Ore Geology Reviews 73 (2016) 270–283

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Ore Geology Reviews

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Geology and ore genesis of the Yu'erya gold deposit, eastern HebeiProvince, China

Chunhua Liu a, Fengjun Nie a,⁎, Leon Bagas b

a MLR Key Laboratory of Metallogeny and Mineral Assessment, Institute of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, 26 Baiwanzhuang Road, Beijing 100037, Chinab Centre for Exploration Targeting, ARC Centre of Excellence for Core to Crust Fluid Systems, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia

⁎ Corresponding author.E-mail address: nfjj@mx.cei.gov.cn (F. Nie).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2015.03.0150169-1368/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

a b s t r a c t

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 16 July 2014Received in revised form 17 March 2015Accepted 18 March 2015Available online 19 March 2015

Keywords:Eastern Hebei ProvinceNorth China CratonMesozoicYu'erya gold depositGranites

The large Yu'erya gold deposit (65 t of contained gold averaging 2.3 g/t Au) in the eastern part of the Hebei Prov-ince of China is spatially associated with the Yu'erya Granite, and a group of NE- and NNE-trending faults. The al-teration associated with mineralization is characterized by the assemblage pyrite, quartz, sericite, albite, andcarbonate. Four stages of mineralization, in chronological order, are (1) quartz and medium- to coarse-grainedpyrite; (2) quartz, fine-grained pyrite, and gold; (3) quartz, polymetallic sulfide, tellurobismuthite, and gold;and (4) quartz, pyrite, and carbonate.Most of the goldwas deposited during the second and third stages of alter-ation frommesothermal fluids. These fluids were relatively rich in H2O, CO2, K+, Ca2+, Cl, and S, and low salinity.TheH–O and sulfur isotope ratios determined for themineralized samples indicate amagmatic source, and the Pbisotopedata indicate that the Aumineralization originated from themantle and lower crustalmaterials. Geochro-nological data indicate that the gold mineralization event was restricted to 200–163 Ma whereas the associatedmagmatism occurred between 200 and 150Ma. ThisMesozoic goldmineralization is related to the subduction ofthe Mongolia–Okhotsk and Paleo-Pacific oceans along the edges of the North China Craton.

© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The North China Craton (NCC) is a major metallogenic terrane thatrecords secular changes in tectonics and metallogeny (Yang et al.,2014); numbers of gold deposits in the craton are distributed in theXiaoqinling, Jiao–Liao, and Yan–Liao gold fields (Nie, 1997a,b; Hartet al., 2002; Zhou et al., 2002; Yang et al., 2003; Nie et al., 2004; Zhanget al., 2005; Jia et al., 2011) (Fig. 1a, b). The Jiaodong Peninsula is themost important source of gold in China with resources totally over of1300 t of contained Au accounting for about a quarter of the country'sgold production (X. C. Li et al., 2013; Zhai et al., 2001). The Xiaoqinlinggold field is the second largest gold producing center in China with anestimated unmined resource of 800 t Au (Nie, 1994; Chen et al., 2008,2009; Li et al., 2011; Zhao et al., 2012).

Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous granites host the majority of golddeposits in the NCC, although some are located in the country rocks ad-jacent to the granites (Miao et al., 2002; Yang et al., 2003; Zhang et al.,2005; Goldfarb et al., 2014). Based on these associations, there hasbeen a general concensus that the deposits are magmatic in origin andrelated to the granites (e.g., Hart et al., 2002). The intrusion-relatedgold deposits in the craton can be classified based on geological associ-ations into three groups: (1) Those hosted by, or related to, felsic intru-sions, including calc-alkaline granitic intrusions (e.g. the Yu'erya,

Anjiayingzi, Linglong, and Jiaojia deposits), and cryptoexplosion brecciapipes (e.g. the Chenjiazhangzi and Qiyugou deposits); (2) those relatedto ultramafic intrusions (e.g. the Jinjiazhuang gold deposit); and(3) those hosted by or related to alkaline intrusions (e.g. theWulashan,Donghuofang, Dongping, Hougou, and Guilaizhuang gold deposits)(Nie, 1998; Nie et al., 2004). The gold in these three types is present inquartz veins or as bodies of disseminated gold and stockwork-typeveins along altered shear zones between granites and metamorphosedPrecambrian basement rocks (Yang et al., 2003; Goldfarb et al., 2014).

Many papers have been published on the gold deposits in the NCCand related igneous rocks, and they have focused on the geology,miner-alogy, petrochemistry, geochronology, fluids, and isotopic characteris-tics of mineralization (e.g. Mao et al., 2005a; Zhang et al., 2007; L. S.Zhang et al., 2013). Although there are several reviews on Mesozoicmagmatic rocks and theore deposits in the craton, there is as no consen-sus on the geodynamic processes related to the large volume ofmagmatism and mineralization generated (Li and Santosh, 2014; Maoet al., 2003, 2005b; Nie, 1997a; Nie et al., 2004; Ouyang et al., 2013;Wang, 1989; Yang et al., 2003; Zhou et al., 2002; Zhu et al., 2011). Var-ious hypotheses have beenproposed to account for the Phanerozoic tec-tonic reactivation of the craton, and to explain the driving forcesresponsible or magmatism. These include: (1) a far-field effect of themotion of the Pacific Plate (Hu et al., 1994; Zhang et al., 2014);(2) plume-upwelling, lithospheric delamination, and mantle plume ac-tivity (Lin et al., 1998; Pirajno et al., 2009); (3) the interaction of the Te-thyan, paleo-Asian, and Pacific plates (Hart et al., 2002); and (4) the

Fig. 1. Simplified geological maps showing: (a) distribution of gold deposits in the North China Craton (modified fromMiao et al., 2005;Wang, 1989; Yang et al., 2003) of the Xiaoqinling(I), western Shandong (II), Jiaodong Peninsula (III), eastern Liaoning (IV), southern Jilin (V), Chifeng–Chaoyang (VI), eastern Hebei–western Liaoning (VII), Zhang–Xuan (VIII),and Daqingshan (IX) gold fields; and (b) the location of major gold deposits in the eastern Hebei district (modified from Guo et al., 2009). Numbers: ① = Chifeng–Kaiyuan Fault;② = Tan–Lu Fault; ③ = Xiaotian–Mozitan Fault; ④= Xingyang–Kaifeng–Shijiazhuang–Jianping Fault;⑤ = Huashan–Lishi–Datong–Duolun Fault; and ⑥ = Wulian–Mishan Fault.

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combined effect of the closure of the Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean, subduc-tion of the Paleo-Pacific oceanic plate, and consequential large-scalelithospheric delamination (Guo et al., 2013; Li et al., 2014; Ma et al.,2014; Mao et al., 2003, 2005b; Meng, 2003; Ouyang et al., 2013; Peiet al., 2011; Wu et al., 2005a,b, 2011; Zhu et al., 2011, 2012).

The Yu'erya gold deposit was discovered in 1887 and is located~25 km SE of Kuancheng Manchu Nationality Autonomous County inthe Hebei Province (Fig. 1b). The deposit has a reserve of 65 t ofcontained gold averaging 2.3 g/t Au (Zhang et al., 2012). Although pe-trologists and exploration geologists have investigated various aspectsof the deposit over the past two decades (Chen, 2007; Kong, 2013;Ren et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2008; Xiao and Li, 2009;Xiao and Liu, 2009; Xiao et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 1997, 1998), modelsfor the genesis of the deposit remain controversial.

