Geology and Geology and Nonrenewable Mineral Nonrenewable Mineral
ResourcesResources
Chapter 14Chapter 14
Iron Ore
Chapter Overview QuestionsChapter Overview Questions
What major What major geologic processesgeologic processes occur within occur within the earth and on its surface?the earth and on its surface?
What are What are nonrenewable mineral resourcesnonrenewable mineral resources and where are they found?and where are they found?
What are What are rocksrocks, and how are they recycled , and how are they recycled by the by the rock cyclerock cycle??
How do we How do we find and extractfind and extract mineral mineral resources from the earth’s crust, and what resources from the earth’s crust, and what harmful environmental effectsharmful environmental effects result from result from removing and using these minerals?removing and using these minerals?
Chapter Overview Questions (cont’d)Chapter Overview Questions (cont’d)
Will there be enough nonrenewable mineral Will there be enough nonrenewable mineral resources for resources for future generationsfuture generations??
Can we find Can we find substitutessubstitutes for scarce for scarce nonrenewable mineral resources?nonrenewable mineral resources?
How can we shift to How can we shift to more sustainable usemore sustainable use of of nonrenewable mineral resources?nonrenewable mineral resources?
GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSES The earth is made up of a core, mantle, and The earth is made up of a core, mantle, and
crust and is crust and is constantly changingconstantly changing as a result as a result of processes taking place on and below its of processes taking place on and below its surface.surface.
The earth’s interior consists of:The earth’s interior consists of: CoreCore: innermost zone with solid inner core and : innermost zone with solid inner core and
molten outer core that is extremely hot.molten outer core that is extremely hot. MantleMantle: mostly solid rock with a rigid outer part : mostly solid rock with a rigid outer part
(asthenosphere) that is melted pliable rock.(asthenosphere) that is melted pliable rock. CrustCrust: Outermost zone which underlies the : Outermost zone which underlies the
continents.continents.
Fig. 15-3, p. 337
Spreading center Ocean
trench
Plate movement
Subduction zone
Oceanic crust
Continental crust
Continental crust
Material cools as it reaches
the outer mantle
Cold dense material falls back through
mantleHot
material rising
through the
mantle
Mantle convection
cell
Two plates move towards each other. One is subducted back into the mantle on a falling convection current.
Mantle
Hot outer core Inner
core
Plate movement
Collision between two continents
Tect
onic
pl
ate
Oceanic tectonic
plate
Oceanic tectonic plate
Oceanic crust
GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSES
Major features of the earth’s Major features of the earth’s crustcrust and and upper upper mantle.mantle.
nextnext
Fig. 15-2, p. 336
Volcanoes
Folded mountain belt
Abyssal floor
Oceanic ridge
Abyssal floor TrenchAbyssal hills
Craton
Abyssal plain
Oceanic crust (lithosphere)
Continental Continental shelfshelf
Aby
ssal
pla
in
Continental slope
Continental rise
Continental crust (lithosphere) Mantle (lithosphere)
Mantle (lithosphere)
Mantle (asthenosphere)
Fig. 15-4a, p. 338
EURASIAN PLATEEURASIAN PLATENORTH NORTH AMERICAN AMERICAN PLATEPLATE
ANATOLIAN ANATOLIAN PLATEPLATE
JUAN DE JUAN DE FUCA PLATEFUCA PLATE
CHINA CHINA SUBPLATESUBPLATE
CARIBBEAN CARIBBEAN PLATEPLATE
PHILIPPINE PHILIPPINE PLATEPLATE
ARABIAN ARABIAN PLATEPLATEAFRICAN AFRICAN
PLATEPLATEPACIFIC PACIFIC PLATEPLATE SOUTH SOUTH
AMERICAN AMERICAN PLATEPLATENAZCA NAZCA
PLATEPLATEINDIA-INDIA-
AUSTRALIAN AUSTRALIAN PLATEPLATE
SOMALIAN SOMALIAN SUBPLATESUBPLATE
ANTARCTIC PLATEANTARCTIC PLATE
Divergent plate boundaries
Convergent plate boundaries
Transform faults
GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSES
Huge volumesHuge volumes of of heated and molten rockheated and molten rock moving around the earth’s interior form moving around the earth’s interior form massive solid platesmassive solid plates that move extremely that move extremely slowly across the earth’s surface.slowly across the earth’s surface.
