u,tt
I
q87
).
Bloom
c(
)rrten(led
thrrr
"culntral
illiteracY"
;t
th;;t;;
:f
;;t
tit"ii'niiu''''
Like
Elutchins
:rnd
Acller'
Bloom
ac1"'oc:rtecl
teaching
tnJ
l"n"-r.i"g
about
the.
Great
Books'
perennialist
..,;;j;i;
;Jbe
fburrcl
ir,
.1.,-,r.,-,.r.v
and
secondary
schools
rang-
inq
from
to--rr-r.orrr"
J.rt.l*ti.,..t
public
..f-r..ft
to
.it"
acadernies
(I{uenzel'
1997)'
The
curriculum
ot
st.
John,s
college
"t
Aurrrrpolrr,
r"Iarvl'and,
and
Santa
Fc,
Neu
N'[exico,
rvhicl-r
etnph"i-"'
t1-"
in'pottoott"ui
ti'tayi"g
ti.'t
Gt"tt
Books
tradition'
is
ln
ercellenr.r.,npt.',)i,h.
p...n,-rialist
cuIricrrluilr
in
lrighcI
ctlucatiott'
8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
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s
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B
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ep
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8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
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74
Chapter
I
C as
s"ro
om
Enzt
iron'rnent
Theprogressivistteacherfostersademocraticclassroomenvironmentthatempha.
sizescitizenship.Teachersadvocateparentinvolvementanddemocraticdecision
;",-["g;t,h
r.gr.d
.o
ifr.
,a*i"istration
of
the
school.
Srudents
and
parents
are
en-
couraged
to
form
tr,"i,
o*,,
"ouncils
and
orgarizatlons
to
address
educational
issues
and
advance
social
change'
Rote of
the
Tbacber
The
metaphor
of
the
teacher
as
facilitator
or
director
of
learning
might
best
describe
tlle
progressivist
teacher.
Such
a
teacher
is
not
considered
to
be
the
authority
or
dis-
seminator
of
knowledge
or
truth,
as
is
the
perennialist
or
essendalist
teacher'
Rather'
he
or
she
is
viewed
*T
srrj"
*i.
r*trioi"r
learning
by
helping
the
student
sample
direct
experi"rr"..
erog7""i'i""-tv
iT
-'"ry
"u*'J
it
toti"lly
oriented;
thus
the
reacher
is
a
collaborJ;.;;;";
in
making
group
decisions,
keeping
in
mind
the
ul-
timate
consequences
for
the
sftdents'
Assesstnent
Because
progressivism
supports-
the
group
process'
cooperative
learning'
and
demo-
cratic
participation,
it
'pp-'"h
to
*"""*""t
diifers
ho*
th't
of
the
more
uadi-
tional appror"h"r.
f'o'
Ii"*plt,
the
progressivist
engages
in
formatizte
eztalaation'
which
is
process
ori"rr-i.Jr-rra
ior..rr"d
*ith
ongoing
feedback
about
the
activity
un-
derway
rather
than
*;;;;"r;urement
of
ootL*Jt.
Monitoring
what
students
are
doing,
appraising
,n"'Jf.iffr
A"V
still.need
to
develop,
and
resolving
unexpected
prob-
lems
as
they
occur
,r"ffiJ
"',*rmples
of
the
type
of
evaluation
progressivists
use.
Lead.ing
ProPonents
fudiscussedinchapterT,progressivismhaditsimpetusinthefirstdecadesofthe
20th
century
"a
,
o*"-r"ftJrr'*r'"y1in.ral
thinkers alieged
that
American
schools
were
our
of
touch
with
,h;
;;;;;ihr.
,r"r"
being
madJ
in
the
physical
and
social
sci-
ences
and
t".hrrologi.
n''
Ji"o"ta
in
that
thulpt"t'
FrancisW'
Parker
(1817-1902)'
superintenderr,
or
,Jiootr-;
O;;
Murr".i-,or"rrs,
and
later
head
of
the
cook
County
Normal
S.h;;i
ilChi.r-go,
ir'.on
idered
the
father
of
progressive
education'
However,
as
also
dil;;i.hn"Dewey(1g
5g-1g52) and his
work
at
the laboratory
school
at
the
t;niver;r.jr;?cilrgo
prorrid.d
the
clinical
testing
ground
for
progres-
sivism.
