GEOG 101: Day 10 Biodiversity and Conservation Biology
Slide 2
Housekeeping Items I will collect your outlines Any thoughts
about the field trip? A number of communities in BC have passed
resolutions banning GM foods. These are largely symbolic, but one
food activist in Vancouver would like to go further. Worldbridger
is showing the Clean Bin Project tonight at 7 p.m. in 356, Room
109. If you want a chance to influence the timing of Solutions
meetings, go to http://doodle.com/bxcpxxin6t8fk43m
http://doodle.com/bxcpxxin6t8fk43m We didnt get a chance to talk
about the slow food movement. On the theme of food, heres a funny
cartoon: www.cartoonistgroup.com/store/add.php?iid=115522.
www.cartoonistgroup.com/store/add.php?iid=115522
Slide 3
Housekeeping Items Community events for October 2 - October 5:
All week: My Green VIU hosted by VIU Environment and
Sustainability, a contest to demonstrate how you conserve energy on
campus. Check it out here:
http://sites.viu.ca/sustainability/sustainabili
ty-2014/1368-2http://sites.viu.ca/sustainability/sustainabili
ty-2014/1368-2 Oct 2 - 4 Zero Waste Conference Learn more here:
http://www.zerowastecanada.ca/zero-waste-
canada-conference-zwia14http://www.zerowastecanada.ca/zero-waste-
canada-conference-zwia14 We didnt get a chance to talk about the
slow food movement. On the theme of food, heres a funny cartoon:
www.cartoonistgroup.com/store/add.php?iid=115522.
www.cartoonistgroup.com/store/add.php?iid=115522
Slide 4
Housekeeping Items You are also invited to the Virtual
Classroom with David Suzuki and Friends next Monday, October 6 from
8:30-10 am in the Royal Arbutus Room above the upper cafeteria.
This is a FREE event, but due to limited space please indicate your
interest to [email protected]@viu.ca The event is
described as follows: VIU is taking part in the Hungry for Change
conversation event being put on by the National Film Board, David
Suzuki Foundation and Humber College. The discussion is around the
intersection of food and environmental justice. David Suzuki, food
justice expert Utcha Sawyers and J.B. MacKinnon, author of The Once
and Future World and co-author of The 100-Mile Diet, will lead the
conversation about the impacts of modern food systems and farming
practices on our health, land and food security. The event will
also feature a special performance by poet Tanya Davis. For more
details please see the following event link:
http://sites.viu.ca/sustainability/hungry-for-change-a-canada-wide-
conversation
http://sites.viu.ca/sustainability/hungry-for-change-a-canada-wide-
conversation
Slide 5
NewsNews / CanadaCanada Researcher warns of looming
'catastrophe' for St. Lawrence beluga population The latest figures
come amid a debate over whether to allow exploratory drilling off
shore of Cacouna, Que., near the breeding ground at the mouth of
the St. Lawrence. October 1st, Toronto Star
Slide 6
JACQUES BOISSINOT / THE CANADIAN PRESS By: Benjamin Shingler
The Canadian Press, Published on Sun Sep 28 2014 MONTREALA
researcher monitoring belugas in the St. Lawrence estuary is
warning of a looming "catastrophe" after another difficult calving
season for the endangered whale. The belugas have been in a slow
population decline for the past decade, according to Robert
Michaud, the scientific director of Quebec's Marine Mammals
Research and Education Group. His team has found the carcasses of
at least five baby belugas so far during the calving period, which
officially ends on Oct. 15. The number of dead beluga calves
turning up on the shore has been unusually high since 2008, Michaud
said. "It's a catastrophic trajectory we're observing, and we don't
yet know exactly what are the causes for that," he said. "The only
way this population can reverse its trajectory would be to increase
the survival rate and the birth rate, and what we've been observing
for the last years is totally the opposite.