This contribution provides the first systematic description of the ge-ology andmineralization at the Yu'erya gold deposit. This includes: (i) asummary of published data on mineralogy, petrography, fluid inclu-sions, isotope geochemistry, and geochronology of the deposit; (ii) aninvestigation of the possible sources of the mineralizing fluids usingstable isotope data; (iii) an evaluation of the models which linkmagmatism and gold mineralization using detailed geochronology;and (iv) a genetic model for the mineralization.

2. Geological setting

2.1. Regional geology

China is located in the southeastern part of the Eurasian continentbetween the Izanagi–Pacific Oceanic Plate to the east, the Siberian Cra-ton to the north, and the Indian subcontinent to the southwest (Nieet al., 2004). The NCC located in northern China is triangular in shapewith an area of ~1,500,000 km2 (Han et al., 2009; Lu et al., 2008; Yanget al., 2003) (Fig. 1a).

2.1.1. Precambrian crustal evolution of the NCCThe Precambrian crustal evolution history of the NCC remains

controversial on the region (e.g. S.R. Li et al., 2013). Zhai et al. (2003)proposed that the craton was divided into several terranes and subse-quently amalgamated during the Neoarchean, and the Jiaoliao, Lüliang,and Fengzhen mobile belts therefore formed between 2300 and1950 Ma.

Zhao et al. (2005, 2007) suggested that the NCC can be divided intothe western, eastern, and central zones. The central part of the NCCwasaffected by collisional events at about 2500 Ma and 1800 Ma (Zhai,2010; Zhai and Santosh, 2011), after which the craton underwenta long-lived, rift-related period of subsidence with the consequent de-velopment of the Yanshan–Taihangshan intracratonic basin. EarlyMesoproterozoic (Changchengian) clastic sedimentary rocks were un-conformably deposited in the Yanshan–Taihangshan intracratonicbasin on Archean and Paleoproterozoic rocks. Late Paleoproterozoicrifting events between ca. 1800 and 1650 Ma were associated withthe widespread emplacement of mafic dyke swarms, suites of anortho-site–mangerite–charnockite–granite (AMCG), volcanic rocks with ul-trahigh potassium contents, and A-type granitoid rocks (Lu et al.,2008; Zhai et al., 2000; Zhao et al., 2003). Massive AMCG intrusionsare emplaced into the craton or intruded along its margins during theMesoproterozoic. Between the Mesoproterozoic to Cambrian, severalsedimentary basins developed along the margin of the NCC, formingthe rocks of the Jixian, Qingbaikou, Nanhua, and Sinian groups (Luet al., 2008).

2.1.2. Phanerozoic magmatism and deformation of the NCCMagmatism was episodic and widespread in the NCC during the

Early Paleozoic to Cenozoic, and associated with the Caledonian,Hercynian, Indosinian, Yanshanian, and Himalayan orogenic events.The early Paleozoic (490–410 Ma) ages come from xenoliths in the

northern and southern margins as well as the central domain of theEastern Block of the craton which mark the first phase of Phanerozoicmagma underplating since the final cratonization of the NCC in thePaleoproterozoic (H.F. Zhang et al., 2013). The magmatism coincidedwith the northwards subduction of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean fromthe south and the southwards subduction of the Paleo-Asian Oceanfrom the north (H. F. Zhang et al., 2013). The subduction not only trig-gered magma underplating but also led to the emplacement of the dia-mondiferous kimberlites on the craton, marking the initiation ofdecratonization (H.F. Zhang et al., 2013).

The late Paleozoic event was restricted to the northern and southernmargins of the craton, correlating with the arc magmatism that wascontinuously associated with the subduction of the Paleo-Tethys andPaleo-Asian oceans, and resulting in the interaction between the meltsfrom subducted slabs and the lithospheric mantle or lower crust (H.F.Zhang et al., 2013).

Evidence of Mesozoic (Triassic–Cretaceous) magmatism and defor-mation is widespread throughout the NCC (Zhang et al., 2014). Trias-sic–Early Jurassic deformation dominated along the northern cratonicmargins, and changed from compressional tectonism in the Early–Mid-dle Triassic to extensional tectonism during the Late Triassic to EarlyJurassic (Zhang et al., 2014). Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous defor-mation was widely distributed in the NCC and exhibited non-uniquecompressive directions usually perpendicular to boundaries of theNCC and its Ordos block, and Early Cretaceous deformation was charac-terized by NW–SE extension (Zhang et al., 2014).

Triassic and Early Jurassic igneous rocks are only distributed alongthe northern, southern, and eastern margins of the NCC (Zhang et al.,2014). In contrast, Cretaceous magmatic rocks are widely distributedover the entire eastern and central parts of the craton (Zhang et al.,2014). The Mesozoic magmatic rocks display a younging trend fromthe northern and eastern parts (including the Jiaodong Peninsula,Yanshan and Liaodong) to the central part of the craton aroundTaihangshan (Zhang et al., 2014).

Cenozoic magmatism was probably triggered by Himalayan move-ments in eastern Asia or by subduction of the Pacific Plate (H.F. Zhanget al., 2013).

2.1.3. Local destruction and polymetallic mineralization of the NCCThe relationship between local destruction of the NCC and

polymetallic mineralization in the NCC is controversial (Deng et al.,2006; Goldfarb et al., 2001; Wang et al., 1998; Zhang, 2009; Zhouet al., 2002; Zhu et al., 2011). The early Precambrian history of theNCC witnessed the amalgamation of micro-blocks and construction ofthe fundamental tectonic architecture of the craton by 2500 Ma (Liand Santosh, 2014). The boundaries of these micro-blocks and themar-gins of the NCC record the formation of gold, copper, iron, and titaniumthat related to orogenic process in the interval 2500 to 1800Ma (Li andSantosh, 2014). Along these marginal zones, the kimberlites and dia-mond mineralized at ca. 480 Ma, the calc-alkaline, I-type granites, andgold deposits formed at 324–300 Ma, and the alkaline rocks and gold–silver–polymetallic deposits developed at the Triassic (Li and Santosh,2014). The voluminous Jurassic granites and Cretaceous intrusives thathost gold, molybdenum, copper, lead, and zinc are also localized alongthese margins of micro-blocks (Li and Santosh, 2014). The concentra-tion of most of the deposits in the eastern part of the NCC correlateswith lithospheric thinning associated with the westwards subductionof the Pacific Plate (Li and Santosh, 2014). Although Jurassicmagmatismand mineralization have been recorded along the margins of the NCC,and in a fewplaceswithin the interior, the peak ofmagmatism andmin-eralization in the eastern part of the craton took place during the Creta-ceous marking a large-scale destruction of the crust at this time (Li andSantosh, 2014). The junctions of the boundaries between the micro-continental blocks are characterized by extensive inhomogeneous thin-ning, and these junctions are future targets for mineral exploration inthe NCC (Li and Santosh, 2014).

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2.2. Distribution of gold deposits in eastern Hebei Province

Much of eastern Hebei Province is underlain by Archean gneiss, am-phibolite, and granulite of the Qianxi Group, as well as Paleoproterozoicschist (Chen, 2007). Low-grade Meso- and Neoproterozoic metamor-phic rocks unconformably overlie these units (Hart et al., 2002).