Tectonic platesTectonic plates: huge rigid plates that are : huge rigid plates that are moved with moved with convection cellsconvection cells or or currentscurrents by by floating on floating on magmamagma or molten rock. or molten rock.
Tectonic plates move at approximately the same Tectonic plates move at approximately the same speed that fingernails grow.speed that fingernails grow.
The Earth’s Major Tectonic PlatesThe Earth’s Major Tectonic Plates
The extremely slow movements of these The extremely slow movements of these plates cause them to grind into one another plates cause them to grind into one another at at convergent plate boundariesconvergent plate boundaries, move apart , move apart at at divergent plate boundariesdivergent plate boundaries and slide past and slide past at at transform plate boundariestransform plate boundaries..
Figure 15-4Figure 15-4
Fig. 15-4b, p. 338
Trench Volcanic island arc Craton
Transform fault
LithosphereSubduction zone
Lithosphere Lithosphere
Asthenosphere Asthenosphere Asthenosphere
Divergent plate boundaries Convergent plate boundaries Transform faults
a.k.a. transform plate boundaries
Rising magma
Fig. 15-4, p. 338
Fig. 15-4a, p. 338
EURASIAN PLATEEURASIAN PLATENORTH NORTH AMERICAN AMERICAN PLATEPLATE
ANATOLIAN ANATOLIAN PLATEPLATE
JUAN DE JUAN DE FUCA PLATEFUCA PLATE
CHINA CHINA SUBPLATESUBPLATE
CARIBBEAN CARIBBEAN PLATEPLATE
PHILIPPINE PHILIPPINE PLATEPLATE
ARABIAN ARABIAN PLATEPLATEAFRICAN AFRICAN
PLATEPLATEPACIFIC PACIFIC PLATEPLATE SOUTH SOUTH
AMERICAN AMERICAN PLATEPLATENAZCA NAZCA
PLATEPLATEINDIA-INDIA-
AUSTRALIAN AUSTRALIAN PLATEPLATE
SOMALIAN SOMALIAN SUBPLATESUBPLATE
ANTARCTIC PLATEANTARCTIC PLATE
Divergent plate boundaries
Convergent plate boundaries
Transform faults
GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSES
The San The San Andreas Fault is Andreas Fault is an example of a an example of a transform faulttransform fault..
Figure 15-5Figure 15-5
GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSESExternal processes result directly or indirectly from solar energy and on gravity.
•Wind, rain, weathering, erosion
•Tend to wear the earth’s surface down and produce a variety of landforms formed by eroded topsoil, sand, and sediment.
Hoodoos at Bryce Canyon, UT
GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSES
“Hoodoos at Sunrise” Bryce Canyon, UT
GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSES
Figure 15-5Figure 15-5
Internal processes tend to build up the earth’s surface
Cleveland Volcano
Chuginadak Island, Alaska
Internal processes tend to build up the earth’s surface
Sarychev Volcano
Kuril Island, Japan (Between Japan & Russia)
Internal processes tend to build up the earth’s surface
Sarychev Volcano
View from the International Space Station
GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSESInternal processes tend to build up the earth’s surface
Wearing Down and Building Up the Wearing Down and Building Up the Earth’s SurfaceEarth’s Surface
WeatheringWeathering is is an external an external process that process that wears the wears the earth’s earth’s surface surface down.down.
NextNext
Fig. 15-6, p. 340
Parent material (rock)
Biological weathering (tree roots and lichens)
Chemical weathering (water, acids, and gases)
Physical weathering (wind, rain, thermal expansion and contraction, “frost wedging”: water freezing and expanding)
Particles of parent material
MINERALS, ROCKS, AND THE MINERALS, ROCKS, AND THE ROCK CYCLEROCK CYCLE
The earth’s crust consists of The earth’s crust consists of solid inorganic solid inorganic elements and compoundselements and compounds called called mineralsminerals that can sometimes be used as resources.that can sometimes be used as resources.
Mineral resourceMineral resource: a concentration of naturally : a concentration of naturally occurring material occurring material in or on the earth’s crustin or on the earth’s crust that that can be can be extracted and processedextracted and processed into useful into useful
materials at an materials at an affordable costaffordable cost..
