History of Education in American Ch 1, 11

8/11/2019 History of Education in American Ch 1, 11

1/41


2/41

Philosophy

and

Education

The

philosophv

of the

classroom is

tJre

philosophl-

of the governrnent

in

the

next

generation.

- 1ltrahatn

LinL:oln

ii\ft r


3/41

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4/41

4

Chapter

I

Branches

of

Philosophy

Asadiscipline,philosophy-issaidtohavethreebranches:metaphysics,epistemology,

and

axiology.

These

brrr.h",

;;;

.."."r""a

with

answering

three

questions

that

are

i*pott'"ti"

describing

any

philosophy:

a

.

ffiI

I

H:

liH::

3f

',ji]#,10,"'

What

is

the

nature

of

values?

Metaphysics:

What

Is

the

Nature

of

Reality?

Metalhvsicsis

the

branch

of

philosophy

q':

is

concerned

with

the'

naflIre

of

reality

,rrd

.*iit.n.e,

as

well

u'-Utt'tl'tt

nature

of

th"

pt"on

ol

ltlfl

It

addresses

such

ques-

dons

as

whether

rr***

"r*r.

i,

basically

gooal

"uit,

spiritual,

mental,

or

physical'

:t

MJ;;hri*

can

be

subdivided

into

.ontof-

.*

;;

;;;

ologY'

ontolog

raises

some.tud'-

,i.l"ili-q".t,itr,,""bout

*Il^t

*t

mean

by

the

naflre

oi

e"istente

and

what

it

means

for

any-

'*rJnia

be."

Cosrnokg

raises

questions

about

the

oriein

and

organization of

the universe

or

cosmos'

"""-

di;;"th,."

b"i"

questions'

what

is

the

nature

of

reality?

is

perhaps

the

most

diffrcult

to

answer

because

its

elements

are

vazue,

abstract'

,,d

';l';Lid;'#;;i;'

r;;;;;'

ln

spite

of

its

abstracdon

and

.,,[',,",,..,,*o,tphiloffi

"--i11,:::*{**X1"""ril:ilXri-emeaninsof

ffi

il::;'tffi

:

:|il:

i"?

;"'"p"

i"Lderstandin

g

anv

philos

ophv'

Epistemology:

What

Is

the

Nature

of

Knowledge?

Thebranchofphilosophythatisconcernedwiththeinvestigationofthenatureof

knowledge

is

known

;y;i;;;";;;*

*]';'

th"

"'*"

of

knowledse

is

to

raise

questions

about

the

lt#;";;

k";*l"dg",

th"-rources

of

knowledge,

the

validity

ot

knowledge,

the

cognrtive

p-rocesses'

'."d

l'.?;

;;

mo*'

tn:::,:lt

many

"ways

of

knowing,"

including

rJ""tint

inquiry'

intuition'

experience'

sensing'

feeling'

trial

and

error,

scientin.

r",""tti,;;i"gic.

i-ogic

is

pti*'?ilv

cotrcerned

with

making

infer-

ences,

reasoning,

or

arguing

in

a.rational

:"'J";;

;#includes

the

subdivisions

of

de-

duction

and

inductio

i'

d'du'tl"

logic

i2

reas.oning

tc,*

1

g":ral

statement

or

principle

to

a

specific';"i';-;;;;'^it"'

naunne

lo"gic

is

reasoning

from

the

specific

,o

"

*or"

general

conclusion'

Axiology:

What

Is

the

Nature

of

Values?

whereas

epistemologv

explores

the

nature

of

knowledg

e,

axiologt

seeks

to

determine

what

is

of

value.

*

"JrtT#;,ii;lioq*;

o"J"a"'

fiErailv

means

to

applv

a

set

of

norm,

o.

,.rrriuii;;.

h;r"

.orrailt

o,

t"ro.y.

Axiology

is

divided

into

two

spheres:

ethics and

'*t'"tit''

Ethics rs

t"";;;J

with

the

stoJy

"f

human

conduct

T

@

ForYour

ReJlection

andAnallsis

Should.

schook

be

inaolaed'

in

discassions

of

the

olnisiru

of

tbe

tmiuerse? Wy,

ot'why

not?


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6/41

6 Chapter

I

Metaphysics

Idealisrn

stresses

mincl

over

lrlatter.

For

thc iclcalist, nothing

exists or

is real

except

ideas

in

the

rnincls

of

people

or

the

rnind

of

(iocl,

the Unir.ersai ,\'Iincl. The

universe

can

be erplained as a creative

ancl

spiritual realitr,- that inclucles the notions of perma-

ncn(

c.,,r,ler.

:t ntl

t'erta

i rtrr'.

If

the

rnind is prior, or ultimate, then material thines either clo not exist

(i.e.,

are

not real)r

or

if

they

clo

exist, their existence

clepends

in

some

fashi


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8 Chapter

I

"..,,.ffi)

For

htr

ReJlection

and

Anallsis

What,

iJ-

oq,,

eterilal

ttttJss

or

i:alues

do

1'ott

heliet,e

slsould

be

shru'ecl

t-ith

nll

sndettts?

religion

is an

iuportant

aspect

of

their

value

ori-

entatioit,

the

curriculum

includes

a

variefi'

of

hol,v

and

secrecl

books

(Gutek, 200'+)'

-l'he

pref-erred

methocls

of

instruction

fbr

the

idealist

eclucator

are

lecture,

discussion,

re-

flection,

and

the

Socratic

method.