The eastern part of the Hebei Province hosts many gold depositsand occurrences (Fig. 1b, Wang et al., 2003). The gold in easternHebei Province is predominantly located in east-trending faults thatare subparallel to the contact between the NCC and Central AsianOrogen; examples include the Xinglong–Xifengkou–Qinglong Fault inthe south and the Kuancheng–Tangdaohe Fault in the north. Asmall part of the gold in eastern Hebei Province is located in NE-trending Mesozoic faults (e.g. the Yu'erya deposit; Fig. 1b). Based onhost rock types, two types of gold deposits are present in easternHebei Province. One type occurs in the Archean rocks (e.g. theJinchangyu deposit), and the other type occurs in Mesozoic granites(e.g. the Yu'erya deposit).

Fig. 2. Interpretative map of resistivity inversionsModified after Zhang, 2012.

3. Ore deposit geology

3.1. Strata and structures

The Yu'erya gold deposit is located in the northern part of thePaleoproterozoic Malanyu Complex. The complex consists of marinesedimentary sequences including limestone, dolomite, and minorshale assigned to the Gaoyuzhuang and Changcheng formations,which strike northeast and dip 45°–66° to the NW. The NE- and NNE-trending faults and fractures host the majority of the gold veins. TheNE-trending structures dip 20°–50° to the NW and those trendingNNE dipWNW at 40°–65°; both sets have a reverse sense of movement(Zhang, 2012).

3.2. Geophysical survey

The Zhongjin Gold Corporation Limited and the No. 519 Brigade ofthe North China Nonferrous Geological Exploration Bureau conducted

for: (a) Line 1; (b) Line 17; and (c) Line 33.

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controlled source audiofrequency magnetotelluric (CSAMT) surveys inthe Yu'erya area in 2012 to help define the location of concealed graniticplutons. Lines 1, 17, and 33 in Fig. 2 represent the CSAMT lines surveyed,and Fig. 2 includes interpretative maps of resistivity inversions inYu'erya area (Zhang, 2012). The granite has a resistivity that rangesfrom 2000 to 200,000 Ω m, and the dolomite has a resistivity rangingfrom 100 to 2000 Ω m. The interpretative maps show that dolomiteand granite are dominant in the area (Fig. 2). The low-resistivity zonesare interpreted to be faults (Fig. 2; Zhang, 2012).

There is an irregular low-resistivity zone on Line 1, and it isinterpreted to be an underground karst cave (Fig. 2a; Zhang, 2012).Two vertical wedge-shaped low-resistivity zones on Line 1 are pre-sumed to be fault breccia zones, here named F1 and F2, respectively.There is a zone with increased resistivity between F1 and F2 as well asto the east of F2, which are interpreted to be apophyses of a concealedgranite intrusion, and this was subsequently confirmed by drilling(Fig. 2a).

There are also two verticalwedge-shaped low-resistivity zones pres-ent on Line 17, which are interpreted as fault breccia zones (Fig. 2b).Since the locations of both fractures on Line 17 have some relation tothe two fractures on Line 1, these two fractures on Line 17 were alsonamed F1 and F2, respectively (Fig. 2b). The increased resistivityzones on Line 17 are interpreted as apophyses of the granite intrusion(Fig. 2b).

The vertical wedge-shaped low-resistivity zones near Points 21 and27 on Line 33 are interpreted as fault breccias (Fig. 2c). With respect totheir relative locations, the low-resistivity zones near Point 21 on Line33 appears to connect with the F2 on Lines 1 and 17 (Fig. 2c). Thefault near Point 27 on Line 33 has no obvious relationship to the F1 orF2 on Lines 1 and 17, and it is therefore labelled F3. An uplifted zoneof high-resistivity is present between F2 and F3 on Line 33, which isinterpreted to represent a granite apophysis.

3.3. Granite plutons

The geophysical data presented above indicate that there are at leasttwo concealed plutons near the Yu'erya Granite (G1), which are here re-ferred to G2 and G3 (Fig. 3a, b). G2 is located to the east of Line 25 inFig. 3a, and it is a concealed pluton being ~340 m in deep; drilling inthis area has revealed more than 20 gold-bearing orebodies (Fig. 3c).The G2 mineralized zone has a reserve of 8 t of contained Au.

The G1 granite is medium- to coarse-grained and intrudes theChangchengian (Early Mesoproterozoic) Gaoyuzhuang Formation(Fig. 3a, b). The granite consists of an early phase of leucocraticmonzogranite with a seriate texture, and a younger fine-grained andporphyritic pink-coloured monzogranite. Both units consist of quartz(~30 vol.%), alkali feldspar (~45 vol.%), plagioclase (~20 vol.%), andminor amounts of biotite and hornblende (~5 vol.%). The leucocraticmonzogranite is composed of oligoclase, orthoclase, and magnesian bi-otite, and the pink-coloured monzogranite contains albite, orthoclase,ferruginous biotite, and hornblende (Yu, 1995; Zhao et al., 1998). Bothrock types contain accessory amounts of apatite, magnetite, pyrite, gar-net, monazite, ilmenite, rutile, zircon, and tourmaline. The leucocraticmonzogranite contains an average of 4.43 ppb Au, and the pink-colouredmonzogranite contains 1.87 ppb Au. In addition, in the ore dis-trict there are many diorite, lamprophyre, pegmatite, and aplite dykes;only the diorite dykes are spatially associated with the gold mineraliza-tion (Zhang, 2012).

3.4. Auriferous orebodies

Most of the orebodies at Yu'erya are located along the contact be-tween the leucocratic monzogranite and pink monzogranite, withsome mineralization present at the contact between the leucocraticmonzogranite and country rocks. The distribution of the orebodies iscontrolled by the NE-trending fractures and include: (1) auriferous

quartz veins; (2) disseminated mineralization and stockwork veinlets;(3) auriferous diorite veins; and (4) in alteration zones. A total of 148auriferous quartz veins and mineralization alteration zones have beendiscovered (Table 1).

The Yu'erya ore district is divided into the southern, middle, andnorthern metallogenic belts (Fig. 3b; Zhang, 2012). The southern belthas themost mineralized veinswith the highest-grade ores. In addition,the ore district has four ore-rich sub-districts simply numbered from 1to 4 (Fig. 3b; Zhang, 2012).

Most of the mineralization at sub-district 1 is outcropped; the min-eralization belongs to orebodies 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 (Table 1, Zhang,2012). Most of the mineralization at sub-district 2 is concealed; themineralization belongs to orebodies 102, 104, 106, 107, 108, 115, and11 (Table 1, Zhang, 2012). Mineralization in sub-district 3 belongs tothe outcropping orebodies II, 9, 9–1, and 9–2, and the concealedorebodies 9–3 and 9–4 (Table 1, Zhang, 2012). Mineralization in sub-district 4 is located at the contact zones with the Yu'erya Granite(Table 1), and includes outcropping orebodies 13–5 and 23–3, andtypical concealed orebodies M9, M10, M10-3, and M12 (Table 1;Fig. 3d, e).