Fig. 15-7, p. 341
Undiscovered Identified
Reserves
Eco
no
mic
al
Other resources
Dec
reas
ing
co
st o
f ex
trac
tio
n
No
t ec
on
om
ical
Decreasing certainty Known
Existence
General Classification of General Classification of Nonrenewable Mineral ResourcesNonrenewable Mineral Resources
The The U.S. Geological SurveyU.S. Geological Survey classifies classifies mineral resources into mineral resources into four major categoriesfour major categories:: IdentifiedIdentified: known location, quantity, and quality : known location, quantity, and quality
or existence known based on direct evidence and or existence known based on direct evidence and measurements.measurements.
UndiscoveredUndiscovered: potential supplies that are : potential supplies that are assumed to exist based on indirect evidence.assumed to exist based on indirect evidence.
ReservesReserves: identified resources that can be : identified resources that can be extracted profitably.extracted profitably.
Other: undiscovered or identified resources not Other: undiscovered or identified resources not classified as reservesclassified as reserves
General Classification of General Classification of Nonrenewable Mineral ResourcesNonrenewable Mineral Resources
3 Major Categories3 Major Categories fossil fuelsfossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) (coal, oil, natural gas)
metallic mineralsmetallic minerals (copper, iron, platinum, etc.) (copper, iron, platinum, etc.)
nonmetallic mineralsnonmetallic minerals (sand, gravel, (sand, gravel, limestone).limestone).
Figure 15-7Figure 15-7
GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSES Deposits of nonrenewable mineral resources in Deposits of nonrenewable mineral resources in
the earth’s crust the earth’s crust varyvary in their in their abundance and abundance and distributiondistribution..
5 nations supply most of the world’s nonrenewable 5 nations supply most of the world’s nonrenewable mineral resourcesmineral resources• USA, Canada, Russia, South Africa, AustraliaUSA, Canada, Russia, South Africa, Australia
3 nations (8% of world pop.) use 75% of metals3 nations (8% of world pop.) use 75% of metals• USA, Germany, RussiaUSA, Germany, Russia
Mineral ResourcesMineral Resources USA:USA: Imports 50% or more of Imports 50% or more of 24 of its 42 most important24 of its 42 most important
nonrenewable mineral resourcesnonrenewable mineral resources The “strategic four”:The “strategic four”:
• Chromium, Cobalt, Manganese, PlatinumChromium, Cobalt, Manganese, Platinum• Essential for Essential for economy & militaryeconomy & military “…no cars, airplanes, “…no cars, airplanes,
jet engines, satellites, sophisticated weapons, or jet engines, satellites, sophisticated weapons, or household appliances without these 4”household appliances without these 4”
• US has virtually US has virtually no reservesno reserves• Depend on Depend on politically unstablepolitically unstable sources in former sources in former
Soviet Republics and in Africa (South Africa, Zambia, Soviet Republics and in Africa (South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Republic of Congo)Zimbabwe, Republic of Congo)
• US has a US has a 3 year strategic reserve3 year strategic reserve
GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSES A very slow A very slow chemical cyclechemical cycle recycles three types of recycles three types of
rock found in the earth’s crust:rock found in the earth’s crust:
Sedimentary rockSedimentary rock (sandstone, limestone). (sandstone, limestone).• Form from Form from sedimentssediments
Igneous rockIgneous rock (granite, pumice, basalt, obsidian). (granite, pumice, basalt, obsidian).• Form from Form from magmamagma or or lavalava
Metamorphic rockMetamorphic rock (slate, marble, quartzite). (slate, marble, quartzite).• Form from other rocks that Form from other rocks that changechange under extreme temperature and under extreme temperature and
pressurepressure
GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSES
Sedimentary rockSedimentary rock sandstonesandstone
GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSESSedimentary rockSedimentary rock
limestonelimestone
((from CaCOfrom CaCO3 3 shells)shells)
Road Base
Most Caves
Geologic ProcessesGeologic Processes
Igneous rock:Igneous rock: granite granite
Geologic ProcessesGeologic Processes
Igneous rock:Igneous rock: pumice pumice
(fast cool)(fast cool)
Geologic ProcessesGeologic Processes
Igneous rock:Igneous rock: basalt basalt
(fast to medium-time cool)(fast to medium-time cool)
Geologic ProcessesGeologic Processes
Igneous rock:Igneous rock: obsidian obsidian
(slow cool)(slow cool)
GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSES
Metamorphic rockMetamorphic rock: slate: slate
GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSES
Metamorphic rockMetamorphic rock: marble: marble
GEOLOGIC PROCESSESGEOLOGIC PROCESSESMetamorphic rock:Metamorphic rock:
quartzitequartzite
Fig. 15-8, p. 343
Erosion
Transportation
Weathering
Deposition
Igneous rock Granite, pumice, basalt, obsidian
Sedimentary rock Sandstone, limestone,mudstone Heat, pressure
Cooling
Heat, pressure, stress
Magma (molten rock)
Melting
Metamorphic rock Slate, marble, gneiss, quartzite, some “granite”
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTSENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS The The extractionextraction, , processingprocessing, and , and useuse of of
mineral resources has a mineral resources has a large large environmental impact.environmental impact.
