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    Higher Education in India:

    Issues and Concerns

    By

    Puneet Ratnam

    Amity global business schoolEnroll-9147

    Specl.I.B.

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    Table : Number of Institutions

    C: Higher Education InstitutionsType of Institutions Numbers

    I. Universities

    1. Central Universities 18

    2. State Universities 275

    3. Institutions established under States

    Legislature Act

    5

    4. Institution deemed to be University 96

    5. Institutions of National Importance 13

    6. Research Institutes 136

    Total 543

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    Typology of Higher Education Institutions

    (2004-2005)

    Type Ownership Financing No. of

    Institutions

    No. of

    students

    Univ. under the Govt. Public Public 239 1,00,000

    Private Universities Private Private 11 10,000

    Deemed Universities

    (aided)

    Private or

    Public

    Public 38 40,000

    Deemed Universities

    (unaided)

    Private Private 72 60,000

    Colleges under the

    Government

    Public Public 4225 2,750,000

    Private Colleges (aided) Private Public 5750 3,450,000

    2750000Private Colleges

    (unaided)

    Private Private 7650 3,150,000

    Foreign Institutions Private Private 150 8,000

    Total 18123 10,468,000

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    Table 5: Public Expenditures on Higher Education

    Year Expenditure

    on Edn. as %

    of GDP

    Expenditure on

    Higher Edn.as % of

    Expenditure on Edn

    Expenditure on

    Higher Edn as

    % of GDP

    1981-1990 3.59 15.6 0.34

    1991-2000 3.77 19.3 0.72

    2001-02 3.82 17.9 0.69

    2002-03 3.80 18.5 0.70

    2003-04 3.50 17.8 0.62

    2004-05 (RE) 3.68 18.0 0.66

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    Students Enrolment by Academic

    Discipline (2002-2003)S.

    No.

    Faculty Enrolment %age of

    Total

    1. Arts 41,58,606 45.07

    2. Science 18,34,493 19.88

    3. Commerce/Management 16,60,238 17.99

    4. Education 1,32,572 1.43

    5. Engineering/Technology 6,92,087 7.50

    6. Medicine 3,00,669 3.25

    7. Agriculture 55,367 0.60

    8. Veterinary Science 14,765 0.16

    9. Law 2,98,291 3.23

    10. Others 80,745 0.88

    Total 92,27,833 100.00

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    Table 1 : Enrolment Rate 2004-05

    Rural, Urban 2004-05

    Total 10.84

    Rural 6.74

    Urban 19.88

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    10.8

    6.7

    19.88

    0

    10

    0

    otal Rural Urban

    ER for Graduate and above 2004-05

    (Rural & Urban)

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    Enrolment Rate

    Male, Female - 2004-05

    Male 12.42

    Female 9.11

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    ER-Social Groups 2004-05

    Social Groups Total

    ST 6.57

    SC 6.52

    OBC 8.77

    Others 17.22

    Total 10.84

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    777

    17

    1

    1

    1

    T T l

    ER- Social Groups - 2004-05

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    Table : GER by Income Level

    2004-05

    Income Level Total

    Less than 359.1 1.46

    359.11 to 461.14 3.37

    461.17 to 587.33 4.88

    587.38 to 830.44 9.81More than 830.5 27.43

    Total 10.84

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    University Grants Commission (UGC)The UGC Act, 1956, Ministry of HRD

    www.ugc.ac.in

    Statutory

    Mandate

    Coordination and determination of standards

    in higher education and research in the

    country

    Primary

    Function

    Release of grants to universities and colleges

    Other

    Functions

    Recognition of Universities and colleges

    (including eligibility for central grants)specification of degrees; Minimum standards

    of instruction, common pay scales, common

    facilities and institutional accreditation through

    NAAC

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    Distance Education Council (DEC)Sec. 25 of IGNOU Act, 1985, Ministry of HRD

    www.ignou.ac.in/dec/

    Statutory

    Mandate

    Promotion, coordination and

    determination of standards of the

    open universities and distanceeducation systems in the country.

    Primary

    Function

    Release of grants to open

    universities and correspondence

    course institutesOther

    Functions

    Initiated assessment and

    accreditation activities

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    All India Council for Technical Education

    (AICTE) AICTE Act, 1987, Ministry of HRD,

    www.aicte.ernet.in

    Statutory

    Mandate

    Planning and coordinated

    development of technical

    education in the countryPrimary

    Function

    Approval of degree and diploma

    programs in engineering,

    architecture, pharmacy and hotel

    managementOther

    Functions

    Funding for institutional and

    faculty development, pay scales

    and qualifications of teachers

    accreditation through NAAC

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    Medical Council of India (MCI)MCI Act, 1953, Ministry of Health,

    www.mciindia.org

    Statutory

    Mandate

    To establish standards in medical

    education and to define medical

    qualifications in India and abroadPrimary

    Function

    Registration of medical

    practioners and recognition of

    medical institutions

    OtherFunctions

    Eligibility criteria for admissions;exam. for recognition of foreign

    qualifications for practice in India.

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    The Council ofArchitecture (COA)The Architects Act, 1972,

    Ministry of Urban Development, www.coa-india.org

    Statutory

    Mandate

    Regulate profession and practice of

    architects and town planners in India

    PrimaryFunction

    Registration of architects, maintainingstandards of education, recognized

    qualifications and standards of practice

    Other

    Functions

    Maintaining the register of architects and

    make recommendations with regard torecognition and de-recognition of a

    qualification.

