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Contents
y Introduction
y Literature Review y Objectives
y Methodology y Validity and Relia bility
y Procedure
y Results
y Discussion
y Recommendations
y References
Introduction
Learning and teaching is the concern of the trained teacher. But learning is a complex process. It can however be defined as a change in disposition; a relatively permanent
change in behaviour overtime and this is brought a bout by experience. Learning can
occur as a result of newly acquired skill, knowledge, perception, facts, principles, newinformation at hand etc. Adeyan ju, (1997). Learning can be reinforced with learning
aids of different variety because they stimulate, motivate as well as arrest learner's
attention for a while during the instructional process.
Learning aids are instructional materials and devices through which teaching andlearning are done in schools. Examples of learning aids include visual aids, audio-
visual aids, real o bjects and many others. The visual aids are designed materials that
may be locally made or commercially produced. They come in form of wall-chartsillustrated pictures, pictorial materials and other two dimensional o bjects. There are
also audio-visual aids. These are teaching machines like radio, television, and all sorts
of pro jectors with sound attri butes.
It is interesting to note that a large percentage of trained teachers and those
undergoing professional training courses can teach with some of the learning aids.
They do so consciously because they know that the use have positive effect onlearning outcomes as their cognate experiences during teaching practice supervision
reveals. In an on-going action research by investigators in Winne ba District, a surveysample of teachers with several years of teaching experience of between (03) and
twenty-five (25) years, claim that learning aids improve methodology. They also
claim that learning aids reduce their talk and chalk method.
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In the University of Winne ba, Ghana, students normally go on teaching practice
exercise. They are engaged in the on-campus teaching practice (OCTP) and in theSchool Attachment Programme (SAP). The o bjective of the various teaching practices
is to involve students in as many teaching programmes that will sufficiently help them
develop required teaching skill, expose them to the pro blems of learners and lead
them to qualify as professionals. The programme often last between four (4) weeks toa semester. There is also an element of mini teaching exercises which students
experience during their three - and four - year dipoloma - and B.Ed. programmes. Onewould like to ask some questions. Is the programme schedule for teaching practice
adequate to prepare students for professionalism in teaching? Will students-teachers
perception of the use of educational technology devices improve significantly their
teaching during their teaching practice programmes? It is perceived that teachingteachers imply the equipping of teachers with all the skills, knowledge pedagogy and
rudiments a bout how instructional materials can help the teacher to make the delivery
of the instruction successful with learners.
The operational definition of perception as reflected in this paper pulls on thetransaction theory of perception by television. The theory focused on varia bles and
contextual factors as having effects on how perception takes place. The individual
perceives as a result of varia bles surrounding the interpretation. This is why theteacher organizes his methods of teachings around the aims and o bjectives he/she
intends to achieve. In order to attain the o bjectives, instructional materials are
perceived as very important in the teaching. back
Literature Review
Studies on teacher education and use of instructional materials have been carried out
and reported by several investigators including those of Lynne (1982) Agun and
Okunrotifa (1977), Agun (1986) Akan bi and Imogie (1988), Adeyan ju (1986; 1988
and 1999) Agun (1986) pointed out the need for development of skills by teachersundergoing their training so that they could be a ble to use a wide variety of
instructional materials sufficiently well. Akinola (1988) on use of Modern Teaching
Aids/new technologies to aid teaching.
The various researchers found that teachers who are trained and untrained, sue some
form of materials to teach their lessons. However, the relevance of the choice of instructional material types that were used and the quality of the instructional material
types that teachers use have not been investigated. This is what the present survey
hopes to investigate.
Some investigators claim that whenever they taught with some of the learning aids,
their students get more stimulated because the learning aids help them (students) to
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become more attentive. In addition, students positive attitude generate more interest
for the lesson they teach. As a result, students participate better in class activity.
Objective
The study through a set of questionnaire that were distri buted among trained teacherswho have taught for between three (03) and fifteen (15) years and a bove was
investigated. The purpose was to find out the level of agreement or disagreement to a
fourteen item questionnaire on the relevance, the quality and types of teaching aids
that teachers used in teaching their lessons. back
Methodology
The population comprised trained teachers that were teaching in both ur ban and rural
areas of Winne ba. Eighty (80) teachers, male and females that were teaching in basic
primary and secondary schools between March and April 1999 in Winne ba Districtwere su bjects of study. They were teaching in twenty different basic primary and
secondary schools. The eighty (80) selected su bjects that responded to the
questionnaire items correctly have taught their su bject disciplines which comprise
Arts, Social Sciences and Physical Sciences for between one and fifteen years and
a bove. Each of the selected teachers teach as many as ten students to between fifty-
one to seventy in a class at a time. An on the spot evaluation of types of instructionalmaterials they used, the quality and relevance to the topic taught were assessed by the
investigators. back
Validity and Reliability
Experts who are senior colleagues in the field of educational technology, in
educational resource centre and department of psychology and education made
content and construct as well as face validity of a questionnaire. Earlier on a sample of
fifteen (15) non-participating teachers responses were analysed to test for therelia bility of the questionnaire yielded was found to be high enough to make the
questionnaire items relia ble. back
Procedure
The questionnaire items were distri buted to selected teachers, who gave prompt
attention to the task of completing the questionnaire. While the su bjects of study were busy completing the questionnaire, an on the spot-checking of types, quality and
relevance of (IM) were assessed. back
Results
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On class enrolments, seventeen (17) teachers taught between ten (10) and thirty (30)
students. Forty-nine (49) teachers taught between thirty-one (31) and fifty (50) pupilswhile fourteen (14) other teachers taught between fifty-one (51) and seventy (70)
students in a single basic/primary and secondary school classes.