3.5. Ore mineralogy and alteration

The mineralized veins commonly contain b30% sulfides, but therichest veins have N50% sulfides. Pyrite and sphalerite are the dominantsulfides with lesser amounts of chalcopyrite, galena, bornite, chalcocite,magnetite, malachite, molybdenite, tetrahedrite, tennantite, azurite,bismuthinite, scheelite, pyrrhotite, native gold, electrum, tellurbismuth,and calaverite. Gold is present as a native metal and as inclusions in py-rite, sphalerite, galena, quartz, and tellurbismuth. The native gold grainsare generally between 0.1 and 0.4 mm in diameter, and have a finenessthat is higher than 800‰ (Kong et al., 2012, 2013; Nie et al., 2004).Quartz, sericite, carbonate, albite, kaolinite, and chlorite are the domi-nant gangue minerals, with a small amount of barite.

The type of alteration varies with the nature of the country rock.Where the country rock is granite, the alteration minerals are pyrite,quartz, sericite, and albite. The alteration in carbonate is characterisedby silicification and the formation of marble and skarn.

The stages of mineralization recognised are as follows: (Stage1) quartz with medium- to coarse-grained pyrite; (Stage 2) quartz,fine-grainedpyrite, and gold; (Stage 3) quartz, sulfides, tellurobismuthite,and gold; and (Stage 4) quartz, pyrite, and carbonate. The gold is predom-inantly present in the second and third stages of mineralization (Konget al., 2013; Li and Liu, 1999; Qi and Meng, 1999).

4. Ore mineral chemistry

As discussed above, the goldmineralization is associatedwith pyrite,chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, tellurbismuth and electrum. To helpbetter understand the nature of themineralizing processes, the compo-sitional diversity in the main sulfides, the Te–Bi minerals, and electrumwere investigated.

4.1. Pyrite

Pyrite is themain gold-bearingmineral in the Yu'erya deposit, and ispresent in all four stages of mineralization (Kong et al., 2013). Pyritefrom the four mineralization stages have average Fe contents of 46.77,46.51, 46.89, and 46.97 wt.%, and average sulfur contents of 52.26,52.25, 52.00, and 52.23 wt.%, respectively (Kong et al., 2013).

4.2. Chalcopyrite

Chalcopyrite is commonly present in the third stage of mineraliza-tion (Kong et al., 2013). Early chalcopyrite of this stage is mostly

Fig. 3. Geological maps showing: (a) and (b) the positions of the G1, G2, and G3 ore-bearing granitic plutons associated with the Yu'erya gold deoposit (modified after Zhang, 2012);(c) Distribution of orebodies in the concealed G2 granitic pluton (modified after Zhang, 2012); and (d, e) typical orebodies in the G1 granitic pluton.

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subhedral–anhedral, and fills fractures in pyrite. Late chalcopyrite inthis stage forms inclusions in calcite and dolomite (Kong et al., 2013).

4.3. Sphalerite

Sphalerite is commonly present in the third stage of mineralization(Kong et al., 2013). The sphalerite has an anhedral granular textureand is intergrown with pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, and calcite. No

arsenopyrite and pyrrhotite were observed, which indicates that thetemperature of formation of the sphalerite was not high, and presum-ably formed at a mesothermal temperature (Kong et al., 2013). The sul-fur, iron, and zinc contents of the sphalerite are 32.43–33.42, 0.3–3.59,and 61.93–65.99 wt.%, respectively (Kong et al., 2013). As can be seenfrom Fig. 4, the iron content tends to decrease with increases in zinccontent, indicating that iron enters the sphalerite lattice by partial re-placement of the zinc.

Table 1Characteristics of the orebodies which comprise the Yu'erya gold deposit.Data from Zhang (2012).

Vein number Location line Length (m) Average thickness(m) Trend angle/° Dip Dip angle/° Grade g/t Metallization type

No. 1 ore-rich sub-district1 2-1 80 1.00 NE 50 NW 55-75 8.26 Quartz vein2 2-27 600 0.50 NE 60 NW 65 10.00 Alteration zone3 7-15 180 1.30 NE 50 NW 60 9.10 Alteration zone4 10-9 400 0.81 NE 70 NW 20-30 9.28 Diorite vein6 10-5 40 1.20 NE 65 NW 18-30 10.30 Quartz vein

No. 2 ore-rich sub-district102 19-25 200 0.80 NE 10 NW 40-60 9.00 Quartz vein104 15-25 250 0.90 NE 70 NW 45-55 10.00 Quartz vein106 25-35 160 0.80 NE 40 NW 45 20.00 Alteration zone107 17-21 90 4.00 NE 60 NW 26 4.00 Quartz vein108 31-39 120 12.00 EW N 80 3.77 Diss. and stockwork115 17-23 55 0.66 NE 10 NW 40-60 5.11 Quartz vein11 21-29 152 5.04 NE 60 NW 36 6.09 Quartz vein

No. 3 ore-rich sub-districtII 1-10 340 8.50 NE 70 NW 40 4.50 Diss. and stockwork9 9-23 190 0.80 NE 70 NW 47 9.50 Quartz vein9-1 5-25 270 0.80 NE 65 NW 45 9.60 Quartz vein9-2 9-25 190 1.15 NE 50 NW 50 8.03 Quartz vein9-3 11-15 60 0.65 NE 50 NW 50 4.50 Diss. and stockwork9-4 11-15 60 0.60 NE 50 NW 50 5.50 Diss. and stockwork

No. 4 ore-rich sub-districtM3 1-10 180 1.05 NE 50 NW 40 5.75 Quartz veinM4 1-6 130 0.75 NE 50 NW 40 6.80 Quartz veinM5 2-10 130 0.80 NE 60 NW 5 10.65 Diss. and stockworkM9 0-11 300 0.17 NE 55 NW 20-70 26.47 Quartz veinM10 12-3 335 0.40 NE 55 NW 20-70 8.75 Quartz veinM10-3 4-15 518 0.90 NE 55 NW 45-70 17.76 Quartz veinM12 2-8 130 0.20 EW N 17-27 48.98 Quartz veinM21 10-13 400 0.20 NE 40 NW 14-50 42.01 Quartz vein13-5 2-3 140 0.55 EW N 40-50 15.20 Quartz vein23-3 17-21 98 1.94 NE 60 NW 30 20.94 Quartz veinI8 1-8 270 0.70 NE 50 NW 40-50 7.65 Quartz veinI9 1-8 280 0.85 NE 60 NW 40-50 4.65 Quartz veinI10 0-6 210 0.65 EW N 25-35 10.25 Quartz veinIII 4-7 300 15.00 NE 40 NW 5-10 3.80 Diss. and stockwork

Abbreviations: diss. = disseminated.

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4.4. Galena

Galena is typically anhedral in shape; the grains are commonlyembayed with relict textures associated with the pyrite and sphalerite,which indicates that the galenahas beenmetasomatised. Galena is com-monly intergrown with tellurobismuthite and electrum, and is com-monly present in the third stage of mineralization (Kong et al., 2013).The average sulfur content is 13.41 wt.% and the average lead contentof the galena is 85.9 wt.% (Kong et al., 2013). Galena is one of themain hosts for silver, which is present as micro-inclusions of argentifer-ous material or replacing lead in the galena lattice (Zhu et al., 2005).

Fig. 4. Fe versus Zn plot for sphalerite from the Yu'erya gold deposit.