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    Indian Nursing Council (INC)The INC Act, 1947,

    Ministry of Health, www.mohfw.nic.in

    Statutory

    Mandate

    Uniform standards of training

    for Nurses

    PrimaryFunction

    Accepts qualificationsawarded by universities within

    and outside India

    OtherFunctions

    Collection and compilation ofdata relating to nurses,

    midwives, health visitors.

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    Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI)RCI Act, 1992,

    Ministry ofS

    ocial Justice, www.rehacouncil.nic.inStatutory

    Mandate

    Standardize and regulate the

    training of personnel and

    professions in the field of

    rehabilitation and specialeducation.

    Primary

    Function

    Recognition of institutions for

    physiotherapy and related fields.

    Other

    Functions

    Registration of professionals,

    assessment and accreditations;

    promotion of barrier free

    environment.

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    National Council For Teacher Education

    (NCTE)NCTE Act, 1993,

    www.ncte-in.org

    Statutory

    Mandate

    Planned and Coordinated

    development of the teacher

    education in the country.Primary

    Function

    Recognition of teacher education

    institutions.

    OtherFunctions Lay down norms and standards

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    Indian Council for Agricultural Research

    (ICAR)Not a statutory body, Ministry of

    Agriculture, www.icar.org.in

    Statutory

    Mandate

    Coordinate agricultural

    research and education

    PrimaryFunction

    Coordinate and fundagricultural education and

    research in 30 state and 1

    central and several deemed

    universities for agriculture.Other

    Functions

    Accredit agriculture universities,

    hold joint admission tests.

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    Bar Council of India (BCI)The Advocates Act, 1962, Ministry of Law

    www.barcouncilofindia.nic.in

    Statutory

    Mandate

    Lay down standards of professional

    conduct and standards of legal

    education.Primary

    Function

    Lay down standards of professional

    conduct and standards of legal

    education.

    Other

    Functions

    Listing of members of bar; listing of

    foreign universities whose

    qualifications are approved in India.

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    Quality and QualityAssessment

    In order to evaluate performance of aninstitution and bring about a measure ofaccountability a mechanism of accreditation has

    been developed by UGC.T

    his is anautonomous council under UGC called NationalAccreditation and Assessment Council (NAAC)with a purpose to carry out periodic assessmentof universities and colleges. NAAC has evolved

    a methodology of assessment which involvesself-appraisal by each university/college and anassessment of the performance by an expertcommittee.

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    Contd.

    Similarly, for technical education, AICTE

    has established its own accreditation

    mechanism for its institutions through

    the National Board of Accreditation

    (NBA).

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    NAAC

    NAAC has identified the following sevencriteria to serve as the basis of assessmentprocedures:

    Curricular Aspects Teaching-learning and Evaluation

    Research, Consultancy and Extension

    Infrastructure and Learning Resources

    Student Support and Progression Governance and Leadership

    Innovative practice

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    Higher Education : Some Concerns

    India has significant advantages in the 21stcentury knowledge race:

    It has a large higher education sector the

    third largest in the world in student numbers,after China and the United States.

    It uses English as a primary language of

    higher education and research.

    It has a long academic tradition. Academicfreedom is respected.

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    Large under-funded Institutions

    Large, under-funded, ungovernableinstitutions

    Politics has intruded into campus life,influencing academic appointments anddecisions across levels.

    Under-investment in libraries, informationtechnology, laboratories, and classrooms

    difficult to provide top-quality instruction or

    engage in cutting-edge research.

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    Faculty Concerns

    Freeze on new appointments Affects morale in the academic profession. Lack of accountability means that teaching

    and research performance is seldom

    measured.

    Few incentives to perform.

    Bureaucratic inertia hampers change.

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    Influence of English

    For an elite section, a stream of Englishmedium schools are run followed by an eliteset of colleges.

    Indian languages to be used as medium ofinstructions have failed to undertaketranslations on a large scale.

    Sciences, Technology and selective

    institutions remain firmly anchored to English. Society remains divided between the upperclasses with takes advantage of English andthe lower classes or rural people who have todo with regional language.

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    Research and Creativity

    Weak research base A chain of laboratories outside the university

    system has developed causing a diversion of

    human and material resources to the systemof laboratories and institutes.

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    Science and Technology

    Institutions like IITs are criticized because : Industry has not tended to profit from the

    technological institutions;

    Their graduates often prefer foreignemployment since the developed countries

    have a demand for their services and Indian

    industry has not picked up high technology

    areas of operation; The industry itself has relied much more on

    foreign and imported technology than

    indigenous efforts to correct its weaknesses.

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    Content of education

    Two themes are important : Indigenousnessand Relevance.

    The tradition of subservience and inactivity inthe methods in institutional discipline as wellas in the learning processes are criticized.

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    Methods ofTeaching

    Large sized classes resulting from expansion,inadequately backed by resources and an

    external examination system which is easy to

    negotiate with small amounts ofunimaginative work perpetuate in teaching

    and learning.

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    Public Policies and Practices

    The most recent initiative for making HigherEducation more inclusive:

    An Act of Parliament which came into forcein early January 2007.

    Reserves an additional quota of 27% of

    intake in institutions of higher education

    maintained by the federal government to

    marginalized social groups listed in the

    Constitution as Backward Castes.

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    Public Policies and Practices

    An Act of Parliament which came intoforce in early January 2007.

    Decline in Public Budgets Non-recruitment ofTeachers Cost Recovery

    Fees Loans

    Privatisation

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    Decline in Philanthropy Virtual halt of State-aided private sector

    Rapid growth in Self-financing privatesector, leading to diminution of publicsector

    Growth in self-financing courses inpublic universities/colleges.