The overall population of the school as the study revealed is between hundred and twohundred and ninety-nine (100-299) as reported by twenty seven (27) teachers in basic
schools. Three hundred and four hundred and ninety-nine (300-499) was reported as
the population of students by twelve (12) teachers in the primary schools. The
population of secondary in the rural area is between five hundred (500) to six hundred
and ninety-nine (699) as reported by thirty-two (32) teachers. A population of
between seven hundred and eight hundred and ninety-nine (700-399) were reported by
nine other teachers for their secondary schools in the ur ban centre.
Subject Discipline: Twenty-seven (27) participants taught in the discipline of Arts,
nineteen in discipline of social sciences while twelve of the participants taught in thediscipline of physical sciences. Results show that fifty three (53) participating teachers
taught in the basic schools while twenty-seven (27) taught in primary and secondary
schools.
Qualification of Teachers: All participating teachers except six (6) have grade twoteacher training certificate. Three of the six (06) teachers have advanced teacher
education qualification. On (01) has secondary education while two (02) others have
University education.
The questionnaire items 12, 13, 14 and 15 were analysed. Results showed that allteachers except twelve (12) had no training in the production and teaching with
learning aids. Concerning the source of the learning aids, fifty aids from the Ghana
Education service while thirty five (35) others were funded by the school.
The quality of twenty percent (20%) of the learning aid materials that teachersclaimed they have used could not be determined, as teachers could not produce them
on the spot for evaluation; judgment was as a result based on what was seen.
However, the relevance of eighty (80) percent of teaching aids that were used inteaching were assessed and found adequate. Since audio-visual materials are availa ble
in some schools, the types of audio-visual aids were also analysed. The common typesare radios of porta ble sizes. Teacher also claimed they allow students to listen to
important news.
Teachers specifically were asked to indicate the types of teaching materials theywould eventually want to use in their teaching. Results show that, six (6) teachers will
like to use pro jectors to teach their lessons. Thirty-four (34) other teachers will prefer
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to use non-pro jected materials to teach their lessons. Nineteen (19) teachers will
prefer to use other methods, the rest num bering twenty one (21) will prefer to use
locally made (self made) charts and other visual materials.
Table 1: Response of Teachers to Questionnaire on Perception of the Effects and Use of Learning Aids in
Teaching
N = 80
Variable Numbers Level of Agreement %
Agree% Disagree % Neutral %
1 74 92.50 05 6.26 01 01.25
2 13 16.25 61 76.25 06 07.50
3 62 77.05 16 20.00 02 02.50
4 08 10.00 70 87.50 02 02.50
5 78 97.50 01 1.25 01 1.25
6 26 32.50 53 66.25 01 1.25
7 31 38.75 46 57.50 03 3.75
8 78 97.50 Nil 0.00 02 2.50
9 65 81.25 15 18.75 Nil 0.00
10 57 71.25 19 23.75 04 5.00
11 50 62.50 26 32.50 04 5.00
X = 6.8 X = «««« 3.9 X = ««««« 0.33
EX = Agree EX = Disagree = 312 EX = Undecided = 26
Teachers' preferences for the use of visual and audio-visual materials wereinvestigated. The quality and relevance and types of the materials that could assist
learners have been confirmed through the investigation that was carried out among
long serving teachers. Eighty percent (80) of teachers used relevant materials to teach
their lessons. The quality of the availa ble teaching materials were assessed to be of high standard while others that were not seen could not be determined. It is worthy to
state that a large percentage of the two dimensional instructional materials were foundhanging in the wall of over ninety percent (90%) of the classrooms. Whether all or
few of the materials are constantly used as reference point by teachers was not certain.
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The positive effect of teaching with various learning aids were approved as accepta ble
to over ninety (90) percent of the teachers in that:
y they claimed that learners understand better what they teach them when theyused them to teach.
y the teacher also improvised for the teaching aids when needed.y teachers claim that they used teaching aids to explain the various concepts that
required explanation.
Since teachers go to the extent of borrowing teaching aids from Ghana Education
Services and from some of the schools that have them, and since teachers claim that
they do not need further training on how to prepare and use teaching aids to teachtheir lessons, the inference that can be made from the analysed o bservations is that
teachers use some teaching aids to teach their lessons.
Discussion
Result from the Ta ble 1 shows the pattern of responses of teachers to the issue of
learning aids. There is a high frequency of positive response to the use of educationalmaterials for teaching. A mean of 6.8 is recorded for agreement while a mean score of
0.33 is recorded for the responses of teachers that were undecided a bout the issues of
the importance of learning aids. (See Ta ble 1).
Findings of this study with regard to the use of learning aids to teach, support the
earlier o bservations made. Agun (1986), Imogie (1988), Agun & Okunrotifa (1977),
Adeyan ju (1988), Akan bi (1988) and Akinola (1977).