From
his
poririJ,
at
the
UYniversity
of
Chicago
and
Teachers
College,
Colum-
bia
University,
D.*";;;;;r
";.
of
the
chief
Jpokespersons
for
the
progressive
education
movement.
Ella
Flagg
Young
(1845-1917),-a.colleagu"
{ P.-t*:y,t
at
the
University
of
Chicago
and
formeffiJrirr..rra*.
of.*r.
Cnilrgo
Public
Schools,
also
served
as
an
important
,pot
.rp",,oi
for
progressivism
by
emihasizing
the
central
role
of
experi-
menradon
ura
a"*o.rr"y
ii
.ri.
.lrrrroor.,
urrd
,h"
schoot.
wlliam
H.
Kilpatrick
(1g71_1965)
fur.h"r-;;;ced
progressive
education
by
inuoducing
the
experience-
i.rt"r"d
*iri".rlo-,
including
th"
use
of
the
projec --tth"{'--
'
'
progressivism'f;11-i;;;
firf"rro.
in
the
yla.i following
world
war
II,
but
as
Rav-
itch(2000)noted,i,*"t'reallydisapp""td'fudiscussedinchapterl0'inthelate
8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
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e
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8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
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25
Chapter
I
Classroom
Enaironment
Esssentialists
not
only
advocate
intellecmal
discipline,
but
thev
also
maintain
that
*orrr
air.ipline
and
character
training
desen
e
,r,
irrpo.tnrt
place
in
the curriculurn'
Accorclingly,
air.
.rr"rrairlist
classrooi
is clefinecl
by
clear
expectations
tbr
behar-ior
and
respect
for others.
Role of
the
Tbacber
The
essentialist
educator
is
vieu.ed
as
either
a
iink
to
the
so-called
"literary
intellec-
tual
inheritance,,
(idealism)
or
a
clernonstrator
of
the
u'orld
model
(realism).
To
be
an
essentialist
teacher
is to
be$,e11
versecl
in the
iiberal
arts,
hurnanities'
and
sciences;
to
u. ,
..rp"o.d
mernber
of
the
intellecrual
communit.v;
to
be
technicalll',
skilled
in
all
fbrms
of
communication;
and
to
be
equipped
u'ith
superior
pedagogical
skills
to
en-
sure
competent
instruction.
one
of
th.
,r-st
important
roles
of
the
teacher
is
to
set
the
character
ofthe
environrrent
in
which
learning
takes
piace
(Butler,
1966)'
Assessment
of
all
the
philosophies
of
educadon,
essentialism
is perhaps
most
comfortable
with
;;;,i;g.
I.
fr.t, thl
entrre
essentialist
curriculum
reflects
the
influence
of
the
testing
movement.
IQ
tests,
sandardized
achievement
tesm,
diagnostic
tests,
and
performance-
based
compe,.rr.y
a"*.,
as
u,ell
as
the
curre.nt
"high-stakes
testing"
mandated
by
the
No
Child
Left
BehinJr.,
tzoorl
discussecl
in
ch-apter
11
are
examples
of
the
u'ide-
,p..J
,pplcation
of
*.rr.rr"r,r.rrt
techniques.
competencv,
accountability,
mastery
iJr*i"g,
and
performance-based
instruction
have
gainecl
increasing
popuiariw
as
a
result
#the
essentiaiists'
influence
on
educational
practice.
Leading
ProPonents
Nthough
essenrialism
can
be
traced
to
Piato
ancl
Aristotle,
its
greatest
popuiariry
has
com.
ii the
20th
and
21st
centuries.
As
discussed
in
chapter
8,
the
major
proponents
of
essentialisrn
in
the
micldle
decades
of
the
20th
century
u'ere
\\' lliarn
C'
Baglev
(|874_t9+6),ArthurE.Bestor(1908-1994),andAdnriralF{vmanG.Rickover
(1900-1986).