4.5. Tellurobismuthite

Tellurobismuthite is commonly anhedral, although relatively minoramounts of subhedral–euhedral grains are present. Tellurobismuthiteranges from 15–30 to 45–90 μm in grain size and is commonly presentin ash-grey quartz veins, mostly intergrown with galena and electrum(Stages 2 and 3) (Kong et al., 2013).

The average tellurium, bismuth, silver, and iron contents of thetellurobismuthite in Stage 2 are 47.44, 51.43, 0.38, and 0.44 wt.%,respectively and in Stage 3 are 47.46, 51.3, 0.61, and 0.14 wt.%, respec-tively (Kong et al., 2013). Compared with the Stage 2, the Stage 3tellurobismuthite has a descending trend of iron and bismuth contentsand a corresponding increasing trend of silver and tellurium (Konget al., 2013). The occurrence of tellurides indicates that magmatic orhypogenic material was involved in the mineralization (Chen et al.,2000; Xie et al., 2000).

4.6. Electrum

Electrum is typically subhedral to anhedral, with grain sizes rangingfrom 10–20 to 270–380 μm across. Electrum is present as inclusions inearly Stage 2 pyrite and late Stage 2 tellurobismuthite (Kong et al.,2013). The average silver content of electrum is 15.52 wt.%, and the av-erage gold content is 83.96 wt.%. The average gold fineness is 844, andelectrum in the tellurobismuthite has an average silver content of11.42 wt.% and gold content of 88.31 wt.% with a fineness of 885‰,which are enclosed by pyrite (Kong et al., 2013). Consequently, the

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gold content of the electrum enclosed by tellurobismuthite is higherthan the gold content of electrum enclosed by pyrite. Gold finenesshas some relationship with metallogenic temperatures and depth(Kou et al., 2010; Nie et al., 2003). The fineness of gold is between800‰ and 900‰, indicating that gold may have precipitated from hy-drothermalfluids atmiddle temperatures (100–300 °C; Nie et al., 2003).

5. Whole-rock geochemistry

Major and trace element data for representative samples of theYu'erya Granite are listed in Table 2 and plotted in Fig. 5.

5.1. Major elements

All the granitic samples from Yu'erya plot in the calc-alkalinefield on the total alkali–silica ‘TAS’ diagram of Middlemost (1994)(Fig. 5a). All of the samples plot in the field of granites havinghigh SiO2 (71.11–75.22 wt.%) and relatively low MgO (0.12–0.67 wt.%), Fe2O3 (0.01–0.78 wt.%), FeO (0.81–4.28 wt.%), and CaO(0.47–2.59 wt.%) contents. The Mg# (Mg / (Mg + Fe2+) atomicratio) ranges from 0.09 to 0.42 with a mean of 0.24. On the A/NK(molecular Al2O3 / (Na2O + K2O)) versus A/CNK (molecular Al2O3 /(CaO + Na2O + K2O)) diagram of Maniar and Piccoli (1989), theYu'erya granite is metaluminous to peraluminous with A/CNK valuesof 0.74 to 1.06 and an A/NK values of 1.03–1.32 (Fig. 5b). This indicatesthat the source of the Yu'erya Granite has the characteristics of thetypical I-type granites (Chappell and White, 2001). The σ values ofall the granites are b3.3, with a range from 1.91 to 2.62 (σ =(Na2O+K2O)2 / (SiO2-43) (wt.%), Table 2). These granites have parallelNa2O (3.4–5.27wt.%) and K2O (3.66–4.61wt.%) contents with relativelyuniform K2O/Na2O ratios of 0.69–1.26 with an average 1.01 (Table 2),

Table 2Major (wt.%) and trace element (ppm) compositions of granites associated with the Yu'erya go

Sample SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O

811G4 72.41 0.20 13.40 0.57 1.78 0.07 0.36 1.36 3.64815G16 71.11 0.20 14.06 0.31 1.95 0.08 0.51 2.15 3.88818G5 72.45 0.15 14.28 0.35 1.70 0.06 0.36 1.43 4.28814G1 73.22 0.13 13.36 0.16 1.68 0.05 0.67 1.36 3.40815G18 74.66 0.11 13.41 0.16 1.27 0.10 0.21 0.88 3.88Yu'erya 73.76 0.10 13.23 0.47 1.39 0.06 0.23 0.91 4.57Yu’erya 73.38 0.12 13.19 0.55 1.31 0.06 0.23 0.90 4.37Yu'erya 72.49 0.19 13.30 0.61 2.19 0.06 0.35 1.24 4.45Yu'erya 71.36 0.20 13.70 0.78 2.13 0.03 0.43 1.30 4.90Yu'erya 73.83 0.09 13.02 0.76 0.81 0.06 0.12 0.47 5.27YR-157 74.05 0.10 12.17 0.01 2.30 0.04 0.21 1.50 4.30YR-198 71.64 0.16 11.88 0.68 4.28 0.08 0.67 2.13 3.75YR-168 75.22 0.10 11.80 0.01 1.52 0.08 0.15 2.59 4.19YR-210 73.91 0.10 11.91 0.13 2.71 0.14 0.15 2.03 4.29

Sample La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho E

811G4 23.81 37.55 18.02 3.34 0.65 2.21 1.89 1815G16 26.81 42.16 23.58 4.00 0.85 3.12 2.75 1814G1 23.49 36.18 18.63 3.08 0.64 2.05 1.73 1815G18 19.02 34.79 18.91 3.61 0.48 2.78 2.87 1Yu'erya 15.99 38.57 3.80 14.00 2.85 0.48 2.32 0.41 2.27 0.47 1YR-157 18.50 38.00 4.20 14.30 2.30 0.34 1.60 0.28 1.70 0.34 1YR-198 23.10 44.50 5.00 17.00 2.90 0.45 2.20 0.26 2.30 0.47 1YR-168 14.00 30.50 3.50 13.20 2.50 0.24 2.10 0.35 2.10 0.42 1YR-210 15.40 34.80 4.20 15.60 3.00 0.24 2.50 0.42 2.80 0.59 2

Sample Rb Ba Sr As Sb Bi Hg Te Se Cu

811G4 137 592 259 1.50 0.40 0.25 0.01 0.03 0.12 34.20815G16 114 696 351 1.80 0.22 0.17 0.01 0.06 0.06 19.20814G1 91 580 200 1.60 0.34 0.14 0.02 0.01 0.02 9.60815G18 159 231 101 1.90 0.48 0.24 0.02 0.02 0.02 12.00

Abbreviations: LOI= loss on ignition; A/CNK=mole[Al2O3 / (CaO+Na2O+K2O)]; A/NK=momole[Mg2+ / (Mg2++Fe2+)]; K/Na=K2O / Na2O (wt.%); LREE=La+Ce+Pr+Nd+Sm+EHREE; (La/Yb)N= (La/0.237) / (Yb/0.170); δEu= (Eu)N / [(Gd)N+ (Sm)N]1/2; δCe= (Ce)N / [(La(1998); (4) = Zhang and Zhao (2000); (5) = Shen et al. (2001).

and the rocks with these compositions plot in the field of the high-Kcalc-alkaline series (Fig. 5c).