Slide 7
Upon successfully completing this chapter, you will be able to
Characterize the scope and value of biodiversity on Earth Describe
ways to measure biodiversity Evaluate the primary causes of
biodiversity loss Specify the benefits and challenges of conserving
habitat and the role of habitat fragmentation Contrast in situ and
ex situ conservation approaches Compare and contrast traditional
and innovative conservation efforts Outline reasons for setting
aside parks, reserves, and other protected areas 9-7
Slide 8
9-8
Slide 9
Central Case: Saving the Polar Bear: What Will it Take? There
will be no polar ice by 2060. Somewhere along that path, the polar
bear drops out. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in
Canada (COSEWIC) for political reasons the polar bear was not be
listed as a threatened species, though in the U.S. they are Polar
bears are coming into contact and interbreeding with other types of
bears Polar bears are appearing more frequently in human
settlements Traditional Inuit hunting practices are being affected
by the loss of sea ice, a process for which they are not
responsible What will it take to save the polar bear? 9-9
Slide 10
Our Planet of Life 9-10
Slide 11
Biodiversity encompasses several levels Biodiversity = sum
total of all organisms in an area at whatever scale, including
Ecosystem diversity Species diversity Genetic diversity 9-11
Slide 12
Biodiversity encompasses several levels (contd) Species
Diversity = the number or variety of species in the world or in a
particular region Species richness = the number of species Evenness
or relative abundance = extent to which numbers of individuals of
different species are equal or skewed Speciation generates new
species and adds to species richness Extinction reduces species
richness 9-12
Slide 13
Biodiversity encompasses several levels (contd) Species
Diversity Immigration is the inmigration of a species to an area
Emigration is the outmigration of a species from an area
Extirpation is the local extinction of a species 9-13
Slide 14
Biodiversity encompasses several levels (contd) Genetic
Diversity All species consist of individuals that vary genetically
from one another to some degree (this is as much true for humans as
it is for other species) Encompasses the varieties in DNA among
individuals within species and populations The raw material for
adaptation to local conditions, though some species can adapt much
more quickly (such as the peppered moth) 9-14
Slide 15
Peppered Moth
Slide 16
Biodiversity encompasses several levels (contd) Genetic
Diversity Populations with low genetic diversity are vulnerable
Inbreeding depression = genetically similar parents mate and
produce inferior offspring (e.g. certain offspring of overly inbred
royal families or of hillbillies) Genetic bottleneck = limited
variety of genetic material is available to be passed along by the
small number of surviving individuals to their descendants
9-16
Slide 17
Biodiversity encompasses several levels (contd) Ecosystem
diversity = the number and variety of ecosystems Also encompasses
differing communities and habitats Rapid vegetation change and
varying landscapes within an ecosystem promote higher levels of
biodiversity Ecotones = where different types of habitats or biomes
intermix 9-17
Slide 18
Some groups hold more species than others Insects predominate
over all other life-forms hence a lack of evenness 40% of all
insects are beetles (yeah, yeah, yeah!) Groups accumulate species
by Adaptive radiation Allopatric speciation (from isolation) Low
rates of extinction 9-18
Slide 19
Insects outnumber all other species 9-19 Mammals= 2.7 -03
%
Slide 20
Measuring biodiversity is not easy Precise quantitative
measurements are difficult About 1.8 million species but likely
higher Incomplete for several reasons Some areas of Earth little
explored (new species being discovered all the time in Australia)
Many species are tiny and overlooked Many organisms are difficult
to identify 9-20
Slide 21
Biodiversity is unevenly distributed on the planet Latitudinal
gradient = species richness increases towards the equator Plant
productivity and climate stability play key roles 9-21
Slide 22
Latitudinal gradient has many causes 9-22
Slide 23
Biodiversity Loss and Species Extinction 9-23
Slide 24
Biodiversity loss and species extinction Canadian Species at
Risk Act uses categorizes: Extinction = occurs when the last member
of a species dies and the species ceases to exist Extirpation = the
disappearance of a particular population from a given area, but not
the entire species globally Endangered = species in imminent danger
of becoming extirpated or extinct Threatened = species likely to
become endangered in the near future 9-24
Slide 25
Extinction and extirpation occur naturally Paleontologists
estimate that 99% of all species that ever lived are now extinct
Background rate of extinction = natural extinctions for a variety
of reasons 1 species out of 1,000 mammal and marine species would
normally go extinct every 1,000 to 10,000 years or 1 in a 1000
would typically go extinct every year 9-25
Slide 26
Extinction and extirpation occur naturally (contd) Earth has
experienced five previous mass extinction episodes In the past 440
million years, mass extinctions have eliminated at least 50% of all
species Todays mass extinction is caused by humans and humans will
suffer as a result of it 9-26
Slide 27
Some species are more vulnerable to extinction than others In
general, extinction occurs when environmental conditions change so
severely that a species cannot adapt to the change. What kinds of
changes are occurring today that fall into this category?
