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Higher Education in India:
Issues and Concerns
By
Puneet Ratnam
Amity global business schoolEnroll-9147
Specl.I.B.
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Table : Number of Institutions
C: Higher Education InstitutionsType of Institutions Numbers
I. Universities
1. Central Universities 18
2. State Universities 275
3. Institutions established under States
Legislature Act
5
4. Institution deemed to be University 96
5. Institutions of National Importance 13
6. Research Institutes 136
Total 543
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Typology of Higher Education Institutions
(2004-2005)
Type Ownership Financing No. of
Institutions
No. of
students
Univ. under the Govt. Public Public 239 1,00,000
Private Universities Private Private 11 10,000
Deemed Universities
(aided)
Private or
Public
Public 38 40,000
Deemed Universities
(unaided)
Private Private 72 60,000
Colleges under the
Government
Public Public 4225 2,750,000
Private Colleges (aided) Private Public 5750 3,450,000
2750000Private Colleges
(unaided)
Private Private 7650 3,150,000
Foreign Institutions Private Private 150 8,000
Total 18123 10,468,000
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Table 5: Public Expenditures on Higher Education
Year Expenditure
on Edn. as %
of GDP
Expenditure on
Higher Edn.as % of
Expenditure on Edn
Expenditure on
Higher Edn as
% of GDP
1981-1990 3.59 15.6 0.34
1991-2000 3.77 19.3 0.72
2001-02 3.82 17.9 0.69
2002-03 3.80 18.5 0.70
2003-04 3.50 17.8 0.62
2004-05 (RE) 3.68 18.0 0.66
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Students Enrolment by Academic
Discipline (2002-2003)S.
No.
Faculty Enrolment %age of
Total
1. Arts 41,58,606 45.07
2. Science 18,34,493 19.88
3. Commerce/Management 16,60,238 17.99
4. Education 1,32,572 1.43
5. Engineering/Technology 6,92,087 7.50
6. Medicine 3,00,669 3.25
7. Agriculture 55,367 0.60
8. Veterinary Science 14,765 0.16
9. Law 2,98,291 3.23
10. Others 80,745 0.88
Total 92,27,833 100.00
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Table 1 : Enrolment Rate 2004-05
Rural, Urban 2004-05
Total 10.84
Rural 6.74
Urban 19.88
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10.8
6.7
19.88
0
10
0
otal Rural Urban
ER for Graduate and above 2004-05
(Rural & Urban)
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Enrolment Rate
Male, Female - 2004-05
Male 12.42
Female 9.11
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ER-Social Groups 2004-05
Social Groups Total
ST 6.57
SC 6.52
OBC 8.77
Others 17.22
Total 10.84
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777
17
1
1
1
T T l
ER- Social Groups - 2004-05
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Table : GER by Income Level
2004-05
Income Level Total
Less than 359.1 1.46
359.11 to 461.14 3.37
461.17 to 587.33 4.88
587.38 to 830.44 9.81More than 830.5 27.43
Total 10.84
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University Grants Commission (UGC)The UGC Act, 1956, Ministry of HRD
www.ugc.ac.in
Statutory
Mandate
Coordination and determination of standards
in higher education and research in the
country
Primary
Function
Release of grants to universities and colleges
Other
Functions
Recognition of Universities and colleges
(including eligibility for central grants)specification of degrees; Minimum standards
of instruction, common pay scales, common
facilities and institutional accreditation through
NAAC
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Distance Education Council (DEC)Sec. 25 of IGNOU Act, 1985, Ministry of HRD
www.ignou.ac.in/dec/
Statutory
Mandate
Promotion, coordination and
determination of standards of the
open universities and distanceeducation systems in the country.
Primary
Function
Release of grants to open
universities and correspondence
course institutesOther
Functions
Initiated assessment and
accreditation activities
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All India Council for Technical Education
(AICTE) AICTE Act, 1987, Ministry of HRD,
www.aicte.ernet.in
Statutory
Mandate
Planning and coordinated
development of technical
education in the countryPrimary
Function
Approval of degree and diploma
programs in engineering,
architecture, pharmacy and hotel
managementOther
Functions
Funding for institutional and
faculty development, pay scales
and qualifications of teachers
accreditation through NAAC
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Medical Council of India (MCI)MCI Act, 1953, Ministry of Health,
www.mciindia.org
Statutory
Mandate
To establish standards in medical
education and to define medical
qualifications in India and abroadPrimary
Function
Registration of medical
practioners and recognition of
medical institutions
OtherFunctions
Eligibility criteria for admissions;exam. for recognition of foreign
qualifications for practice in India.
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The Council ofArchitecture (COA)The Architects Act, 1972,
Ministry of Urban Development, www.coa-india.org
Statutory
Mandate
Regulate profession and practice of
architects and town planners in India
PrimaryFunction
Registration of architects, maintainingstandards of education, recognized
qualifications and standards of practice
Other
Functions
Maintaining the register of architects and
make recommendations with regard torecognition and de-recognition of a
qualification.