The

Socraric

methocl

or

tliaittgue

is

:r

questirlnine

process

used

bv

the teacher

that

las

enrploved

bt'

Socrates,

Piato's

teacl.rer'

The teacher

asks

ques-

tions

to

leed

stuclents

to

ceitain

conclgsions

baseci

on

their

oll'n

experiences'

Natur"e

of tbe

Leunrct.

Nthoush

the

iciealist

niigl-rt

perceive

the

student

as

imrnarure

and

perhaps

rnisgriirled,

the

basic

philosophy

of

idealisrn

is

that

every

stLl-

dent

h:rs

"

t',ir-t.l,

,,,.ri,

,,r,i

s-pirit

capable.f

etl.r,latinq

the

Abs


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10/41

l0

Chapter

I

Iiterature,

and

history.

Realists

give

theoretical

subjects

such

as

mathematics

and

the

sciences

a

higher

prioriw

than

dre "practical

arts'"

Realist's

p..i..

,

,ra.i"ty

of

insiructional

methods,

including

the

use of

deductive

logic;

obsen'ation,

classifi.rriorr,

ancl

categorization;

and

the

scientific

method'

The

.o-rr,".rt

of the

curriculum

is deterrnined

by

authority*

figures

or

experts'

l{atr.tre

of the

Learnen

Realists

view

the

student

as

an orderly,

sensing,.and

rational

being

lapable

of

understanding

the

q'orld

of things.

Both

the

teacher

and

the

srudent

"r"

.lo.,rid".ed

learners,

ancl

teaching

and

learning

are considered an

unend-

ing

interactive

process

flacobsen,

2003).

Role

of

tbe

Tbacber.

The

role

of

the teacher,

accordine

to

the

realist,

is to

em-

phasize

ani

model

reasoning,

observation,

and

experirnentation'

Teachers'

major

hrrr.tion

is to

teach

sntdents

h"o*'to

think

clearly

and

understarrd

the

rnaterial

u'clrld'

Theistic

Realism

(Thomism)

Theistic

realism

or

its

antececl

ent,

Thomisrn

(sometimes

referred

to as

neo-Thonti:'m

or

religious

realism),

dates

to

the

time

of

st.

Thomas

Aquinas

(1225-1271).

Theistic

re-

alisi-,

represents

a

combination

of

theism

(belief in

God)

and

realisrn

(belief

in

exter-

nal ".rd

tbj..ti""

reality

g'uided

by

natural

In1a,)(Gutek,

2004).

For the

theistic

realist,

God

exists

and

can

be

known

by

both

faith

and

reason'

Metaphysbs

Theistic

realists

believe

that

God

gives

meaning

and

purpose

to

the

universe.

God

is

the

pure

Being

that

represents

thJcoming

together

of

esse.ce

and.

eristence.

Things

exist

independ'ently

of

id.r..

Hou.ever,

both

physicai

objects.and

human

beings,

in-

;i.j"g

-lrrd,

,rrd

ideas,

are

creared

by God.

Thus,

although

both

phvsical

objects

and

God

are

real,

God

is

preeminent.'Iheistic

realists

believe

that

human

beings

are

rationai

beings

rvith

souls,

rnodeled

after

God,

the

Perfect

Being'

Episteruologt

Although

some

philosophers

believe

rhat one

can corne

to

know God

onlv

through

faith

oi

intuition,

theisiic

realists

believe

that

u'e

conle

to

know

God

through

both

our

faith

and

our

capaciqy

to

reason.

They

aiso

believe

in a

hierarchy

of

knou'-ing'

At

the

low.est

level

is

s.iertific

or

sl,

rthetic

knowing.

At

the

second

level

is

analytic

or

in-

tuitive

knowing.

And

at

the

highest

ievel

is

mysticai

or

revelatory

knowing

(Morris_&

Pai,

1976i).

Aquinas

clarified

ihrt

t.trtl-t

or

knowledge

could

not

deviate

from,

or be

inconsistent

u''ith,

revelation

(Iacobsen,

2

00 3).

Axiologt

For the

theistic

realist,

ethically

speaking,

goodness

follou's

reason'

That

is,

values

are

unchanging

moral

lau's

estabiished

by

God

that

can

be

discerned

by

reason'

As a

corollair,

ilgrlor".,."

is the

source

of

evil.

If

people

do

not

kno'q''

rvhat

is

right,

they

E


11/41

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12/41

12 Chapter

I

Contemporary

Philosophies and

Their

Educational Implications

The modern or contemporary

philosophies

have

their

beginnings in the early 20th

century and

include pragmatism, existentialism,

and anall'tic

philosophy.

These

philosophies

share

the

belief that there

are

no preestablished truths. At best there

is

a

relative truth.

Pragmatism

Pragmatism, also

known as

experimentalism

or insfi'umentalisrr"L

focuses on experience.

Metaphysics

Unlike

the traditional

philosophers, who view reality

as

a

given, pragmatists

regard

reality

as an event, a

process,

a

verb

(Morris

&

Pai, 1976). As such, it

is

subject to

constant

change and

lacls

absolutes.