Vulnerable = species that are of particular concern because of
characteristics that make them particularly sensitive to human
activities or natural events. What are some species we can consider
vulnerable, and due to what? . 9-27
Slide 28
Humans have started the sixth mass extinction Extinctions
followed human arrival on islands and continents 9-28
Slide 29
Humans have started the sixth mass extinction (contd) Global
extinction rate is currently 100 to 1000 times greater than
background rate The Red List = an updated list of species facing
high risks of extinctions at least 23% of mammal species 12% of
bird species 17% to 75% of all other species Extinction is only
part of the story of biodiversity loss, the larger part of the
story is decline in population sizes 9-29
Slide 30
Endangered Species
Slide 31
Humans have started the sixth mass extinction (contd) The
Living Planet Index quantifies biological degradation Between 1970
and 2007, the Index fell by 30% 9-31
Slide 32
There are several major causes of biodiversity loss Reasons for
biodiversity losses are multifaceted and factors may interact
synergistically Causes of population decline: Habitat alteration
Invasive species Pollution, including pesticides Overharvesting
Climate change 9-32
Slide 33
There are several major causes of biodiversity loss (contd)
Habitat alteration The greatest cause of biodiversity loss E.g.,
farming simplifies communities Grazing modifies the grassland
structure and species composition Clearing forests removes
resources organisms need Hydroelectric dams turn rivers into
reservoirs upstream Urbanization and suburban sprawl reduce natural
communities A few species (i.e., pigeons, rats) benefit from
changing habitats 9-33
Slide 34
Slide 35
There are several major causes of biodiversity loss (contd)
Invasive species Introduction of non-native species to new
environments Accidental: zebra mussels Deliberate: food crops
Island species are especially vulnerable Invaders have no natural
predators, competitors, or parasites Cost billions of dollars in
economic damage What are some West Coast invasives? 9-35
Slide 36
Invasive species
Slide 37
Several major causes of biodiversity loss (contd) Pollution
Harms organisms in many ways Air pollution degrades forest
ecosystems Water pollution adversely affects fish and amphibians
Agricultural runoff harms terrestrial and aquatic species The
effects of oil and chemical spills on wildlife are dramatic and
well known 9-37
Slide 38
Slide 39
Several major causes of biodiversity loss (contd)
Overharvesting Vulnerable species are large, few in number,
long-lived, and have few young ( K-selected species ) The Siberian
tiger (The 1989 political freedom in Soviet Union brought the
freedom to hunt and poach) Atlantic gray whale has gone extinct
Thousands of sharks killed just for fins Gorillas killed for their
meat 9-39
Slide 40
Slide 41
Several major causes of biodiversity loss (contd) Climate
change Global impact on habitat and biodiversity Greenhouse gases
modifies global weather patterns and increases the frequency of
extreme weather events Increases stress on populations and forces
organisms to shift their geographic ranges Most animals and plants
will not be able to cope 9-41
Slide 42
Over 2500 amphibian species worldwide are in decline Some may
be lost before they are even discovered Amphibians are regarded as
biological indicators (canary in the coalmine analogy) Habitat
loss, especially draining of wetlands, is the leading threat to
amphibians in Canada Pollution, fragmentation are also problems
9-42
Slide 43
Benefits of Biodiversity 9-43
Slide 44
Biodiversity provides ecosystem services Provides food, fuel,
and fibre Provides shelter and building materials Purifies air and
water Detoxifies and decomposes wastes Stabilizes and moderates
Earths climate Moderates floods, droughts, wind, and temperature
extremes Generates and renews soil fertility and cycles nutrients
Pollinates plants, including many crops Controls pests and diseases
Maintains genetic resources as inputs to crop varieties, livestock
breeds, and medicines Provides cultural and aesthetic benefits
Gives us the means to adapt to change The annual value of just 17
ecosystem services = $16 to 54 trillion per year 9-44 FREE!!