Arnajorrevivalofessentialismoccurredinthelg70su.iththeback.to-basics
ntuaementand
u-as
echoed
in the
recommendations
of
the
education
reform
reports
of
the
1980s
discussed
in
chapter
10.
For
example,
A
l'lation
at
Risk
(National
Commis-
sion
on
Excellence
ln
Bd.rcacor-r,
1983),
the
premier
of
these
r-eports,
recommended
a
core
of
new
basics:
English,
-rih.rorri.r,
r.i.rr.",
social
studies,
and
computer
sci-
ences,
and
for
the
.oll"g.-too,'d,
a
foreign
language'
Many
of
the
other
reports
not
or(
i.opor.d
.i*ilr.
.[.es,
but
also
calJd
fo.
i-p.o".ment.in
their
content
and
in-
creased
rigor
in
their
standards.
The
success
of
the
.rr.rrtialist
position
is
evidenced
by
the
steps
taken
in
a
number
of
states
to
strengthe"
gtl*"]?"
requirements
and
.irfor..
high-stakes
,."i"g
to
meet
the
fecleral
-a-rt,l.tet
of
the
No
Child
Left
Behind
ict
fzoor)] nsse'tialism
iithe
dominant
educational
philosophf
in our
scho.ls
todav'
8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
27/41
S
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-
q
n
S
a
Se
a
ae
-
u
Eu
lo
R
-
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u8
e
S
Su
's
nd
d
o
e
A
q
'O
t
d
'1
eou
J
B
E
au
.n
L
S
n
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P
uSu
P
P
's
u
P
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g
Sod
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lRe
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EE
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u
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s
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Bu
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sq
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lo
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ipu
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a
'su
u
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u
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g
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e
re
q
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u
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o
up
q
p
ua
ou
l
-n
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So
1
so
S
t
's
8
o
I
le
BV
e
po
1
Iu
p
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l
p
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q
S
l
V
'O
td
'1
-
euo
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p
h
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8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
28/41
28 Chapter
I
acquailted
r,r,ith
antl
immci:sed
in
the problems
atld
their
possible
solutions'
Thev
an-
"1rr.,
..r.rrch,
rncl
link
the
underlr'ing
issues
to
institutions
and
structures
in the
contrnunit\,-
and
larger
societv.
FinallV,
dlet't:rke
sonlc
rlctiorl
or
resp'rnsibility
in plan-
ning
for
chang'e.
C
la
ssro
ont
Enoiro'nment
'I'he
classroom
elvir6nrrelt
of
the social recollstructionist
is
a
clirnate
of
iilquirl
in
r,r-ir;ch
teachers
:rncl
stuclents
question
the
assun-rptions
of
the
status
quo
and
exat.nine
societ..rl
issues
and
ftiture
trends.
In such
a cl:rssroott]
there
is
less e[rphasis
on
nlan-
agement
rrncl
control,
ancl
more
fbcus
on
communitr-
building
(Kincheloe et
ai.,
:6OO;.
1",
atrlosphcre
that
promotes
analysis,
criticism,
ancl
actior-r
research
best
de-
scribes
this
Wpe
of
classro.rnr
environurent.
Conf-lict
resttlution
and
diff'erences
in
\\,oridviews
are
enco
ur:1
gecl
an d
reinfbrceci.
Role
of the
Tbacher
The
rnetaphors
"shaper
tlf
a
neu-
socictl',"
"trallsforln:rtional
1eader,"
and
"change
a fent,,
apil,v
descrilte
tl-re
social
reconstructi{)nist
teacher.
Social
lcconstructionist
tiacl'rers
i.,ri'iot
.1ro
be
r,iliing
to
ensag'e
in ongrling
reneu'al
of
their
personal
and
pro-
f-essional
iives.
'I'het'
rnust
be
willing to
critique
...,,,,,,,,ffi,
For
hur
ReJle
tiott
an
d An
al1 s
i s
Hou
run{bmble
are
tou
it:ith
antbigtrity?
Constant
chnnge?
and
evaluate
the
conditions
under
which
they
work
and
extend
their
educative
role
outside
the
domains
of
the
classroom
and
school.