Meaning

is

derived

from

experience,

which

is

simply an

interaction

with

one's

environment

(Garrison,

1994).

Epistemologt

According to

pragmatism's

theory

of knowledge, truth

is not absolute but

is

deter-

mined by function

or

consequences.

In

fact,

pragmatists

shun

t-he

use

of

the word

trutb

and at best speak

of

a

"tentative

truth"

that will serve the

purpose

until

experi-

ence evolves a new truth.

Knowledge is arrived

at by scientific

inquiry,

testing,

ques-

tioning,

and

retesting-and

is

never conclusive.

Axiologr

Whereas

traditional

philosophers concentrate

on metaphysics

and epistemology,

prag-

matists

focus primarily on axiology or

values. fu

\{.ith truths,

values to the pragmatist

are only

tentative. They are

also

constructed from experience

and are subject to test-

ing,

questioning, and retesting.

For

the pragmatist, whatever

works, or

leads

to

desir-

able consequences,

is

ethically or

morally good. The

focus

on

consequences

is not to

imply

that

the pragmatist is only

concerned

with

what works

for

the

self.

In

fact, the

pragmatist is concerned

with

social

consequences.

"What works"

is what worls for the

larger community. For

Dewey, democrary

was

the key

component of

pragmatism.

He

was

convinced

that democrary cannot

exist

without community.

Democrary is more

than government; it includes a

free

community

capable of influencing the

political,

so-

cia7,

and economic institutions that affect

its citizenry

(Brosio,

2000).

Regarding

aesthetic values,

for pragmatists what is

beautiful

is not determined

by some objective ideal but by what

we

experience

when we

see,

feel, and touch. Ac-

cordingly, art is

a creative expression and shared experience

between the artist and

the

public.

Leading

Proponents

fivo individuals

who

had a

profound impact

on the

pragmatist philosophy

were

Au-

guste

Comte

(1798-1857)

and Charles

Darwin

(1809-1882).

Comte

influenced prag-

matism

by

suggesting

that

science

could

solve

social

problems.

For

pragmatists,


13/41

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14/41

14

Chapter

I

...,:ffi|u

For Your

ReJlection

and

Anallsis

Git'e

extntples

o.f'the

use

oJ-the

scientiJic

meth0d

itt

d

tttttsic

closs ttn.d

a

Sprtnish

clnss.

nretilods

thrrt

incorporate

deductive

thinking.

Prismatists

also

piace

a

high

prioriq-

on

in-

structional

meLhods

that

involve

social

interac-

tion

and

group

'.rctivities.

l{ature

of

the

Leat'nen

Pragrnatists

con-

sider

sruclents

tci

be

et'olving

and

active

beings

capable

of interacting

rvith their environment'

Srudents

are

seen

as

individuals

capa-

b1e

of

setting

objectlves

for

their

or,vn

le:rrning.

Thev

are

also

cap:rble

of

rvorking

rog.ethcr

ao

iol""'colnmolr

probiems,

establishing

the

rules

for

governing

the

class-

.o'orrr,

ancl

testing

and

cvaluating

ideas

for the

irnprovelnent

of

learning

and

class-

room

life

(Noddings,

199,5).

Role

of

tbe

Tbacber

Prasmatists

belier.e

that

the

teacher

should

model

the

most

lutheritic

Bpe

of

knou,ledge,

namel1.,

expcritnentrl

knttri'1edge'

'l-he

teacher

is

vierved

rs

the

reiearch

or

project

clirector

and

is expected

tci

model

reflective

think-

ing,

u.hich

questions

a1l

assurnptions,

claims

of

knorvledge,

er''idence,

and

one's

or'r'n

th'ought

p,ro."rr.r.

-fhe

pragrnatist

teacher

also

stresses

t1-re

applic:rtion

of the

scien-

tific

inetir6cl,

u.hich

inchides"the

svstematic

reportinq

and

analvsis

of

t'hat

is observed

and

the

retesting

of

hrpotheses

formuiated

fror-n

clbser-r''ation'

Existentialism

E:cistentiali-vn

appeared:r

centur

ago

as

I

re'"'olt

against

the

mathematical,

scientific,

and

objective

philosophies

thar

prececled

it.

Existentialjsrn

voiced

clisfavor

u'itl-r

:rny

effbrt

clirected

at social

controi

oi subjueation.

Existenti:rlism

tbcuses

on

pcrsonal

and

Pragmatists encourage

instructional methods

that

stress social activities.


15/41

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18/41

l8

Chapter

I

Epistemolngt

Philosophical

cause

of

their

.r.,,..@

For

Your

ReJlection

and

Ana\sis

Gice

extm.ples of u:ords 0r

Phroses

in

1ou"

disciptitte

that

cottld

be

considered

jorglil

0r

h ate

.t

r r hj ettiue

n u

lt

i

pl c

m

ett

t t i tt.qs.

analvsi.

assutnes

that

language

statements

have

irnmediate

meaning

be-

irr,r",

logi.,

or

th'.rt

they

have

the

possibilitl'

of

being

rnade

meaningfirl

6y

being

siated

in

empirical

terms,

that

:?."

b"

".An.d

*a

rcsted.