MOSTMOST global & U.S. global & U.S. solid wastesolid waste comes comes from extraction & processing of mineral from extraction & processing of mineral resourcesresources
Figure 15-9Figure 15-9
Surface mining
Metal ore Separation of ore from gangue
Smelting Melting metal
Conversion to product
Discarding of product (scattered in environment)
Recycling
What happens to matter quality if metal is scattered in the environment?
What is required for metal to be recycled?
Good news: Metal is infinitely recyclable, as long as there is enough energy.
Fig. 15-10, p. 344
Natural Capital Degradation
Extracting, Processing, and Using Nonrenewable Mineral and Energy Resources
StepsSteps Environmental effectsEnvironmental effects
MiningDisturbed land; mining accidents; health hazards, mine waste dumping, oil spills and blowouts; noise; ugliness; heat
Exploration, extraction
ProcessingSolid wastes; radioactive material; air, water, and soil pollution; noise; safety and health hazards; ugliness; heat
Transportation, purification, manufacturing
UseNoise; ugliness; thermal water pollution; pollution of air, water, and soil; solid and radioactive wastes; safety and health hazards; heat
Transportation or transmission to individual user, eventual use, and discarding
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF USING MINERAL RESOURCESUSING MINERAL RESOURCES
Minerals are removed through a variety of Minerals are removed through a variety of methods that methods that vary widelyvary widely in their in their costscosts, , safety safety factorsfactors, and levels of , and levels of environmental harmenvironmental harm..
A variety of methods are used based on A variety of methods are used based on mineral depthmineral depth.. Surface miningSurface mining: shallow deposits are removed.: shallow deposits are removed. Subsurface miningSubsurface mining: deep deposits are removed.: deep deposits are removed.
Open-pit MiningOpen-pit Mining
Machines dig Machines dig holes and holes and remove ores, remove ores, sand, gravel, sand, gravel, and stone.and stone.
Toxic Toxic groundwatergroundwater can can accumulate at accumulate at the bottom.the bottom.
NextNext
Copper Mine, Bingham, UT
World’s largest man-made hole 0.5 mi deep, 2.5 mi wide at top
Figure 15-11Figure 15-11
Contour Strip MiningContour Strip Mining
Used on Used on hilly or hilly or mountainousmountainous terrain.terrain.
Unless the land is Unless the land is restored, a restored, a wall of wall of dirtdirt is left in front is left in front of a of a highly highly erodible bankerodible bank called a called a highwallhighwall..
NextNext
Fig. 15-13, p. 346
Undisturbed land
Overburden
Highwall Coal seam Overburden Pit
Bench
Coal seam
Spoil banks
Area Strip MiningArea Strip Mining
Earth movers Earth movers strips away strips away overburdenoverburden, and , and giant shovels giant shovels removes mineral removes mineral deposit.deposit.
Often leaves highly Often leaves highly erodible hills of erodible hills of rubble called rubble called spoil spoil banksbanks..
Figure 15-12Figure 15-12
Mountaintop RemovalMountaintop Removal
Machinery Machinery removes the tops removes the tops of mountainsof mountains to to expose coal.expose coal.