From the result o btained from the analysed questionnaire, the issue to whether
teachers on training benefits from the organised practice teaching sessions of the(OCTP), (OFFCTP) and (SAP) and whether they always use relevant and quality
learning aids to carry out their teaching effectively is a su bject of de bate. Form field
studies, teachers in the Arts discipline were found to use other methods like
dramatization, the play-way method as well as demonstration methods to teachEnglish. The Fine Arts and Music lessons that were o bserved were judged to be
successful lessons. Those in the sciences made use of educational board; text books,
materials and scanty chart to teach their lessons. Students in the Social Scienceshowever used a significant variety of two-dimensional materials and real o bjects to
teach their lessons. The sum of it all is that it appears the student teachers use learning
aids in their teaching in order to score marks during supervision. It appears also that
after they have qualified professionally, the interest in the use of the learning aids
often diminish. back
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Conclusion
Conclusions drawn from this survey are as follows:
1. Teachers whether those on training or those that have qualified perceives the
use of learning aids in teaching as advantageous to the teacher and to thestudents. Their use reduces the talk and chalk method of teaching.
2. The effect which organised practice teaching sessions have on teacher like the
On-Campus Teaching Practice (OCTP), Off-Campus Teaching Practice(OFFCTP), School Attachment Programme (SAP) and mini-teaching exercises
are yet to be determined as they remain a su bject of de bate.
3. Teachers improvised teaching aids for their teaching: they also borrowed somelearning aids from the Ghana Education Services and from other schools.
4. Teachers used relevant and quality instructional materials to teach their lessons.
5. The most frequently used instructional materials are educational boards,
text books materials, real o bjects and the charts.6. Audiovisual materials like radio are availa ble in some schools.
7. Interest in the use of learning aids to teach often diminishes when student
teachers have qualified. back
Recommendations
The media unit of the University should mount periodic training sessions for teachers
on the use of learning aids to teach. It is also suggested that devices like audio and
visual materials should be used by all teachers, in order to add the practice of
technology to the training of teachers, physically. Teachers who are already in thefield should be retrained on the recent findings on the use of learning aids. In addition,
the University should appeal to the non-governmental organisations, the privatesectors, individuals and industries to assist in supplementing and in su bstituting
o bsolete educational materials and learning aids like audio and visual materials and
software packages. Student teachers should be involved in curriculum development.They should be familiar with the teaching content of the higher and lower school
sylla bus. Both teachers on training and those in the field should be sensitized on the
need to updated their knowledge on effective teaching. teachers on training and thosein the field should also have a forum for meeting periodically to assess the
effectiveness of their teaching using the methods of instructional and educationaltechnology as applica ble to the organisation of the content of the school sylla buses at both basic and junior secondary schools. Teachers should design packages (software)
materials that could be used in teaching their various su bjects. This forum should be
supported by the government. back
References
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Adeyan ju, G.A. (1977); Creativity Learning and Learning Styles. Zaria: Nigeria. Isola
Ola & Sons.
Adeyan ju, J.L. (1986); The role of education technology in pre-primary education.Education technology and the 6-3-3-4 education system. Nigeria Association for
EducationalMedia and Technology (NAEMT) 30-38.
Adeyan ju, J.L. (1988); The application of educational technology in pre-primary
education. Journal of EducationalMedia and Technology (JEMT), 2(1), 73-79.
Adeyan ju, J.L. (1991); Production of cheap instructional materials for the 6-3-3-4
system of education with emphasis on the first six years. Trends and Research in
Educational Technology, 45-53.
Agun, I. (1986); Institutional Support for Educational Technology, The case of
College of Education: A paper presentation at the National Symposium on Status andTrends in Education Technology. Nigeria Educational Technology Centre Kaduna.
16-21 Novem ber.
Agun, I. & Okunrotifa P.O.A. (1977); Educational technology in Nigeria teacher
education. Education for Development: International Perspective on Expanding Role
of Teachers Education. (ICET) p. 75.
Akan bi, K. (1988); Selection, utilization and evaluation of instruction. In I. Agun & I.
Imogie (eds) Fundamental of Educational Technology. I badan: Y-Books, 91-92.
Akinola J.A. (1988); Improving teaching and learning: An examination of the lecture
approach in teaching at Obafemi Awolowo University. Ife Journal of Theory and
Research in Education, 1, (1), 112. back
About the authors
Dr. Lade Adeyan ju
Faculty of EducationInstitute of Education
Obafemi Awolowo University
Nigeria
Importance of audio ± visual aids in teaching methodology.
Prof. Vinayak Gopal patil
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Introduction: The audio visual aids educational learning resources or instructional or educational
Medias. These all the terms meant the same thing.
H istory of Audio - Visual Aids : A Dutch Humanist theologist & writer desretrious Erasmus (1466-
1536) disclosed memorization as a technique of learning and advocated that the children should learn
through the aids of pictures or other visuals. While John Amos Comenius (1592-1670) prepared abook known as Orbis Sensilium Pictus (the word of sense objects) which contained near about 150
pictures on aspects of every day life. This is the is considered as a illustrated book for the children
education. The term visual education was use by Nelson Greence in 1926. Aric identified four
revolutions in education :
1. Education from home to school.
2. Written word as a tool of education.
3. Invention of printing & use of books
4. Use of electronic media i.e Radio, T.V, tape reorder & Computer in education.
Features of good Teaching Aids.