According

to

analytic

philoso-

phers,

if lang'uage

has

no

rnethod

of

verification,

it

has

no

rneaning.

Manv

of

the

v'ords

or

state-

ments

\\re

use

are emotional

or

subjective

and

have

tneaning

specific

to

the

person

r'vho

used

them

(Clutek,

2004).

For

example,

the

terms

or)nptatiott,

ittcltuiott,

otljustrnent,

pt'rtssiona.lism,

,r1orro,

grouth.

and

tolerance-

irnpll'

multiple

meanings

and

r.r.oulcl

be defined

in

iiffererit

$'avs

bv

different

discipunes'

Simi-

inA,u,

pliforophical

statements

such

:rs "Existence

prececles

-

essence"

or

"Sell--

actualization

is

the

highest

goal

fcrr

mar.rkind"

ilre

not

verifiable

and

hence

have

limited

meaning.

Axiologt

Analwic

philosophers

differ

with

the

trac'litional

and

contemporary

philosopl-rers

in

theirconcern

*-ith

dre

foflnation

of

values

and

the

encouragement

of

particular-bel-rav-

io.r. .t rrl1.ti.

philosop1rers are

not i,terested

i,

v.hich

val,es

are

true,

u'-hich

behaviors

u."

good,'o.

-1rl.t

"i,

is most

beautiful.

T'hey

are

onlv

concerned

with

questions

such

^r,

do,

these

e

olues

or

behoaiors

he

testecl

empit'iull4,

and

do

they

haoe

meatting

to

the

reader?

Leading

Pt'oPonents

Tivo

leading

ancl

earlv

spokespersons

for

the

anall,tic

philoloph"v

lnovement

\''ere

Bertrancl

Rissell

(f

S;i-iq;O)

ancl

Israel

Scheffler

(b.

1921).

Russell

fbcused

on

the

connectioll

betrveen

language

and

reality

and

espoused

that

reality

-could

be

analyzed

ancl

reclucecl

to

,,irredulibl

elements

or

relations"

Qi-oddings,

1995).

Scheffler,

in

The

Langtroge

of

Efurctticut(1960),

focused

attention

on

hov'philosophical

analvsis

can

fr.fp

i"rif-r.?,

io.rr,rlrt.

their

beliefs,

argurnents,

and

assumptions

about

topics

that

are

particularlY

important

to

the

teaching

and

learning

process'

Amorecontelnporaryanalyicphilornphe.,JonasSoltis(1978),alsounder-

scored

the

import:rnce

of

philosophical

analvsis

for

teachers:

\re

must

be clear

about

its

intent

[ar1guage

of

education]

and

meaning

and

not

be

sr.avecl

bv

its

imagery

and

poetn.

The

anll.vtic

telnPeralnent

and

techniques

should

prove

very.,..firli,

all

prtrcticing

edtLcators

in

getting

thern

to

think

through

*'ith

.r."

,r-rd

precision

just

u,hat

it

is thet'

are

buying

from

theorists,

and

more

irr-rpor-

tant\,,

jusi

u.hat

it

is rhev're

aler

and

hou.best

it

might

be

achieved.

(p.

88)

E

duc

ati

o

n al

Irup

li c

ati

o

n s

Purpose

of scbooling.

furalltic

phiiosophers

.are

not

concerned

with

state-

ments

relatir.e

to

the

p.,.pJr.

of

educatitn.

Instead,

thel'

are

concerned

u''ith

making

certain

that

the

lrrlg.rrg.

,r.d

bv

educators

in

the

school

is

not

vague

or

ambiguous

and

can

be

understood

by

thg

student

ar-rd

the

public'

Philo


19/41

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20/41

20

ChaPter

I

TABLE

I.I

Educational

,lications

of

Traditional

and

faf

Role

of

the

Teocher

Leoding

Id,ealisrn

Realism

Pragruatisrn

Existentiaksm

Analytic

PbilnmPhY

Purpose

of

I

Promote

sPiritual

and

intellectual

develoPment

.

Tiansmit

eternal

mrths

and

values

Curriculum

ond

lnstruction

.

Liberal

arts

.

Great

Books

.

Socratic

dialogue

o

Lecture

.

Discussion

.

Reflection

.

Liber:-ri

arts

.

Basic

skills

.

Drill

and

Practice

.

Demonstration

.

Recitation

.

Rules

of

concluct

t

InteEratecl

.

Problem

solr-ing

.

Deductive

logic,

scientific

method

r

Group

projects,

etperitrentation

'I{umanities

.

Student

centered

'

.

Self-discoverv

.

Personal

truth

'

Socratic

methocl

'\ralues

education

'

r\nal)tsis

of

lanquage,

conl-

tnunicatirin

ski1ls

Noture

of

the

Learner

.

Mind

'Soul

'SPirit

Stress

eternal

ideas

of

past

.

Stress

faith

and

reason

.

Plato

.

Descartes

'Kant

'Hegel

.

Aristode

.

Bacon

.

Locke

.

Comenius

'

Rousseau

.

Pestilozzt

t

Augustine

'Aquinas

.