The resulting The resulting waste rock and waste rock and dirt (“tailings”) are dirt (“tailings”) are dumped into the dumped into the streams and streams and valleys belowvalleys below..
NextNext
Mountaintop RemovalMountaintop Removal
Figure 15-14Figure 15-14
Mining ImpactsMining Impacts
Metal ores are Metal ores are smeltedsmelted at high at high temperatures or temperatures or treated with treated with (potentially toxic) (potentially toxic) chemicalschemicals to extract to extract the desired metal.the desired metal. Cyanide heap Cyanide heap
leaching of goldleaching of gold
Figure 15-15Figure 15-15
SUPPLIES OF MINERAL SUPPLIES OF MINERAL RESOURCESRESOURCES
The The future supplyfuture supply of a resource depends on of a resource depends on its its affordable supplyaffordable supply and how and how rapidly that rapidly that supply is used.supply is used.
A A rising pricerising price for a scarce mineral resource for a scarce mineral resource can can increase suppliesincrease supplies and and encourage more encourage more efficient use.efficient use.
....(stock and flows?)....(stock and flows?)
SUPPLIES OF MINERAL SUPPLIES OF MINERAL RESOURCESRESOURCES
Depletion curvesDepletion curves for a renewable for a renewable resource using resource using three sets of three sets of assumptionsassumptions. . Dashed vertical Dashed vertical
lines represent lines represent times when times when 80% 80% depletiondepletion occurs. occurs.
Figure 15-16Figure 15-16
Fig. 15-16, p. 348
A Mine, use, throw away; no new discoveries; rising prices
Recycle; increase reserves by improved mining technology, higher prices, and new discoveriesB
Pro
du
ctio
n
Recycle, reuse, reduce consumption; increase reserves by improved mining technology, higher prices, and new discoveriesC
Present Depletion time A
Depletion time B
Depletion time C
Time
SUPPLIES OF MINERAL RESOURCESSUPPLIES OF MINERAL RESOURCES New technologiesNew technologies can increase the mining can increase the mining
of of low-grade oreslow-grade ores at at affordable pricesaffordable prices, but , but harmful environmental effects can limit harmful environmental effects can limit this approach.this approach. 19001900- Average US copper ore was 5% Cu- Average US copper ore was 5% Cu 20072007- - “ “ “ “ is 0.5 % “ “ “ “ is 0.5 %
Cu, and the price of copper is lower.Cu, and the price of copper is lower.
SUPPLIES OF MINERAL SUPPLIES OF MINERAL RESOURCESRESOURCES
Most Most minerals in seawaterminerals in seawater and on the and on the deep deep ocean floorocean floor cost too muchcost too much to extract, and to extract, and there are there are squabbles over who owns themsquabbles over who owns them..
““Manganese Nodules”Manganese Nodules” cover 25-50% of the cover 25-50% of the Pacific Ocean floor.Pacific Ocean floor. High costs of extraction: 4-6 km deepHigh costs of extraction: 4-6 km deep Squabbles over who owns them in international Squabbles over who owns them in international
waterswaters
““Manganese Nodules” Manganese Nodules” a.k.a. Polymetallic Nodulesa.k.a. Polymetallic Nodules
““Manganese Nodules” a.k.a. Manganese Nodules” a.k.a. Polymetallic NodulesPolymetallic Nodules
Vary in size from Vary in size from tiny particlestiny particles to to large pelletslarge pellets more more than 20 centimeters across. than 20 centimeters across.
Most nodules are between Most nodules are between 5 and 10 cm5 and 10 cm in diameter, in diameter, about the size of about the size of potatoespotatoes. .
Those of Those of greatest economic interestgreatest economic interest contain contain manganese (27-30 %), nickel (1.25-1.5 %), copper manganese (27-30 %), nickel (1.25-1.5 %), copper (1-1.4 %) and cobalt (0.2-0.25 %). Other (1-1.4 %) and cobalt (0.2-0.25 %). Other constituents include iron (6 %), silicon (5%) and constituents include iron (6 %), silicon (5%) and aluminium (3%), with lesser amounts of calcium, aluminium (3%), with lesser amounts of calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium, titanium and sodium, magnesium, potassium, titanium and barium, along with hydrogen and oxygen. barium, along with hydrogen and oxygen.