1. They should meaningful & purposeful.
2. They should be accurate in all respects.
3. They should be simple.
4. They should be cheap.
5. As far as they should be update.
6. They should motivate the learner as well as to the teacher also.
Principles of Audio Visual Aids ; For effective teaching to take place a a good method must be adopted
by the teacher . The teacher is always free to choose effective audio visual aids in the class room. Of
courses there are also certain principles of Audio ± Visual Aids in teaching methodology. They are as
follows:
1. Principle of Selection : 1. The age level 2. Other personality angles.3. They should have specific
educational values 4. They should help in the realization of learning desired objectives.
2. Principle of Preparation : 1. As far as possible, the local material should be used in the preparation of
aids. 2. The teacher also must receive training in the preparation of aids. 3. The teacher him/herself
can prepare some aids or can take help of students also.
3. Principle of Physical Control : This is concerned with the arrangement of keeping aids safely and
also to facilitate to their lending to the teachers for se.4. Principle of Proper Presentation : 1. Teacher should carefully visualize the use of teaching aids before
their actual presentation.2. They should be well acquainted themselves with the use & manipulation
of the aids to be shown in the class room. 3. The aids should be displayed properly. So that, all the
students can see it, observe it, and can derive maximum benefits from it.
5. Principle of Response : This is the important principle. This tells the teacher guide the students to
respond actively to the audio visual stimulus so that they derive the maximum benefits in learning.
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6. Principle of Evaluation : This Principle stipulates that there should be continuous evaluation of Audio
Visual Aids materials & accompanying techniques in the light of desired objectives
Audio Visual aids or Devices or technical devices or technological Medias or learning devices that helps
the teacher to clarify, establish, co-relate & co-ordinate accurate concepts, interpretations,
appreciation and enable him to make learning more concentrate, effective, interesting, inspirational,meaningful, vivid etc. The Audio ±Visual Aids always helps in competing the triangular process i.e
Motivation, Clarification, stimulation. He aims of teaching with technological medias is clearing the
channel between the learner and the things that worth learner. The teacher must "show" as well as
"tell". The Audio ±Visual Aids provides significant gains in informal learning, retention and recall,
rethinking and reasoning, activity, interest, imagination, personal growth & development. Here are the
most important values of the proper use of Audio Visual Aids ;
1.Best Motivator : They are the best motivator. The students works with more zeal & interest.
2.Clear Image : Clear image takes place when we, touch, handle, experience it.
3. Variety : "mere Chalk & Talk" do not help. Audio ±Visual Aids gives variety & provides different
tools in ht hand of teacher.
4. Freedom : When Audio ±Visual Aids are employed, there is a great scope for children to move about
talk, laugh & comment upon. Under such atmosphere the students work because they want to work,
& not because the teacher wants tem to wotk.
5. Opportunities to Handle : many students always get a chance to handle the aids.
6. Helpful in Attracting the Attention : Attention is the true factor in any process of learning & teaching
Audio ± Video Aids helps the teacher in providing proper environment for capturing as well as
sustaining the attention and interest of the students in class room.
7. Savings in Energy & Time : Due to effective implementation of "principle of Presentation", a good
deal of energy & time of both the teacher & students can be saved.
8. Realism : The Audio ±Visual Aids gives the real touch to the learning situation.
9. Encouragement to healthy class room interaction : Audio-visual aids through variety of stimuli,
motivational, provisional of active participation of students, a good experience always encourage
healthy class interaction between teacher and the learners.
10.Scope of education as a mass scale : The audio-Visual aids like radio, tape, television etc alwaysplays role in spreading mass education.
11. Positive environment for creative discipline : A balanced, rational, scientific use of Audio ± Visual
Aids develops , motivate, experience, attract the attention of the students and provides a variety of
creative outlets for the utilization of their tremendous energy & keeps them busy in class room work.
This overall classroom environment becomes conductive to creative discipline.Grossly, we can say that
there are various types of Audio ± Visual Aids i.e traditional as well as modern aids of audio-visual
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aids. But at the same time it is important to take into a/c that the Audio-Visual Aids do not play role
up to disseminate the information, data, facts, clues but also they influences the mentality,
psychology, grasping level of the students in the class room. On the other hand they greatly motivate,
inspire the teachers to adopt the latest, creative, innovative aids. The scope of audio-visual aids is not
only up to procure & make presentation. Of, course it is technically part of teaching. But other side
also it conveys us that it is a tool to know through effective communication in triangular process i.e
Motivation, Stimulation, Clarification. Apart from this it is also important that to think about difficulties
& problems in the use of aids. There are certain problems like lack of enthusing for the use of
teaching aids teacher, non availability of aids in school, lack of facilities for the use of aids- electricity,
room, furniture etc, lack of training on the part of teacher in the use of aids, costly nature of aids, lack
of storage facility & non Availability of suitable teaching aids in the regional languages.