Teach

moral

and

'

Liberal

arts

t

C)r


21/41

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22/41

72

ChaPter

I

Role

of

the

Tbacher

Perennialists

r.ieu.

the

teaclrer

u.ho

is

\vell-

educatet]

in

the

liberal

arts

to

be

tlre

,.ru-

rhorifi,

figure

and

i"r.t"'-tl"

thnt

p'o"it1"t-;;;

;l'tt

dissemination

of

truth'

If

the

teacher

is

the

dissemil;;;;';#.i.

.*a.rr.

ir'tL.

receptacle

for

lear^ins'

The

rnet:rDhor

,,director

"tr-.ir"r

.rlisthenics"

i-r".-rr"",-,

,rr.,1

tt'

d""ribe

the

perennialist

*"\i.],til::ti,:,il;i#1f'r..",*,oes

the

perennialist

teacher-rs

air

"intellectual

coach"

r.ho

can

engage

snrdents

in

Socratic

tiitlt-rgttt'

fhc

pcreunixlist

teacher

lnllst

be

a

mocrer

of

i,,,te1r.il,ri,.,J

.r,ioo.r

lr.*.;;:H:-,;.

rl-,.

,ust

be

capairle

of

logical

anal\-sis,

be

cornfbrta;il;;;h

ti"

"it"tifit

**t]na'

be

$'e1l

lersed

in

the

classics'

ha'e

a

soocl

rnemor*

lici;;'ta;'t'tt

or

tnt

hiehest

fbr'rs

of

rnental

reus,ninq'

Assessntent

fl:':ffi

:'clize

d,

ob

j

e

ctive

eraminati

on

i s

the

f'ar

?i:i

:1,,*::i::1 J::i,:,1:;:,Ti'J-

Ili*'.:T:ii:l:1il"'1'#';;;-;';;;i""q':i:,1:l:1:":'1,'*u'"*spromo'[esanex-

1ai1st.

l1ecaustr

LrtL

rlu\

ation

is

also

used.

.tr"r-rg"

of

icleas

and

insights'

the

essav

exalnln

i':#::

:;::,::;il'r

r

r

-,

r

r,,,

a

French

c athoiic

phil

os.

ph

er,

u'ho

s

er-v

err

a

s

ambas

-

\ador

t{)

rhc

llolr

Sce'

srs

pcrhrlps.rlle

lr1:1

'pokt'pt"''rr

ii'r

the

ecclcsirstic'll

per(r'r-

rrialist

p,sitio,,.

fttt"ai"g

lo

f

tt'i"in

t

ttr+ir'

inrelligencc

'tlone^i'

n.t

suiltcicnt

to

c,,rnprelrcn.l

,t,"

unlr.l=.=li,il,

o

"

.il.ri,,nrhip

to

i

Sq.,irit'rul

Beinq

is

alsc'

ncccs--

san.

Rolrert

f f .

H,,,.f.,ilr','i*niir;ri

,t,.

U,...

c',rrrcellor

"[

the

L

rrircrsin

ol

Chicr{ro

t'liscus'e

J

'"

.. lt;;;;

;'

-

il.t,

""::1

'1'okt'1't"t'n

lor

the

lrr

ocrennialist

per-

srecrirc.

B,rlr

\lrrirai,

(lqJ.i)arrd

Hurchi"rl'i;;;".rg-r.,1

thrt

the

i'leal

ctlucatio,

is

one

dcsigrred

ro.l.,.l'op',lf;;fir;;.n.1

tl,rt'.,rn

rr..,'-r-,..lune

h'I

ctrrritulttrtt

thrtt

I"r..""rira.t

on

the

Great

Books

of

\\Iestern

civihzation'

Asdiscusseclirrclr:rpteri0,thelgE0su,itnesseclaresr.rrgenceofpercnnialism,In

Tbe

pildeitt

proposil:

l,r''aa,u,rtirtar

ktrtnifesto'iifirt,

N{ortiiner

Adler,

lrke

Hutchins'

opposerl

the

clifterentitttJ

t"";*ttt

-:^::iiio'''"1'

t"tl-'nic"r1'

acadenic)

and

con-

tendecl

that

a1l

students

in

.

denrocratic

societv

sltot-'iti

hal'e

access

to

the

same

high-

qualitl,

education'

'u'",'iir"iit"tr""t'

Adr;;'i.;;;cl

the

Great'Books

tradition

ancl

riraintaineci

that

bv

'tt,jvi''tg

ti-re

great

*"k"-,iirtt

f'ut'

u'-tt

can

learn

enduring'

rele-

vant

lessons

about

life'

NlanBloorrr,anotlrerprotninentpererrnialistfigureofthel9S0s,\vitsCon.

ccrtlcJ

rrith

rrhrt

lre

pcrt'eiretl

as

rhe

crisis

,l

lil,.,,l

edtrcrtion.

o.trtictrl.trlr

irr

tlre

rrnir

crsiri.

trr

hi,

book?

,c

L,lusitts,

o1'tt

,

A,,,.i,'irln,i,

it;,u,tt

I

q87

).

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c(

)rrten(led

thrrr

"culntral

illiteracY"

;t

th;;t;;

:f

;;t

tit"ii'niiu''''

Like

Elutchins

:rnd

Acller'

Bloom

ac1"'oc:rtecl

teaching

tnJ

l"n"-r.i"g

about

the.