Slide 45
Biodiversity helps maintain ecosystem integrity Biodiversity
increases the stability and resilience of communities and
ecosystems (like rivets in airplane) Decreased biodiversity reduces
a natural systems ability to function and provide services to our
society The loss of a species affects ecosystems differently If the
species can be functionally replaced by others, it may make little
difference Extinction of a keystone species may cause other species
to decline or disappear Precautionary principle : To keep every cog
and wheel is the first precaution of intelligent tinkering (Aldo
Leopold) 9-45
Slide 46
Biodiversity enhances food security Genetic diversity within
crops is enormously valuable Californias barley crops annually
receive $160 million in disease resistance benefits from Ethiopian
strains of barley Wild strains provide disease resistance and have
the ability to grow back year after year without being replanted
New potential food crops are waiting to be used Serendipity berry
produces a sweetener 3,000 times sweeter than sugar 9-46
Slide 47
Biodiversity provides drugs and medicines Each year
pharmaceutical products owing their origin to wild species generate
up to $150 billion in sales 9-47
Slide 48
How Best to Conserve Biodiversity? Most people view national
parks and ecotourism as excellent ways to help keep ecological
systems intact. Yet the golden toad went extinct despite living
within a reserve established to protect it. Moreover, climate
change does not pay attention to park boundaries. What lesson can
we learn from this about the conservation of biodiversity? weighing
the issues 9-48
Slide 49
Biodiversity provides additional economic benefits Ecotourism
is particularly beneficial in developing and developed countries
alike Costa Rica: rainforests Australia: Great Barrier Reef Belize:
reefs, caves, and rainforests Incentive to preserve natural areas
and reduce impacts on the landscape and on native species However,
too many visitors can degrade the outdoor experience and disturb
wildlife 9-49
Slide 50
People value and seek out connections with nature Biophilia =
connections that humans subconsciously seek with life Our affinity
for parks and wildlife Keeping of pets High value of real estate
with views of natural lands Nature deficit disorder = alienation
from the natural environment May be behind some of the emotional
and physical problems of the young 9-50 See Biophilic Design in the
VIU Library
Slide 51
Housekeeping Items for Day 11 Did anyone go see The Clean Bin
Project? I saw a similar film at the VIFF: Just Eat It, a film made
by a Vancouver couple about their 6-month experiment to se if they
could live on food other people had thrown out. They managed to
only spend $200.00 on groceries, and salvaged $20,000 worth of food
that otherwise would have gone to the landfill and it all was
perfectly good!
Slide 52
Housekeeping Items for Day 11 Interspersed with their
experience was some more general analysis of food waste. From
production to wholesale distribution to retail to households,
30-50% of all food is wasted. In U.S. 97% of all waste food is
landfilled, thus producing methane, a potent greenhouse gas The
energy used to produce waste food is equivalent to 4% of the entire
energy budget of the U.S.; water used could provide for half a
billion people. Every hamburger patty uses the equivalent of a 90
minute shower.
Slide 53
Housekeeping Items for Day 11 Did anyone go to the Virtual
Classroom on Food Issues with David Suzuki on Monday? Apparently
our class was the only one to challenge another. Shelley put
posters on the door of Room 111, and for the first time in several
years the room was black when I went by after my last class.