5.2. Trace element compositions

The chondrite-normalized rare earth element (REE) patternsfor the Yu'erya Granite are characterized by negatively sloping lightREE and relatively flat heavy REE patterns (Fig. 6), and they displaymoderate to weak negative Eu anomalies with an average δEu (δEu =(Eu)N / [(Gd)N + (Sm)N]1/2) of 0.53. The Yu'erya Granite samples have(La/Yb)N ratios of 3.68–12.21 (Table 2). All the samples arecharacterized by low total REE (TREE) contents of 73 to 107 ppm,and weak negative Ce anomalies (average δCe value of 0.95, δCe =(Ce)N / [(La)N + (Pr)N]1/2).

The sum of the element concentrations of As, Sb, Bi, Hg, Te, and Se inthe samples of Yu'erya Granite accounts for 2.13–2.68 ppm (Table 2),the siderophile elements (Co, Ni, Cr, and V) have relatively high assaysof 77–118 ppm, and the thiophile elements (Cu, Ag, Au, Zn and Hg)have relatively high assays of 41–68 ppm.

6. Geochronological constraints

The Yu'erya gold deposit and associated granite were dated by dif-ferent geochronological techniques, such as Rb–Sr, K–Ar, sensitivehigh-resolution ion-microprobe (SHRIMP) zircon U–Pb, and Sm–Nd(Table 3). However, whether or not the gold deposit has a genetic rela-tionship with the pluton remains a matter of debate.

With respect to the Yu'erya Granite, K–Ar ages of the biotites, wholerock samples, and feldspars are between 194 and 140 Ma (Kang et al.,1996; Mei, 1997), Rb–Sr ages of K-feldspar, plagioclase, and wholerock samples are between 188 and 152 Ma (Kang et al., 1996; Mei,

ld deposit.

K2O P2O5 LOI Total A/CNK A/NK σ Mg# K/Na Ref.

4.60 0.20 0.64 99.23 1.00 1.22 2.31 0.27 1.26 (1)4.20 0.15 1.29 99.89 0.95 1.29 2.32 0.32 1.08 (1)3.80 0.10 0.81 99.77 1.04 1.28 2.22 0.28 0.89 (1)4.20 0.10 1.01 99.34 1.06 1.32 1.91 0.42 1.24 (1)4.56 0.10 0.78 100.10 1.04 1.18 2.25 0.23 1.18 (1)4.12 98.84 0.97 1.10 2.46 0.23 0.90 (2)4.32 98.43 0.98 1.11 2.49 0.24 0.99 (2)4.13 0.05 99.06 0.95 1.13 2.50 0.22 0.93 (3)3.72 0.08 0.98 99.61 0.95 1.13 2.62 0.27 0.76 (4)3.66 0.03 0.84 98.96 0.96 1.03 2.59 0.21 0.69 (4)4.37 99.05 0.84 1.03 2.42 0.14 1.02 (5)4.61 99.88 0.79 1.06 2.44 0.22 1.23 (5)4.02 99.68 0.74 1.05 2.09 0.15 0.96 (5)4.06 99.43 0.79 1.04 2.26 0.09 0.95 (5)

r Tm Yb Lu Y TREE L/H (La/Yb)N δEu δCe

.21 1.40 0.25 12.13 90 11.97 12.21 0.69 0.82 (1)

.53 1.81 0.29 17.11 107 10.26 10.60 0.71 0.80 (1)

.14 1.46 0.26 11.90 89 12.37 11.54 0.74 0.80 (1)

.86 2.26 0.38 21.81 87 7.58 6.04 0.45 0.89 (1)

.43 0.26 1.28 0.31 14.96 84 8.65 8.96 0.55 1.17 (2)

.00 0.19 1.50 0.25 85 11.32 8.85 0.51 1.02 (5)

.40 0.24 1.70 0.29 102 10.49 9.75 0.52 0.97 (5)

.40 0.26 2.00 0.32 73 7.14 5.02 0.31 1.04 (5)

.00 0.39 3.00 0.48 85 6.01 3.68 0.26 1.04 (5)

Pb Zn Mo Cr Ni Co V Ti Ag Au

21 30 8.01 44 4.96 2.60 28 1313 3.50 0.00 (1)22 40 7.28 70 6.00 5.50 36 1592 1.00 0.00 (1)22 48 1.66 77 5.50 2.50 20 1074 3.50 0.00 (1)20 26 2.77 57 5.67 1.90 12 790 2.50 0.00 (1)

le[Al2O3 / (Na2O+K2O)]; σ=(Na2O+K2O)2 / (SiO2-43) (wt.%) (Rittmann, 1957);Mg#=u;HREE=Gd+Tb+Dy+Ho+Er+Tm+Yb+Lu; TREE=LREE+HREE; L/H=LREE/)N+ (Pr)N]1/2; Ref.= references; (1)= Zhang (2012); (2)=Mei (1997); (3)=Kang et al.

Fig. 5. Geochemical analyses of granites associated with the Yu'erya gold deposit showing: (a) Total alkali vs silica diagram of Middlemost (1994); (b) A/NK vs A/CNK diagram of Maniarand Piccoli (1989), and (c) K2O vs SiO2 diagram of Rollinson (1993).

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1997), Sm–Nd whole rock ages are between 208 and 188 Ma (Mei,1997), and SHRIMP U–Pb ages of zircons from the granite are between175 and 170 Ma (Luo et al., 2001). These ages span the whole of the Ju-rassic (208–140 Ma) period, but most ages center on the Early–MiddleJurassic (i.e. between 200 and 150 Ma).

The K–Ar age of muscovite from the alteration associated with min-eralization is 200 Ma, and the Rb–Sr age of sericite is 176 Ma (Mei,1997). In the auriferous quartz veins, Rb–Sr ages obtained from thequartz are 189 and 163 Ma (Mei, 1997). These ages represent themetallogenic age of the Yu'erya gold deposit between 200 and 163 Ma(i.e. Early–Middle Jurassic). These data indicate that the Yu'erya gold de-posit and the associated granite pluton have a very similar and consis-tent spectrum of ages. Since the orebodies are predominantly hostedby the pluton, we believe that mineralization was synchronous withthe pluton, and that the metallogenic fluids have a contribution from amagmatic source.

7. Sources of metallogenic fluids

7.1. Fluid inclusions

Fluid inclusions in auriferous quartz veins from Yu'erya are circular,oval, or tubular, and themaximumdiameter is less than 5 μm(Qiu et al.,1994). They can be divided into three types in terms of the phase com-positions at ambient temperature: gas phase inclusions (gas phase/

Fig. 6. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns for granites associated with the Yu'erya golddeposit.Normalizing values are from Sun and McDonough (1989).

liquid phase = 70–90%, vol./vol.), liquid phase inclusions (gas phase/liquid phase = 5–15%, vol./vol.), and multi-phase inclusions withdaughter-crystals of NaCl.

The gas phase components of the inclusions are primarily H2O, in ad-dition to CO and CO2. The CO/CO2 (vol.) ratios are 0.18–1.29, and b1 formost samples, indicating that the hydrothermal system was relativelyrich in CO2 (Qiu et al., 1994). In most fluid inclusions, cations in the liq-uid phase have K+/Na+ (weight) ratios of 0.17–4.22, Ca2+/Mg2+

(weight) ratios of 0.08–12.05, and K+/Na+ and Ca2+/Mg2+ ratios areN1 (indicating that the hydrothermal system was relatively rich in K+

and Ca2+) (Qiu et al., 1994). The anions are primarily HCO3− and SO4

2−,followed by F− and Cl−, and the F−/Cl− (weight) ratios are 0.06–0.39(i.e. distinctly b1), indicating that the hydrothermal fluid was rich in Cl(Qiu et al., 1994).