Great

Books'

perennialist

..,;;j;i;

;Jbe

fburrcl

ir,

.1.,-,r.,-,.r.v

and

secondary

schools

rang-

inq

from

to--rr-r.orrr"

J.rt.l*ti.,..t

public

..f-r..ft

to

.it"

acadernies

(I{uenzel'

1997)'

The

curriculum

ot

st.

John,s

college

"t

Aurrrrpolrr,

r"Iarvl'and,

and

Santa

Fc,

Neu

N'[exico,

rvhicl-r

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t1-"

in'pottoott"ui

ti'tayi"g

ti.'t

Gt"tt

Books

tradition'

is

ln

ercellenr.r.,npt.',)i,h.

p...n,-rialist

cuIricrrluilr

in

lrighcI

ctlucatiott'


23/41

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24/41

74

Chapter

I

C as

s"ro

om

Enzt

iron'rnent

Theprogressivistteacherfostersademocraticclassroomenvironmentthatempha.

sizescitizenship.Teachersadvocateparentinvolvementanddemocraticdecision

;",-["g;t,h

r.gr.d

.o

ifr.

,a*i"istration

of

the

school.

Srudents

and

parents

are

en-

couraged

to

form

tr,"i,

o*,,

"ouncils

and

orgarizatlons

to

address

educational

issues

and

advance

social

change'

Rote of

the

Tbacber

The

metaphor

of

the

teacher

as

facilitator

or

director

of

learning

might

best

describe

tlle

progressivist

teacher.

Such

a

teacher

is

not

considered

to

be

the

authority

or

dis-

seminator

of

knowledge

or

truth,

as

is

the

perennialist

or

essendalist

teacher'

Rather'

he

or

she

is

viewed

*T

srrj"

*i.

r*trioi"r

learning

by

helping

the

student

sample

direct

experi"rr"..

erog7""i'i""-tv

iT

-'"ry

"u*'J

it

toti"lly

oriented;

thus

the

reacher

is

a

collaborJ;.;;;";

in

making

group

decisions,

keeping

in

mind

the

ul-

timate

consequences

for

the

sftdents'

Assesstnent

Because

progressivism

supports-

the

group

process'

cooperative

learning'

and

demo-

cratic

participation,

it

'pp-'"h

to

*"""*""t

diifers

ho*

th't

of

the

more

uadi-

tional appror"h"r.

f'o'

Ii"*plt,

the

progressivist

engages

in

formatizte

eztalaation'

which

is

process

ori"rr-i.Jr-rra

ior..rr"d

*ith

ongoing

feedback

about

the

activity

un-

derway

rather

than

*;;;;"r;urement

of

ootL*Jt.

Monitoring

what

students

are

doing,

appraising

,n"'Jf.iffr

A"V

still.need

to

develop,

and

resolving

unexpected

prob-

lems

as

they

occur

,r"ffiJ

"',*rmples

of

the

type

of

evaluation

progressivists

use.

Lead.ing

ProPonents

fudiscussedinchapterT,progressivismhaditsimpetusinthefirstdecadesofthe

20th

century

"a

,

o*"-r"ftJrr'*r'"y1in.ral

thinkers alieged

that

American

schools

were

our

of

touch

with

,h;

;;;;;ihr.

,r"r"

being

madJ

in

the

physical

and

social

sci-

ences

and

t".hrrologi.

n''

Ji"o"ta

in

that

thulpt"t'

FrancisW'

Parker

(1817-1902)'

superintenderr,

or

,Jiootr-;

O;;

Murr".i-,or"rrs,

and

later

head

of

the

cook

County

Normal

S.h;;i

ilChi.r-go,

ir'.on

idered

the

father

of

progressive

education'

However,

as

also

dil;;i.hn"Dewey(1g

5g-1g52) and his

work

at

the laboratory

school

at

the

t;niver;r.jr;?cilrgo

prorrid.d

the

clinical

testing

ground

for

progres-

sivism.

From

his

poririJ,

at

the

UYniversity

of

Chicago

and

Teachers

College,

Colum-

bia

University,

D.*";;;;;r

";.

of

the

chief

Jpokespersons

for

the

progressive

education

movement.

Ella

Flagg

Young

(1845-1917),-a.colleagu"

{ P.-t*:y,t

at

the

University

of

Chicago

and

formeffiJrirr..rra*.

of.*r.

Cnilrgo

Public

Schools,

also

served

as

an

important

,pot

.rp",,oi

for

progressivism

by

emihasizing

the

central

role

of

experi-

menradon

ura

a"*o.rr"y

ii

.ri.

.lrrrroor.,

urrd

,h"

schoot.

wlliam

H.

Kilpatrick

(1g71_1965)

fur.h"r-;;;ced

progressive

education

by

inuoducing

the

experience-

i.rt"r"d

*iri".rlo-,

including

th"

use

of

the

projec --tth"{'--

'

'

progressivism'f;11-i;;;

firf"rro.

in

the

yla.i following

world

war

II,

but

as

Rav-

itch(2000)noted,i,*"t'reallydisapp""td'fudiscussedinchapterl0'inthelate


25/41

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26/41

25

Chapter

I

Classroom

Enaironment

Esssentialists

not

only

advocate

intellecmal

discipline,

but

thev

also

maintain

that

*orrr

air.ipline

and

character

training

desen

e

,r,

irrpo.tnrt

place

in

the curriculurn'

Accorclingly,

air.