Getting More Minerals from the Getting More Minerals from the OceanOcean
Hydrothermal Hydrothermal depositsdeposits form when form when mineral-rich mineral-rich superheated water superheated water shoots out of shoots out of ventsvents in solidified magma in solidified magma on the ocean floor.on the ocean floor.
Figure 15-17Figure 15-17
USING MINERAL RESOURCES USING MINERAL RESOURCES MORE SUSTAINABLYMORE SUSTAINABLY
Scientists and engineers are developing new Scientists and engineers are developing new types of materials as types of materials as substitutessubstitutes for many for many metals (see metals (see nanotechnologynanotechnology p.335 & S-33) p.335 & S-33)
RecyclingRecycling valuable and scarce metals valuable and scarce metals saves saves moneymoney and has a and has a lower environmental impactlower environmental impact then mining and extracting them from their then mining and extracting them from their ores.ores.
Fig. 15-18, p. 351
Solutions
Sustainable Use of Nonrenewable Minerals
• Do not waste mineral resources.
• Recycle and reuse 60–80% of mineral resources.
• Include the harmful environmental costs of mining and processing minerals in the prices of items (full-cost pricing).
• Reduce subsidies for mining mineral resources.
• Increase subsidies for recycling, reuse, and finding less environmentally harmful substitutes.
• Redesign manufacturing processes to use less mineral resources and to produce less pollution and waste.
• Have the mineral-based wastes of one manufacturing process become the raw materials for other processes.
• Sell services instead of things. e.g. carpet rentals
• Slow population growth.
Mining & the US GovernmentMining & the US Government
The US Hardrock Mining Act was passed in The US Hardrock Mining Act was passed in 1872.1872.
How relevant do you think it is today?How relevant do you think it is today?
Case in point: In 2004, Case in point: In 2004, Phelps-DodgePhelps-Dodge bought public bought public land in Colorado worth land in Colorado worth $155,000,000 $155,000,000 for for $875.$875.
This is a good example of how governments This is a good example of how governments subsidizesubsidize mining and other resource extraction industries such mining and other resource extraction industries such as fishing fleets and logging companies.as fishing fleets and logging companies.
Case Study: Case Study: The Ecoindustrial RevolutionThe Ecoindustrial Revolution
Growing signs point to an Growing signs point to an ecoindustrial revolutionecoindustrial revolution taking place over the next 50 years.taking place over the next 50 years.
BiomimicryBiomimicry-The goal is to -The goal is to redesign industrial redesign industrial manufacturing processesmanufacturing processes to mimic how to mimic how naturenature deals deals with wastes .with wastes .
Industries can interact in Industries can interact in complex resource exchange complex resource exchange webswebs in which in which wastes from manufacturer become raw wastes from manufacturer become raw materials for anothermaterials for another..
The Ecoindustrial RevolutionThe Ecoindustrial Revolution 1975- 3M1975- 3M (makes 60,000 products in100 (makes 60,000 products in100
manufacturing plants) began “3P” programmanufacturing plants) began “3P” program Pollution Prevention PaysPollution Prevention Pays
• Redesigned equipment &processesRedesigned equipment &processes• Fewer hazardous raw materialsFewer hazardous raw materials• Identified hazardous wastes and recycled or sold them Identified hazardous wastes and recycled or sold them
as raw materials to other companiesas raw materials to other companies• Began making more nonpolluting productsBegan making more nonpolluting products• By 2005By 2005: sharply reduced waste production & air : sharply reduced waste production & air
pollution, and pollution, and saved almost $1 billion. saved almost $1 billion.
Since 1990, Since 1990, DuPont, BP, IBM, and a growing DuPont, BP, IBM, and a growing number of others have saved millions of number of others have saved millions of dollars with similar measures.dollars with similar measures.
Sludge
Pharmaceutical plant Local farmers
SludgeGreenhouses
Waste heat
Waste heat
Waste heat
Waste heat Fish farming
Oil refinery Surplus natural gas
Electric power plant Fly ash
Surplus sulfur
Surplus natural gas
Waste calcium sulfate
Waste heat
Cement manufacturer
Sulfuric acid producer
Wallboard factory Area homes
Industrial Ecosystem: Kalundborg, Denmark
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