(ArticlesBase SC #3667855)
Read more: http://www.articlesbase.com/tutoring-articles/importance-of-audio-visual-in-teaching-
methodology-3667855.html#ixzz1Jr8e3OoT Under Creative Commons License: AttribEFFECTS OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS ON TEACHING LEARNING
PROCESS
RAFIQULLAH KHAN, RAZIA SULTANA, UMAR ALI AND ABDUR REHMAN
Institute of Education and Research,Gomal University,DeraIsmail Khan(NWFP)Pakistan
ABSTRACT
This study attempts to investigate what makes a good teaching and learning, for this purpose a sample
consisted of seventy students of 9th class was taken. The sample was further divided randomly into two
equal groups. One group was called experimental and the other control group. Before starting the
experiment pre-test was administered to the students of both the experimental and control group After it
the
students of the two selected groups were taught by their respective teachers. Both the groups were exposed
to essentially the same experience, except for the method of instruction. The experimental group was taught
through use of instructional aids. At the end of the treatment period, the post-test was administered to the
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students of both the experimental and control group. Research on the effectiveness of learning through
instructional aids, indicates that learning is improved when pictures supplement verbal materials, when
learners draw their own meaning while studying, `and when learners are asked to generate mental pictures
while reading or studying.
INTRODUCTION
Although almost all of us went to schools
and were "educated" very few of us have
any systematic conception of teaching.
Teaching has come through poor usage to
mean the thing a teacher does while he is in
a classroom. Thus it is a misleadingly term.
Most of difficulties arise owing to this
misleading notion. Teaching is not
understood in a proper perspective. For a
long time it was believed that teaching and
instruction were one and the same, and that
teacher is giving instruction imparts
knowledge. This conception is not only
faulty but also does a lot of damage to the
conception and process of teaching.
In the same manner very limited meaning is
attached with term learning. Modification of
behaviour is called learning. It is generally
stated that all learning is modification of
behaviour but all modification of behaviour
is not learning. For instance, consumption of
alcohol may bring about modification in
behaviour as well as experience.
Modification of behaviour may also be
caused by fatigue, exhaustion etc. All
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modification of behaviour of the nature
described above, are not called learning. To
put it in a different way, modification of
behaviour and experience caused by
maturational factors is not learning.
In relation to modification of behavior
within classroom the role of instructional
aids is considered very limited and that
instructional aids enhance the memory level
of the students. In bookish examination the
memory is increased through rote learning.
While all these are outdated misconception.
The present paper is an academic attempt to
investigate that teaching is not the name of
instruction and to impart knowledge by the
teacher and the learning is more than
modification of individual behaviuor. It will
also disclose that for effective teaching
learning process the use of instructional aids
is the demand of student psychology.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Problem under investigation was to discuss
teaching learning process and to investigate
the effects of instructional aids.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1- To discuss the term teaching and learning.
2- To explore the effects of instructional
aids on teaching learning process.
SIGNIFICANCE
Teachers play most important part in any
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system of education. They are considered
the most crucial input to the whole learning
process and the function of teaching is the
key toward critical process of learning. Yet
examining the situation to-day and of the
past we find that teachers are also among the
neglected public servants in Pakistani
society. Teachers are among the least
motivated and trained professionals. Khan et al., Gomal University Journal of Research 23: 102-108 103
Therefore, there is a need to revitalize
teacher education on sound research
findings and judgment basis. Exploring the
best methodology of teaching leading
toward effective learning based upon use of
instructional aids will provide guidelines to
bring improvement in quality of teaching. In
this connection the paper will be helpful:
� To revitalize the teacher training
program in the light of the study.
� To improve and to make effective
the process of learning. Because the
student future depends largely upon
proper education of teachers.
� The findings will provide useful
information for curriculum reforms.
� The study will help the decisionmakers to understand the causes of
low quality of teacher's instructional
competence. To increase
instructional competence, workable
strategies could be developed.
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� It will help teacher to share his
experiences with others, especially
with students through two way
communications.
� It will provide classroom teacher
valid base to seek means for
extending his student's horizon of
real experiences and first hand
knowledge.
� It will facilitate the role of teacher
by offering a performance blueprint
and consistent criteria for evaluating
teaching outcomes.
� It will enable the teacher to judge
appropriateness of instructional aids.
� As prediction of teacher
performance has increasingly
become a concern of psychology,
sociology and education, those who
define themselves as educational
psychologists, educational
sociologists, program planners or
policy developers can broaden their
horizon of thinking.
HYPOTHESIS
There is no significant difference in mean
scores of the students taught through
instructional aids and through traditional
way.
RELATED LITERATURE
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WHAT IS TEACHING
The term teaching is used in various ways,
and definitions often lead to controversial
discussions in pedagogical circles. The
unpacking of various definitions of teaching
would be an interesting undertaking. Uses of
the word teaching are found in ordinary
discourse. It is refer to that which is taught,
as a doctrine or body of knowledge. In this
expression "The teaching of Pakistan
Studies" reference is made to the contents
included in the Text book of Pakistan
Studies. Teaching is used to refer to an
occupation or a profession teaching is used
to refer to ways of making something known
to others usually in routine work of the
classroom. The modern conception of
teaching includes all those things a teacher
does to facilitate the learning process.