The fluid inclusions related to gold mineralization at Yu'erya arecommonly rich in liquid and have a low salinity between 2.07 and12.98 wt.% (Qiu et al., 1994). These inclusions record a homogenizationtemperature range of 395°–243 °C (Qiu et al., 1994), which correspondsto a pressure range of 111.4–30.4 MPa (Qiu et al., 1994). This indicatesthat the Yu'erya gold deposit is a mesothermal hydrothermal deposit(Chen, 2007).

The study of fluid inclusions (Qiu et al., 1994) indicates that theYu'erya gold deposit is a mesothermal deposit characterized by orefluids of low salinity that are relatively rich in H2O, CO2, K+, Ca2+, Cl,and S, and low salinity.

Table 3Magmatic and metallogenic dates for the Yu'erya Granite and gold deposits.

Sample details Analysis methods Age (Ma) Ref.

MagmaticLeucocratic granite Kf, Pl, WR, Rb–Sr Ave. 152 (1)Leucocratic granite Bi, K–Ar 175 (1)Pink-coloured granite Kf, Pl, WR, Rb–Sr Ave. 167 (1)Pink-coloured granite Bi, K–Ar 182, 194 (1)Granite WR, K–Ar 159, 140 (2)Granite Feldspar, K–Ar 169, 149 (2)Granite WR, Rb–Sr 187.3 (2)Granite WR, Sm–Nd 207.6, 188.9 (2)Leucocratic granite Zrn, SHRIMP U–Pb 175 ± 1 (3)Pink-coloured granite Zrn, SHRIMP U–Pb 174 ± 3 (3)

MetallogenicAlteration zone Mus, K–Ar 200.2 (2)Alteration zone Ser, Rb–Sr 176.8 (2)Auriferous Qtz vein Qtz, Rb–Sr 189, 163.8 (2)

Abbreviations: ave. = average; Bi = biotite; Kf = K-feldspar; Mus = muscovite; Pl =plagioclase; Qtz = quartz; Ser = sericite; WR = Whole rock; Zrn = zircon. (1) = Kanget al. (1996); (2) = Mei (1997); (3) = Luo et al. (2001).

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7.2. Stable isotopes

7.2.1. H–O isotopesOxygen and hydrogen isotope compositions for 22 quartz separates

from the Yu'erya deposit are plotted in Fig. 7a. The measured δ18Ovalues of quartz of gold-bearing ore veins from the Yu'erya deposit are9.8–13.7‰ (Chai, 1989; Kong et al., 2013; Qiu et al., 1994; Yu, 1995).Using the quartz–water fractionation equation of Clayton et al. (1972),and the temperatures calculated from the fluid inclusion data, the calcu-lated δ18OH2O values of the mineralizing fluids are 3.07–7.86‰ forYu'erya. The δD values for the water in the quartz samples fall withinranges of −72.1 to−88.6‰ for Yu'erya. In general, the δ18OH2O valuesfor the magmatic fluid range from 5.5 to 9.5‰, and the δD valuesrange from −80 to −40‰ (Hedenquist and Lowenstern, 1994;Sheppard, 1986). All of the oxygen and hydrogen isotope data forYu'erya cluster in or near the magmatic fluid field (Fig. 7a). These dataindicate that the hydrothermal fluids that formed the Yu'erya gold-bearingmineralized veinsweremainly derived from amagmatic source(Kong et al., 2013).

7.2.2. Sulfur isotopesSulfur isotope data for pyrite, chalcopyrite, and pyrrhotite from the

Yu'erya gold deposit are plotted in Fig. 7b (Chai, 1989; Kong et al.,2013; Qiu et al., 1994; Yu, 1995). Previous studies have shown thatthe granitic plutons near gold deposits in the NCC have positive δ34S

Fig. 7.Diagrams: (a) δD vs δ18OH2O plot showing theH–O isotope compositions of the ore-formiore veins from Yu'erya; (c, d) 207Pb/204Pb vs 206Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb vs 206Pb/204Pb plots shto the lead evolution models of Zartman and Doe (1981).

values. Sixty-one sulfide separates from the region have δ34S valuesvarying from 1 to 7‰, and cluster between 2.5 and 4.6‰ (Nie et al.,2004). These values are similar to sulfur with a magmatic source. Six-teen sulfide separates from Precambrian wall rocks are characterizedby negative sulfur isotope ratios with a minimum value of −20.2‰(Nie et al., 2004). Two sets of sulfur isotope values range from −20.2to−15.5‰ and−8.0 to−2.0‰ (Nie et al., 2004). Such depleted sulfurvalues are characteristic of sulfides that form by bacterial reduction ofsulfates under anoxic conditions in submarine sedimentary environ-ments (Nie et al., 2004).

As pyrite forms between 95 and 98% of the total sulfide content ofore at Yu'erya, the pyrite's S isotope composition basically representsthe total S composition of the hydrothermal system (Chai, 1989). Theδ34S values for 91 pyrite samples, 5 chalcopyrite samples, and 4 pyrrho-tite samples from Yu'erya are 1.0–5.7‰, 2.2–2.9‰, and 2.5–3.2‰, re-spectively (Fig. 7b). The positive sulfur isotope values of the Yu'eryadeposit indicates a component of magmatic mineralization.

7.2.3. Lead isotopesThe lead isotope compositions of 17 galena and 3 pyrite separates

from gold-bearing veins and 2 gold-bearing K-feldspar separates fromgranites associated with the Yu'erya gold deposit are plotted in Fig. 7c,d, (together with the growth curve of Zartman and Doe, 1981). Allof the galena, pyrite, and K-feldspar separates have a spread in206Pb/204Pb ratios ranging from 15.67 to 16.22 (except for the three

ng fluids at the Yu'erya deposit (after Taylor, 1974); (b) sulfur isotope data for gold-bearingowing the Pb isotope compositions of the Yu'erya gold deposit, and its evolution according

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largest values of 16.38, 16.41, and 16.80). The mineral separates alsohave relatively high 207Pb/204Pb ratios ranging from 15.02 to 15.24 (ex-cept for the one largest value of 15.50), and relatively high 208Pb/204Pbratios ranging from 35.41 to 36.20 (except for the two of the highestvalues of 37.76 and 39.27) (Chai, 1989; Qiu et al., 1994; Wang et al.,2008; Yu, 1995).

Most of these data for the sulfides from the deposits cluster in thefields of the mantle and lower crust on plots of 207Pb/204Pb versus206Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb versus 206Pb/204Pb, (Fig. 7c, d), and definea tight linear array (Fig. 7d). These Pb isotopedata indicate that themin-eralization originated from the mixing of mantle and lower crustalmaterial.