Scholarpedia is a good alternative to Wikipedia:
www.scholarpedia.org.www.scholarpedia.org I would like to finish
the conservation lecture today.
Slide 54
Approaches to Conservation 9-54
Slide 55
Conservation biology addresses habitat degradation and species
loss Conservation biology = understanding the factors, forces, and
processes that influence the loss and protection, and restoration
of biological diversity Conservation biologists choose questions
and pursue research with the aim of developing solutions to the
problems of habitat degradation and species loss Applied and
goal-oriented science, with implicit values and ethical standards
Thus, both descriptive and normative. 9-55
Slide 56
Conservation biology arose in response to biodiversity loss
9-56
Slide 57
Conservation biology addresses habitat degradation and species
loss (contd) Uses field data, lab data, theory, and experiments to
study impacts of humans on other organisms Designs, tests, and
implements ways to mitigate impacts Minimum viable population = how
small a population can become before it runs into problems
Organisms distributed as a network of subpopulations Small
populations are most vulnerable to extinction and need special
attention (also applies to indigenous and small ethnic groups in
terms of their culture) 9-57
Slide 58
Island biogeography can help address habitat fragmentation
Equilibrium theory of island biogeography = explains how species
come to be distributed among oceanic islands Also applies to
habitat islands patches of one habitat type isolated within a sea
of others (need to link cores with corridors) Explains how the
number of species on an island results from an equilibrium between
immigration and extirpation Predicts an islands species richness
based on the islands size and distance from the mainland 9-58
Slide 59
Species richness results from island size and distance Fewer
species colonize an island far from the mainland Large islands have
higher immigration rates Large islands have lower extinction rates
9-59 Island biogeography can help address habitat fragmentation
(contd)
Slide 60
Species-area curves Large islands contain more species than
small islands They are easier to find and have lower extinction
rates They possess more habitats 9-60
Slide 61
Island biogeography can help address habitat fragmentation
(contd) Habitat fragmentation Forests are fragmented by roads and
logging (and agriculture) Small forest fragments lose diversity
fastest Starting with large species Fragmentation is one of the
prime threats to biodiversity 9-61
Slide 62
Captive breeding and cloning are single-species approaches
Captive breeding individuals are bred and raised with the intent of
reintroducing them into the wild Zoos and botanical gardens Some
reintroductions require international cooperation Whooping cranes
in Wood Buffalo Park (Canada) and Gulf coast of Texas (U.S.) wolves
into Yellowstone Park http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ysa5OBhXz-Q
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ysa5OBhXz-Q Some habitat is so
fragmented, a species cannot survive once reintroduced 9-62
Slide 63
Captive breeding and cloning are single-species approaches
(contd) Cloning a technique to create more individuals and save
species from extinction Most biologists agree that these efforts
are not adequate to recreate the lost biodiversity Even if cloning
can succeed, ample habitat and protection in the wild are needed to
save species Also: recreating the mastodon of old would be little
more than a scientific curiousity 9-63
Slide 64
Some species act as umbrellas to protect communities
Conservation biologists use particular umbrella species (e.g.
tigers, bears, and elephants) as tools to conserve communities and
ecosystems helps protect less-charismatic animals Flagship species
large and charismatic species used as spearheads for biodiversity
conservation The World Wildlife Funds panda bear or Central Coasts
spirit bear; two concepts overlap Some organizations are moving
beyond the single species approach to focus on whole landscapes
9-64
Slide 65
This or this.? Which is sexier?