Teaching has grown from stage of imparting
knowledge to strategies for promoting
public growth (Fontana,1981 ; Allport
1946)Teachers are not to be understood as a
more custodians of knowledge. There is a
task of stimulating, facilitating pupil's
learning to ensure his attainment of
objectives. The new concept of teaching has
made the work of the teacher more
challenging and difficult. The teacher's task
concerns:-
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� Orienting the pupil toward desirable
goals both immediate and long
range.
� Facilitating the attainment of the
goals through suitable learning
experiences and guiding the pupil
toward his total growth.
According to (Cronbac, 1986) teaching must
be considered as a professional service, it
should be analyzed into its component
process or elements. First, it can be analyzed
in terms of the types of teacher activity (1)
information giving (2) disciplining (3)
guiding and advising (4) Motivating. There
are other activities that teachers commonly
carry out such as (1) Explaining (2)
demonstrating (3) curriculum planning (4) 104 Khan et al., Gomal University Journal of Research 23: 102-
108
implementing and evaluating. Another way
of analyzing teaching could be based on the
types of educational objectives. This may be
in terms of Bloom Taxonomy of educational
objectives-cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domains.(Tolman,1932 ;
Siddiqui, 2005) classifies teaching activities
as things to be learnt (1) Equivalencies (2)
beliefs (3) field expectations (4) field
cognition modes (5) drive discrimination (6)
motor patterns.
According to (Gagne, 1974) that teaching
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should answer three questions (1) How do
teachers behave and what do they do (2)
why do they behave in the manner they do
(3) what are the effects of the above on
pupil? Answer to these questions will yield a
general conception of teaching, if they apply
to all teaching to all students, to all subject
matter and to all situations-both classroom
and outside classroom in which learning
may take place. This approach conceives
teacher's actions as the cause and the
learning of students as the effect. Teaching
may be characterized as an activity aimed at
achievement of learning and practiced in
such manner as to respect the student's
intellectual integrity and capacity for
independent judgment. Such as
characterization is important for at least two
reasons, first it brings out the intentional
nature of teaching- the fact that teaching is a
distinctive goal-oriented activity. Second, it
differentiates the activity of teaching from
such other activities as propagandizing,
conditioning, suggesting and indoctrinating,
which are aimed at modifying the person but
strive at all coasts to avoid a genuine
engagement of his judgment on underlying
issues (Scheffler,1971 ; Collins,1991)
In Islamic thought, teaching is the main
component of education system. There is no
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knowledge without teaching and no Islam
without knowledge. Knowledge is
prerequisite for being a Muslim. This makes
teaching sacred duty on the part of those
who know. A teacher is bearer of
knowledge. It was to emphasis this point
that the prophet (Peace be upon him) said,
verily! I was not sent but as a teacher.
WHAT IS LEARNING
Learning is relatively persistent change in an
individual's possible behaviour due to
experience, (Fontana,1981 ; Adams,
1968)This definition draws attention to three
things:- First, that learning must change the
individual in some way, second, that this
change comes as a result of experience; and
third, that it is a change in his possible
behaviour. The first of these points of
emphasis is obvious enough. Unless we are
changed in some way, learning cannot be
said to have taken place. This change can, of
course, be at relatively simple level. The
second point of emphasis stresses that the
change must come about as a result of
experience. This therefore excludes the
kinds of change that accrue form maturation
and physical development. The third point
stress that although a change has taken
place, it is change in potential rather than in
actual behaviour.
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(Davis,1973 ; Hunter,1964) defines learning
as "the change in performance associated
with practice. (Spence,1956) defines
learning as " inference" and recognizes that
learning is, in some way different from
performance. Performance is observable,
empirical, and learning is not.
When learning is taken as the change of
performance as a result of practice, the
question arises about the nature, amount,
and direction of change. Performance is also
a wide term and also needs connection with
learning. Behaviour change with practice
has to be related with one trial learning.
Some performance can be manipulated in
tangible manner, as the specific changes of
behaviour through learning. Some aspects of
learning as attitudes, ideals, and fears are
quite intangible both in acquisition and
manifestation.
We can look at the psychologist; attempt to
develop a convincing theory of how learning
comes about. The behaviorist sees learning
in terms of connections between stimulus
and response or between response and
reinforcement, and places great stress upon
the role-played by the environment.
Structure the environment correctly, and
learning will follow, irrespective of the Khan et al., Gomal University Journal of Research 23: 102-108 105
particular volition of the learner. The
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cognitive approach, on the other hand, holds
that if we are to under stand learning we
cannot confine ourselves to observable
behavior, but also concern over selves with
the learner, ability mentally to reorganize his
inner world of concepts, memories in
response to experience. The latter approach,
therefore lays stress not only upon the
environment, but upon the way in which
individual interprets and tries to make sense
of his environment. It sees the individual not
as the somewhat mechanical product of his
environment, but as an active agent in the
learning process, deliberately trying to
process and categorize the stream of
information fed into him by the outside
world.
For teacher the main difference between
two theories is that, while not denying the
potential importance of the stimulus and the
reinforcement, cognitive theory considers
that behaviorist pays in sufficient attention
to the element that comes in between,
namely the learner own cognitive behaviour
is not simply some thing elicited by a
stimulus and strengthened or otherwise by
the nature of the reinforcement that follows,
it is in fact a highly complex activity which
involves (1) acquisition of information (2)
transformation of information and (3) testing
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the adequacy of this information.
ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS
According to (Nicholls, 2000; Raw , 2003)
in this age, education has become wide
spread and exclusively oral teaching cannot
be the key to successful pedagogy. To make
the teaching learning interesting the teacher
has to use instructional aids. Learning
process can be enhanced if aids are used
(Cronbac, 1989) describes seven elements in
behaviour and asserts. These elements
provide base for theory of learning.
Situations, the situation consists of all the
objects, persons and symbols in learner
environments experience in situation prepare
a person to respond to similar situation in
the future. Situation must be created in
which learner may feel satisfaction.
Personal characterizes under this heading we
include all the abilities and all the typical
responses that the person brings to the
situation. Use of instructional material can
appeal to the individual attention by creating
interest.
Goal: the goal of the learner is that he
wishes to attain. Since goals direct efforts,
the teacher problem of motivation is
essentially one of arranging situation with
instructional aids in which the learner will
see goals he wants to attain.
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Interpretation: Person interprets situation in
order to take action If relevant aids are made
available it will be easy for a teacher and
student to predict that what can be expected
to happen if various actions are taken.
Action: A person chooses whatever action
he expects to give him the greatest
satisfaction. The use of aids can facilitate the
decision of a person toward taking right
action.
Consequence: Actions following by their
results are called consequences. If
instructional aids are used the prediction
made by a person would be rewarding and
consequences will justify the work done by
person, he will feel full satisfaction.
METHOD AND PROCEDURE
SAMPLE
The sample consisted of seventy students of
9th class of Govt: girls high school no I
Dera Ismail Khan.The sample was further
divided into two equal groups by using
random sampling technique. Each group
having 35 students.
MATERIAL
Textbook teaching to experimental group
was supported by using charts, objects and
other instructional aids.
PROCEDURE
In this experimental study, the pretestposttest Equivalent group design discussed
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by (Best, 1990,) was used. The relevant pretest was administered to the students of both
the experimental and control group. Data
obtained from pre-test is presented in table
no 1.Both the groups were equivalent at the
time of starting the experiment. Equal
conditions for both the groups were
established i.e. all factors of the time of the 106 Khan et al., Gomal University Journal of Research 23: 102-
108
day and treatment length in time were
equaled. The students of the two selected
groups were taught by their respective
teachers. Both the groups were exposed to
essentially the same experience, except for
the method of instruction. The experimental
group was taught Chemistry through use of
instructional aids. At the end of the
treatment period, the relevant post-test was
administered to the students of both the
experimental and control group. Data
obtained from post-test is presented in table
no 2.
ANALYSIS OF DATA
Table-1 showing mean scores of control and
experimental group on pre-test
Category
number of
students
Mean SD t-value
Level of
significance
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Control group 35 58.48 13.87
Experimental
group
35 57.99 14.10
0.84 .05
The above table shows that mean score of
control group is 58.48 and standard
deviation is 13.87 while mean score of
experimental group is 57.99 and standard
deviation is 5.4. The computed t- value 0.84
is less than table value .So the difference
between the mean scores of two groups is
not significant at 0.05 level of significance.
Table-2 showing mean scores of control and
experimental group on post-test
Category
number of
students
Mean SD t-value
Level of
significance
Control group 35 57.98 9.3
Experimental
group
35 67.65 5.4
2.63 .05
The above table shows that mean score of
control group is 57.98 and standard
deviation is 9.3 while mean score of
experimental group is 67.65 and standard
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deviation is 5.4. The computed t- value 2.63
is greater than table value .So the difference
between the mean scores of two groups is
significant at 0.05 level of significance.
RESULT
There is significance difference in mean
scores of student on post-test. The students
in experimental group performed better then
control group. Research on the effectiveness
of learning through instructional aids,
indicates that learning is improved when
pictures supplement verbal materials, when
learners draw their own their meaning while
studying, and when learners are asked to
generate mental pictures while reading.
DISCUSSION
Teaching is conceptualized in terms of what
the teacher does. When students do not learn
we are inclined to conclude that the failure
to learn is their fault.The students are dull,
they are not motivated, they are less
intelligent, etc. while this may be true to
some extent, we should consider the reasons
why the students are not learning. Perhaps,
their fault may be teachers' fault.
Appropriate instructional procedures make
learning easier for the pupils. It is thus
necessary for teachers to have a sound
understanding of the principles of the
process of learning based on concrete
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experiences. This view clearly indicates
purpose of modern schooling is to facilitate
learning, such that pupils may learn and are
able to use what they learn.
Effective teaching-learning process assigns Khan et al., Gomal University Journal of Research 23: 102-108
107
an important place to student-activity. It
calls for a child-centered approach. The
most distinctive feature of today society is
its science-based technology which has been
making a profound impact not only on the
economic and political life of a country but
also on its educational system. The changes
that occur are broadly described as
modernization. This modernization has
affected the teaching learning process in
many ways. The recent changes in the
concept of teaching-learning process have
led to the development of newer areas of
educational endeavor. In a traditional society
the aim of teaching learning was the
preservation of the accumulated stock of
knowledge. But in the modern society, the
main aim of teaching learning is not
acquisition of knowledge alone. It is the
awakening of curiosity, the stimulation of
creativity, the development of proper
interests, attitudes and values and the
building of essential skills such as
independent study. Teaching learning
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process has to serve as a powerful
instrument of social, economic and cultural
transformation of the society. Teaching
learning process is conditioned by the nature
and demands of society to which the learner
should get adapted and attuned. One of the
main aims of child education is to keep pace
with the advancement of knowledge and
skills.