Fig. 8.Models: (a–d) evolution of the lithosphere in theNorth China Craton, and its constraints o(a) represents the Paleozoic (Ordovician) period when a thick lithosphere existed under the c(250–200 Ma) period during collisions between the Mongolia Block and North China Craton, aChina Craton. Note the N–S trending section of this diagram, whereas others are E–W trendiwhen the lithosphere was significantly thinned because of large-scale magmatism. Sketch (d) rof the lithosphere was N70 km during the Cenozoic, as indicated by alkali the presence of basaSketch (e) represents themagmatic activities and goldmineralizationmodel for the Yu'erya golgold mineralization at the Yu'erya gold deposit (modified after Zhang, 2012).

8. Discussion: constraints on the tectonic setting andmetallogenic model

The NCC was initially cratonized in the late Paleoproterozoic, andremained stable until the EarlyMesozoic duringwhich thickneritic clas-tic rocks and carbonates were deposited on the basement. Large-scaletectonic andmagmatic activity has taken place in the NCC since theMe-sozoic, especially in its eastern part, and these eventswere accompaniedby the deposition of substantial quantities of metallic minerals (Zhuet al., 2011, 2012).

The eruption of the diamond-bearing kimberlite in the east of theNCC during the early Paleozoic (ca. 480 Ma), and its entrained mantle

n the geodynamic setting of goldmineralization (modified after Yang et al., 2003). Diagramraton and extended into the diamond-stability field. Diagram (b) represents the Triassicnd between the North China and Yangtze Cratons thickened the lithosphere in the Northng sections. Diagram (c) represents the Jurassic–Early Cretaceous (200–100 Ma) periodepresents the period between the Middle Cretaceous and the present, when the thicknesslt units and their xenoliths. New lithosphere was accreted below remnants of the old keel.d deposit (modified after Nie et al., 2013). Diagram (f) represents amodel for the genesis of

Fig. 8 (continued).

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inclusions, indicate that the thickness of the lithosphere in the NCC was~200 km (Fig. 8a; Yang et al., 2003). During the period 480 to 330 Ma,the NCC was in a stage of weathering and denudation. The craton wasthe site of renewed deposition of marine and continental from 330 to250 Ma (Zhu et al., 2012). In the late Paleozoic (ca. 250 Ma), thePaleo-Asian Ocean to the north of the craton closed along theSolonker–Xar Moron–Changchun suture zone (Robinson et al., 1999;Wu et al., 2007, 2011; Zhang et al., 2009). This was followed by post-orogenic extension during 250 to 200 Ma (Ouyang et al., 2013). At thistime, the Mianlue Ocean closed when the Yangtze Craton to the southcollided and amalgamated with the NCC (Liu et al., 2013). All of theseevents impacted on the evolution of the NCC, and particularly along itsnorthern and southern margins (Fig. 8b).

Owing to the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate during the Meso-zoic (200–100 Ma), and the subduction and closure of the Mongolia–Okhotsk Ocean, a major transition took place in the tectonic setting ofthe NCC. This was when the Mesozoic N-S orientated convergencewas succeeded byWNW–ESE orientated intraplate deformation and ex-tension related to the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plat, which led tothe destruction of the eastern part of the NCC. The tectonic eventreached its peak at ~125 Ma in the Early Cretaceous (S.R. Li et al.,2013; Li et al., 2014; Ouyang et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2003; Zhu et al.,2012) (Fig. 8c). The important markers of the destruction of easternNCC include asthenospheric upwelling and lithospheric thinning, ac-companied by intense crust–mantle interactions, magmatic activities,and mineralization. From the Middle Cretaceous to the present time(i.e. ca. ≤100Ma), the ancient lithosphere that was preserved in easternNCC was only about 70 km thick, and underneath this, a new litho-sphere developed (Yang et al., 2003) (Fig. 8d).

Ouyang et al. (2013) proposed that Mesozoic mineralizationin northeast China and the neighbouring regions can be dividedinto five periods, namely: Triassic (240–205 Ma), Early–MiddleJurassic (190–165 Ma), Late Jurassic (155–145 Ma), Early Cretaceous(140–120 Ma), and late Early Cretaceous (115–100 Ma). The period240–205 Ma corresponds to the post-orogenic extensional setting thatfollowed the closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean. The 190–165 Ma periodcorresponds to subduction of the Mongolia–Okhotsk and the Paleo-Pacific oceans. The 155–145 Ma period was a time of post-orogenic ex-tension following the closure of the Mongolia–Okhotsk Ocean. The140–120 Ma period was a time of extension due to combined effectsof the closure of the Mongolia–Okhotsk Ocean and the subduction ofthe Paleo-Pacific Plate. Finally, during the period of 115–100 Ma,

lithospheric extension resulting from upwelling of asthenospheric ma-terial was succeeded by a compressional setting due to subduction ofthe Paleo-Pacific Ocean.

Mesozoic magmatism and gold mineralization at Yu'erya mainlytook place during 200–150 Ma. The Mesozoic gold mineralization atthe Yu'erya deposit is related to the subduction of the Mongolia–Okhotsk and Paleo-Pacific plates.

A summary of themodel (Fig. 8e, f) as it applies to theYu'erya depos-it must account for the following factors: (1) goldmineralization hostedby NE- and NNE-trending faults that cut the Yu'erya Granite; (2) thepresence of ore types associated with quartz veins, disseminated andstockwork ore, diorite dykes, and fracture zones; (3) ore fluids charac-terized by medium temperatures and low salinity; (4) H–O and Sisotope compositions that indicate the existence of fluids from a mag-matic source; (5) a mixed crust–mantle source for mineralization; and(6) the close temporal and spatial association of the goldmineralizationwith middle–late Mesozoic magmatism.

9. Conclusions

The Yu'erya gold deposit is associated with the Yu'erya Granite, andthe mineralization is controlled by NE- and NNE-trending faults. Thereare two concealed plutons (G2 and G3) near the Yu'erya Granite (G1).G2 hosts a reserve of 8 t of contained Au.

Gold at Yu'erya exists in the form of native gold and as inclusions inthe pyrite, sphalerite, galena, quartz, and tellurobismuthite. Four stagesof mineralization can be recognized, and the gold mineralization tookplace mainly in the second and third stages.

The hydrothermal fluids associated with the Yu'erya gold depositwere at mesothermal, included H2O, CO2, K+, Ca2+, Cl, and S. H–Oisotopes indicate that the mineralizing fluid had a magmacomponent.

Pyrite, chalcopyrite, and pyrrhotite in the Yu'erya gold deposithave δ34S values of 1.0–5.7‰. The 206Pb/204Pb ratio in pyrite and ga-lena separates from Yu'erya center on 15.67–16.22. These values aresuggestive of the mineralization originated from mantle and lowercrustal sources.

Mesozoic magmatism and gold mineralization at Yu'erya main-ly took place during 200–150Ma. The gold mineralization is relatedto the subduction of the Mongolia–Okhotsk and Paleo-Pacificoceans.

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Acknowledgements

This study was financially supported by the Major State Basic Re-search Programof China (No. 2013CB429805), and the National NaturalScience Foundation of China (No. 41030421). We also acknowledge theAustralian Research Council (ARC) Linkage Project LP110100667 andthe ARC Centre of Excellence for Core to Crust Fluid Systems (CCFS).The constructive comments from Qingdong Zeng and Yongfeng Zhuhave significantly improved this manuscript. Finally, we would like tothank Peter C. Lightfoot and Xueming Yang for their excellent and pro-fessional revision of this manuscript.

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