Slide 66
Conservation efforts are both national and international 2002:
Species at Risk Act stresses cooperation with landowners and
governments to avoid hostility Some say SARA is too weak COSEWIC
(Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada) = expert
committee that reports the status of species at risk without
executive authority 1973: UN Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) protects
endangered species by banning international transport of their body
parts (e.g. ivory) 9-66
Slide 67
Hot spots highlight areas of high biodiversity Biodiversity
hotspots prioritizes regions most important globally for
biodiversity Support a great number of endemic species = species
found nowhere else in the world The area must have at least 1500
endemic plant species (0.5% of the world total) It must have lost
70% of its habitat due to human impact 9-67
Slide 68
There are 34 global biodiversity hotspots 2.3% of the planets
land surface contains 50% of the worlds plant species and 42% of
all terrestrial vertebrate species 9-68 Hot spots highlight areas
of high biodiversity (contd)
Slide 69
Community- based conservation is increasingly popular
Community-based conservation = conservation biologists actively
engage local people in protecting land and wildlife Protecting land
deprives people access to resources Community-based conservation
gives people a stake in protection vs. poaching, etc. Can guarantee
that these resources will not be used up or sold to foreign
corporations and can instead be sustainably managed
(http://www.ted.com/talks/john_kasaona_from
_poachers_to_caretakers?language=en#).http://www.ted.com/talks/john_kasaona_from
_poachers_to_caretakers?language=en# 9-69
Slide 70
Other innovative economic strategies are also being employed
Debt-for-nature swap = a conservation organization pays off a
portion of a developing countrys international debt In exchange for
a promise by the country to set aside reserves Fund environmental
education, and Better manage protected areas Conservation
concession = conservation organizations pay nations to conserve,
and not sell, resources; interesting example in Ecuador that
ultimately failed 9-70
Slide 71
Parks and Reserves 9-71
Slide 72
Why do we create parks and reserves? Enormous, beautiful, or
unusual features inspire people to protect them monumentalism
Protected areas offer recreational value to tourists, hikers,
fishers, hunters, and others Protected areas offer utilitarian
benefits and ecosystem services (e.g., preserving water quality)
Parks make use of sites lacking economically valuable material
resources or that are hard to develop (rock and ice?) However, some
countries allow resource exploration or extraction within parks
9-72
Slide 73
Why do we create parks and reserves (contd) ? There are 43
national parks in Canada Many sites in a parks system also serve as
wildlife refuges Some find hunting in parks objectionable or
hunting for rare species objectionable (recent controversy over man
in Texas who bid 100s of 1000s of dollars to shoot a black rhino;
similar cases in BC) Hunters often in forefront of conservation
(e.g., Ducks Unlimited Canada) There are two kinds of hunting for
food and for trophies. Do you think hunting is acceptable under
some/ any circumstances? 9-73
Slide 74
Why do we create parks and reserves (contd) ? Not everyone
supports land set-asides Wise-use movement dedicated to protecting
private property rights; opposing government regulation;
transferring federal lands to state, local, or private hands;
promoting motorized recreation on public lands Farmers, ranchers,
trappers, mineral prospectors, as well as groups representing
industries that extract timber, mineral, and fossil fuels.
9-74
Slide 75
Parks and reserves are increasing internationally Many nations
have established national park systems and are benefiting from
ecotourism Parks in developing countries do not always receive the
funding, legal support, or enforcement support they need to manage
resources Many of the worlds protected areas are merely paper parks
Costa Rican parks initially received little funding, but the
country has a high proportion of land in reserves 9-75
Slide 76
Costa Rican Protected Areas
Slide 77
Parks and reserves are increasing internationally (contd) World
Heritage Sites under national sovereignty but are designated or
partly managed internationally by the United Nations (no binding
protection) Biosphere reserves tracts of land with exceptional
biodiversity that couple preservation with sustainable development
to benefit local people (two on Vancouver Island Clayoquot and
Mount Arrowsmith) Core area Buffer zone Outer transitional one
9-77
Slide 78
Slide 79
Conclusion Loss of biodiversity threatens to result in a mass
extinction Primary causes of biodiversity loss are: Habitat
alteration, invasive species, pollution, overharvesting of biotic
resources, and climate change Human society cannot function without
biodiversitys pragmatic benefits Science can help save species,
preserve habitats, restore populations, and keep natural ecosystems
intact, but more fundamental changes are also needed. 9-79