They
must
have
a
high
tolerance
for
ambiguity,
be
comfort-
able
withionstant
change,
and
be
willing
to
think
about
their
own
thinking
and
the
cultural
and
ucational
reforme
such
a
teacher^detests
the
status
quo
and
views
the
school
as
a
particllar
culflrre
in
evolution.
i\Ioreover,
he
ol
she
vicr,r's
tire
larger
societ\-
as
an
ex-
pe.i',,e,,t
th:rt
rr{11 alr'l,a\.s
be
i'rrrf]njslred
arld
in
flux.
The socill
reconstructionist
i.a.l-,..
nusr
be
rrilling
to engage
in
and
fonn
aliiances
u.ith
ccilltirunit\-
groups.
neighborhoorl
organiz.aiions, sociril rno\rements,
tncl
p'.rrents
to critique
ar.rd
question
the
practice
of school
deinocracl'and
school
policl'.
Assessntettt
'1-he
tvpe
of evalu:rtion
that
is appropriate
for
both students
and
terchers
in
a social
reconitructionist
school
is
otrthentic
ilsessntent.'I-his
includes
fbnnative
evaluation,
which
entails
a cooperatir.e
eflbrt
befti
een
snrdeut
lncl
teacher,
stucler-rt
and stuclent,
teacher
ar]d
adrninistriltor
or
supcn,isor,
ancl
ccimtnuttity
and tcacher.
Inforlnation
is
shared
regularly
cluring
periodiC
fonnal
and
inforrnal
conf'erences,
and
the student
or
teacher
bling
walrat.,l
L
,r, :ictive
participant
in thc
process.
Such
an el'aluation
re-
cluires
participants
ro
har,.e
the abiliw
and
r,i,illinEiness
to think
in criticai
ternls
and to
.*por"'.rr,i..iyir.,g
,.rorl,.pticins
and
practices.
Standardizecl
testing,
including
teacher
.o-n,p.t"r.,.r, testing,
is
onlr,
usecl
if
tnandatetl
1tv
stare
or
f'ederirl
laui
8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
29/41
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8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
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30
Chapter
I
Critical
theorists
raise
questions
about
the
unequal
distribution
of
power
in
societY.
They
claim
that
objective
obsen'ation
is
not
possible
O::X^:lt
obsen'er
atl-ects
u,h:rt
is
obser-v-ed.
p,.,r,,-"oat"i*
'ogg"t'tl"t
il''t
\Yav
\ve
arrive
at
knorvledge
is
not
by
science
alone
but
bi:
t"';;;"g
"ifrt.
human
past
ai'c1
Present
to
see
hou-
clai'rs
of
duth
have
originated,
ir."r-,
.o,r.,i.,ctec1
ancl
"*p.".r",1,
,r-rd
ha'e
had
social,
political,
rnde,lucatio',rl.t',,r.q'"nct'"(Gtrtek'20{)+'p'l}01'Thevquertiorrthctlotltinance
oiobjectirin.,,nir..,.l'lrfl.,',.ri,.,nr.
rr,'th..,,i
rationrlin
(Kincheloe
et
al'.20001'
In
their
place
thev
substitute
critical
inquin.
ancl
politicrl
...-.,.n.,,
(Ijlenderson,
2001);
diversiri,,
inclusion,.,lJ-*t't'iptigiq'(Mcla11r"&
To"tt'
1q98);
and
the
limitations
of
ir"grr"g:"
or
the
ueaning
of
l'ords
(Biest:r'
2001)'
r@,
fot
Your
ReJlettion
and
Anallsis
l;'
Giue
extmples
of
other
"m1ths"
that
are
perpetuate(J
by
the
schools
nnd
lty
other
institutions.
Purpose
of
Schooling
Pristmodernists
believe
the
purpose
of
schooiing
i,
in
p..p..e
students
to
become
vigilant
and
,*,.."'otit-t"
varietv
of
rnvths
that
are
presented
i,
-iio.,rhr."
Examples
t-,f
such
n-rvths
include
;;.q.,rl
eclucetional
tpportuniQ',"
"apolitical
cur-
ricil,.rm,"
"fair
houiing,"
"level
plaving
fieid"'
ancl
"oplen
enrollment'"
8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11
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