.rr"rrairlist

classrooi

is clefinecl

by

clear

expectations

tbr

behar-ior

and

respect

for others.

Role of

the

Tbacber

The

essentialist

educator

is

vieu.ed

as

either

a

iink

to

the

so-called

"literary

intellec-

tual

inheritance,,

(idealism)

or

a

clernonstrator

of

the

u'orld

model

(realism).

To

be

an

essentialist

teacher

is to

be$,e11

versecl

in the

iiberal

arts,

hurnanities'

and

sciences;

to

u. ,

..rp"o.d

mernber

of

the

intellecrual

communit.v;

to

be

technicalll',

skilled

in

all

fbrms

of

communication;

and

to

be

equipped

u'ith

superior

pedagogical

skills

to

en-

sure

competent

instruction.

one

of

th.

,r-st

important

roles

of

the

teacher

is

to

set

the

character

ofthe

environrrent

in

which

learning

takes

piace

(Butler,

1966)'

Assessment

of

all

the

philosophies

of

educadon,

essentialism

is perhaps

most

comfortable

with

;;;,i;g.

I.

fr.t, thl

entrre

essentialist

curriculum

reflects

the

influence

of

the

testing

movement.

IQ

tests,

sandardized

achievement

tesm,

diagnostic

tests,

and

performance-

based

compe,.rr.y

a"*.,

as

u,ell

as

the

curre.nt

"high-stakes

testing"

mandated

by

the

No

Child

Left

BehinJr.,

tzoorl

discussecl

in

ch-apter

11

are

examples

of

the

u'ide-

,p..J

,pplcation

of

*.rr.rr"r,r.rrt

techniques.

competencv,

accountability,

mastery

iJr*i"g,

and

performance-based

instruction

have

gainecl

increasing

popuiariw

as

a

result

#the

essentiaiists'

influence

on

educational

practice.

Leading

ProPonents

Nthough

essenrialism

can

be

traced

to

Piato

ancl

Aristotle,

its

greatest

popuiariry

has

com.

ii the

20th

and

21st

centuries.

As

discussed

in

chapter

8,

the

major

proponents

of

essentialisrn

in

the

micldle

decades

of

the

20th

century

u'ere

\\' lliarn

C'

Baglev

(|874_t9+6),ArthurE.Bestor(1908-1994),andAdnriralF{vmanG.Rickover

(1900-1986).

Arnajorrevivalofessentialismoccurredinthelg70su.iththeback.to-basics

ntuaementand

u-as

echoed

in the

recommendations

of

the

education

reform

reports

of

the

1980s

discussed

in

chapter

10.

For

example,

A

l'lation

at

Risk

(National

Commis-

sion

on

Excellence

ln

Bd.rcacor-r,

1983),

the

premier

of

these

r-eports,

recommended

a

core

of

new

basics:

English,

-rih.rorri.r,

r.i.rr.",

social

studies,

and

computer

sci-

ences,

and

for

the

.oll"g.-too,'d,

a

foreign

language'

Many

of

the

other

reports

not

or(

i.opor.d

.i*ilr.

.[.es,

but

also

calJd

fo.

i-p.o".ment.in

their

content

and

in-

creased

rigor

in

their

standards.

The

success

of

the

.rr.rrtialist

position

is

evidenced

by

the

steps

taken

in

a

number

of

states

to

strengthe"

gtl*"]?"

requirements

and

.irfor..

high-stakes

,."i"g

to

meet

the

fecleral

-a-rt,l.tet

of

the

No

Child

Left

Behind

ict

fzoor)] nsse'tialism

iithe

dominant

educational

philosophf

in our

scho.ls

todav'


27/41

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28/41

28 Chapter

I

acquailted

r,r,ith

antl

immci:sed

in

the problems

atld

their

possible

solutions'

Thev

an-

"1rr.,

..r.rrch,

rncl

link

the

underlr'ing

issues

to

institutions

and

structures

in the

contrnunit\,-

and

larger

societv.

FinallV,

dlet't:rke

sonlc

rlctiorl

or

resp'rnsibility

in plan-

ning

for

chang'e.

C

la

ssro

ont

Enoiro'nment

'I'he

classroom

elvir6nrrelt

of

the social recollstructionist

is

a

clirnate

of

iilquirl

in

r,r-ir;ch

teachers

:rncl

stuclents

question

the

assun-rptions

of

the

status

quo

and

exat.nine

societ..rl

issues

and

ftiture

trends.

In such

a cl:rssroott]

there

is

less e[rphasis

on

nlan-

agement

rrncl

control,

ancl

more

fbcus

on

communitr-

building

(Kincheloe et

ai.,

:6OO;.

1",

atrlosphcre

that

promotes

analysis,

criticism,

ancl

actior-r

research

best

de-

scribes

this

Wpe

of

classro.rnr

environurent.