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Indian Nursing Council (INC)The INC Act, 1947,
Ministry of Health, www.mohfw.nic.in
Statutory
Mandate
Uniform standards of training
for Nurses
PrimaryFunction
Accepts qualificationsawarded by universities within
and outside India
OtherFunctions
Collection and compilation ofdata relating to nurses,
midwives, health visitors.
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Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI)RCI Act, 1992,
Ministry ofS
ocial Justice, www.rehacouncil.nic.inStatutory
Mandate
Standardize and regulate the
training of personnel and
professions in the field of
rehabilitation and specialeducation.
Primary
Function
Recognition of institutions for
physiotherapy and related fields.
Other
Functions
Registration of professionals,
assessment and accreditations;
promotion of barrier free
environment.
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National Council For Teacher Education
(NCTE)NCTE Act, 1993,
www.ncte-in.org
Statutory
Mandate
Planned and Coordinated
development of the teacher
education in the country.Primary
Function
Recognition of teacher education
institutions.
OtherFunctions Lay down norms and standards
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Indian Council for Agricultural Research
(ICAR)Not a statutory body, Ministry of
Agriculture, www.icar.org.in
Statutory
Mandate
Coordinate agricultural
research and education
PrimaryFunction
Coordinate and fundagricultural education and
research in 30 state and 1
central and several deemed
universities for agriculture.Other
Functions
Accredit agriculture universities,
hold joint admission tests.
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Bar Council of India (BCI)The Advocates Act, 1962, Ministry of Law
www.barcouncilofindia.nic.in
Statutory
Mandate
Lay down standards of professional
conduct and standards of legal
education.Primary
Function
Lay down standards of professional
conduct and standards of legal
education.
Other
Functions
Listing of members of bar; listing of
foreign universities whose
qualifications are approved in India.
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Quality and QualityAssessment
In order to evaluate performance of aninstitution and bring about a measure ofaccountability a mechanism of accreditation has
been developed by UGC.T
his is anautonomous council under UGC called NationalAccreditation and Assessment Council (NAAC)with a purpose to carry out periodic assessmentof universities and colleges. NAAC has evolved
a methodology of assessment which involvesself-appraisal by each university/college and anassessment of the performance by an expertcommittee.
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Contd.
Similarly, for technical education, AICTE
has established its own accreditation
mechanism for its institutions through
the National Board of Accreditation
(NBA).
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NAAC
NAAC has identified the following sevencriteria to serve as the basis of assessmentprocedures:
Curricular Aspects Teaching-learning and Evaluation
Research, Consultancy and Extension
Infrastructure and Learning Resources
Student Support and Progression Governance and Leadership
Innovative practice
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Higher Education : Some Concerns
India has significant advantages in the 21stcentury knowledge race:
It has a large higher education sector the
third largest in the world in student numbers,after China and the United States.
It uses English as a primary language of
higher education and research.
It has a long academic tradition. Academicfreedom is respected.
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Large under-funded Institutions
Large, under-funded, ungovernableinstitutions
Politics has intruded into campus life,influencing academic appointments anddecisions across levels.
Under-investment in libraries, informationtechnology, laboratories, and classrooms
difficult to provide top-quality instruction or
engage in cutting-edge research.
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Faculty Concerns
Freeze on new appointments Affects morale in the academic profession. Lack of accountability means that teaching
and research performance is seldom
measured.
Few incentives to perform.
Bureaucratic inertia hampers change.
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Influence of English
For an elite section, a stream of Englishmedium schools are run followed by an eliteset of colleges.
Indian languages to be used as medium ofinstructions have failed to undertaketranslations on a large scale.
Sciences, Technology and selective
institutions remain firmly anchored to English. Society remains divided between the upperclasses with takes advantage of English andthe lower classes or rural people who have todo with regional language.
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Research and Creativity
Weak research base A chain of laboratories outside the university
system has developed causing a diversion of
human and material resources to the systemof laboratories and institutes.
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Science and Technology
Institutions like IITs are criticized because : Industry has not tended to profit from the
technological institutions;
Their graduates often prefer foreignemployment since the developed countries
have a demand for their services and Indian
industry has not picked up high technology
areas of operation; The industry itself has relied much more on
foreign and imported technology than
indigenous efforts to correct its weaknesses.
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Content of education
Two themes are important : Indigenousnessand Relevance.
The tradition of subservience and inactivity inthe methods in institutional discipline as wellas in the learning processes are criticized.
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Methods ofTeaching
Large sized classes resulting from expansion,inadequately backed by resources and an
external examination system which is easy to
negotiate with small amounts ofunimaginative work perpetuate in teaching
and learning.
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Public Policies and Practices
The most recent initiative for making HigherEducation more inclusive:
An Act of Parliament which came into forcein early January 2007.
Reserves an additional quota of 27% of
intake in institutions of higher education
maintained by the federal government to
marginalized social groups listed in the
Constitution as Backward Castes.
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Public Policies and Practices
An Act of Parliament which came intoforce in early January 2007.
Decline in Public Budgets Non-recruitment ofTeachers Cost Recovery
Fees Loans
Privatisation
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Decline in Philanthropy Virtual halt of State-aided private sector
Rapid growth in Self-financing privatesector, leading to diminution of publicsector
Growth in self-financing courses inpublic universities/colleges.
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