For a pretty long period, the system was
dominated by the institution of professional
teachers. Now, the process is to be replaced
to a great extent by a process in which the
individual learner is expected to take up
challenges through an inevitable intellectual
revolution. The intellectual revolution has
been set in by forces of hardware
technologies at low cost, socialization
process due to interdependence, educational
projects, markets, excursions and
playgrounds become classrooms in the new
era.
Consideration of the practical aspects of the
learning process brings us to the question of
teaching methods and techniques. Many of
these are related to the particular subject or
subjects being taught, and therefore lie
outside the scope of a general education.
However, there are a number of common for
discussion. Points to to be reviewed. Gagne
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(1974), who draws upon both Skinner's
operant conditioning model and (though to a
lesser extent) the kind of conceptual model
by Bruner, suggests that the learning act
typically consists of a chain of events, some
internal to the learner and others external.
Events based on instructional material
become more effective. These are, in their
usual order of occurrence:
� Motivation (or expectancy);
� Apprehending (the subject perceives
the material and distinguishes it
from the other)
� Acquisition (the subject codes the
knowledge);
� Retention (the subject stores the
knowledge in short-or long-term
memory);
� Recall (the subject retrieves the
material from memory);
� Generalization (the material is
transferred to new situations, thus
allowing the subject to develop
strategies for dealing with situation)
� Performance (these strategies are
put into practice);
� Feedback (the subject obtains
knowledge of results).
Where there is a failure in the learning
process, Gagne' argues, it will take place at
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one of these levels, and it is the task of the
teacher to ascertain which, Gagne' considers
that the teacher can help failure through use
of instructional aids at all levels by bearing
in mind following steps:
Step 1: the learner is informed about what is
expected of him at the end of the learning
experience. This is best done by presenting
him with a list of the teacher's objectives.
Neglect of this basic step, suggests Gagne, is
a frequent cause of learning failure. The
learner is unsure of teacher expectations and
thus unable to monitor his own progress
adequately;
Step 2: the learner is questioned in a way
that requires a re-statement of earlier
concepts upon which the current learning 108 Khan et al., Gomal University Journal of Research 23: 102-
108
depends;
Step 3: the teacher provides cues that help
the learner put together the current learning
as a chain of concepts in the correct order;
Step 4: the learner is questioned in a way
that allows him to demonstrate concrete
applications of his learning;
Step 5: the learner is questioned in a way
that allows him to make statements of the
rule or rules that he has learned.
RECOMMENDATIONS
In order to make teaching learning process
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more effective following recommendations
may be followed.
� Every activity teacher does
undertake need to be carefully
planned.
� Familiarize himself with the
textbook and the instructional
materials used in the class.
� Illustrate your teaching by examples
from the daily routine experiences
of the students.
� Use correct and definite language
while putting questions to the
students.
� Use audiovisual aids properly.
� Teacher should demonstrate before
the whole class and not a few
students sitting on the front benches.
� In case of non-availability of A.V.
aids teacher must develop the
blackboard summary along with
relevant pictures and diagrams.
� Use the pointer to show some place
on the map or on the chart.
� Every new concept may be
explained with help of instructional
aids
� A separate fund may be created as
to make available needed
instructional material.
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� Some institutions are using low cost
and no cast material for facilitating
teaching learning process; it must be
followed by all the schools of the
country.
REFERENCES
Adams JA (1968). Response Feed Back And
Learning, Psychological Bull; vol: 6.pp.135-137
Allport GW (1946). A Secondary Principle
of Learning, Psychological preview,
vol:6.pp. 53.316-318
Collins A (1991). The role of technology in
destructing schools, Phi Dalta Kappan.
P.133
Cronbac L J (1986). How Can Instructions
Be Adapted To Individuals Differences?
Public Education, New York basic books.
P.121
Davis I K (1973). Competency Based
Learning, New York Macgraw Hill. P.497
Fontona D (1981). Psychology for Teachers,
British Psychological Society.P.147.
Gagne, R.M. (1974) Essential of Learning
For Instructions, Ninsdole, 2nd, Drygen
Press.PP 408-412
Nicholls Gill (2000). Learning to teach, Bell
and Bain LTD Glasgow.pp.356-360
Raw V K (2003). Quality teaching. APH
publishing corporation,5 , Ansari road New
Dehli.pp.36-39
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Siddiqui M H (2005).Techniques of
Teaching, APH publishing corporation New
Delhi. P.97
Scheffler I (1971). Philosophical Models For
Teaching, Harward Education review, vol:
35.P.173
Tolman E C (1932). There Is More Than
One Kind Of Learning, Psychological
review, vol: 56. P.272
Hunter I M L (1964). Memory, Facts And
Fallacies, Baltimre, Penguin Book INC.p.57
Spence K W (1956). Behavior Theory And
Conditioning, New Heaven, Yale University
Press.P.690.
Best J W (1990). Research in Education,
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