Conf-lict

resttlution

and

diff'erences

in

\\,oridviews

are

enco

ur:1

gecl

an d

reinfbrceci.

Role

of the

Tbacher

The

rnetaphors

"shaper

tlf

a

neu-

socictl',"

"trallsforln:rtional

1eader,"

and

"change

a fent,,

apil,v

descrilte

tl-re

social

reconstructi{)nist

teacher.

Social

lcconstructionist

tiacl'rers

i.,ri'iot

.1ro

be

r,iliing

to

ensag'e

in ongrling

reneu'al

of

their

personal

and

pro-

f-essional

iives.

'I'het'

rnust

be

willing to

critique

...,,,,,,,,ffi,

For

hur

ReJle

tiott

an

d An

al1 s

i s

Hou

run{bmble

are

tou

it:ith

antbigtrity?

Constant

chnnge?

and

evaluate

the

conditions

under

which

they

work

and

extend

their

educative

role

outside

the

domains

of

the

classroom

and

school.

They

must

have

a

high

tolerance

for

ambiguity,

be

comfort-

able

withionstant

change,

and

be

willing

to

think

about

their

own

thinking

and

the

cultural

and

ucational

reforme

such

a

teacher^detests

the

status

quo

and

views

the

school

as

a

particllar

culflrre

in

evolution.

i\Ioreover,

he

ol

she

vicr,r's

tire

larger

societ\-

as

an

ex-

pe.i',,e,,t

th:rt

rr{11 alr'l,a\.s

be

i'rrrf]njslred

arld

in

flux.

The socill

reconstructionist

i.a.l-,..

nusr

be

rrilling

to engage

in

and

fonn

aliiances

u.ith

ccilltirunit\-

groups.

neighborhoorl

organiz.aiions, sociril rno\rements,

tncl

p'.rrents

to critique

ar.rd

question

the

practice

of school

deinocracl'and

school

policl'.

Assessntettt

'1-he

tvpe

of evalu:rtion

that

is appropriate

for

both students

and

terchers

in

a social

reconitructionist

school

is

otrthentic

ilsessntent.'I-his

includes

fbnnative

evaluation,

which

entails

a cooperatir.e

eflbrt

befti

een

snrdeut

lncl

teacher,

stucler-rt

and stuclent,

teacher

ar]d

adrninistriltor

or

supcn,isor,

ancl

ccimtnuttity

and tcacher.

Inforlnation

is

shared

regularly

cluring

periodiC

fonnal

and

inforrnal

conf'erences,

and

the student

or

teacher

bling

walrat.,l

L

,r, :ictive

participant

in thc

process.

Such

an el'aluation

re-

cluires

participants

ro

har,.e

the abiliw

and

r,i,illinEiness

to think

in criticai

ternls

and to

.*por"'.rr,i..iyir.,g

,.rorl,.pticins

and

practices.

Standardizecl

testing,

including

teacher

.o-n,p.t"r.,.r, testing,

is

onlr,

usecl

if

tnandatetl

1tv

stare

or

f'ederirl

laui


29/41

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30/41

30

Chapter

I

Critical

theorists

raise

questions

about

the

unequal

distribution

of

power

in

societY.

They

claim

that

objective

obsen'ation

is

not

possible

O::X^:lt

obsen'er

atl-ects

u,h:rt

is

obser-v-ed.

p,.,r,,-"oat"i*

'ogg"t'tl"t

il''t

\Yav

\ve

arrive

at

knorvledge

is

not

by

science

alone

but

bi:

t"';;;"g

"ifrt.

human

past

ai'c1

Present

to

see

hou-

clai'rs

of

duth

have

originated,

ir."r-,

.o,r.,i.,ctec1

ancl

"*p.".r",1,

,r-rd

ha'e

had

social,

political,

rnde,lucatio',rl.t',,r.q'"nct'"(Gtrtek'20{)+'p'l}01'Thevquertiorrthctlotltinance

oiobjectirin.,,nir..,.l'lrfl.,',.ri,.,nr.

rr,'th..,,i

rationrlin

(Kincheloe

et

al'.20001'

In

their

place

thev

substitute

critical

inquin.

ancl

politicrl

...-.,.n.,,

(Ijlenderson,

2001);

diversiri,,

inclusion,.,lJ-*t't'iptigiq'(Mcla11r"&

To"tt'

1q98);

and

the

limitations

of

ir"grr"g:"

or

the

ueaning

of

l'ords

(Biest:r'

2001)'

r@,

fot

Your

ReJlettion

and

Anallsis

l;'

Giue

extmples

of

other

"m1ths"

that

are

perpetuate(J

by

the

schools

nnd

lty

other

institutions.

Purpose

of

Schooling

Pristmodernists

believe

the

purpose

of

schooiing

i,

in

p..p..e

students

to

become

vigilant

and

,*,.."'otit-t"

varietv

of

rnvths

that

are

presented

i,

-iio.,rhr."

Examples

t-,f

such

n-rvths

include

;;.q.,rl

eclucetional

tpportuniQ',"

"apolitical

cur-

ricil,.rm,"

"fair

houiing,"

"level

plaving

fieid"'

ancl

"oplen

enrollment'"


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History of Education in American Ch 1, 11

Documents

Transcript of History of Education in American Ch 1, 11