_ CHAPTER-6
Colonial regime and its Impact on Madrasa System in India
II Enamoured of the ideas of cultural synthesis in the history of
Indian civilization, Jawaharalal Nehru looked upon India's contact
with the western world during the 19th and 20th centuries as a
unique phenomenon. This in his view, was a contact between an
industrial society committed to scientific world view and progress,
and an agrarian society, wedded to religious world views and the
ideas of status quo. There is hardly any doubt that the modern
European contact with India brought about an unprecedented change
not only in the spheres of politics and economy but also in social
structure. A concomitant of this change was a large degree of
socio-cultural regeneration and resurgence. II 1
With the industrial revolution in England, a mad competition
took place among the European countries for accumulation of
wealth. All corners of the world, especially Asian and African
countries were ransacked by emerging colonial powers of the
west. The Britishers, the French, the Dutch and the Portuguese
entered the race to establish their hegemony in India. The Britishers,
the late comers to the Indian soil came out victorious as they
outwitted their other European competitors. Thus, second largest
population of the world remained prostrate under the western
domination for nearly two centuries. The natural resources of this
vast country and the lives and labour of its people were exploited
mercilessly in the interests of the new colonial master. A nation
1. Cultural reorientation in India under colonial rule, P I 3
252
that had a glorious past pushed to the wall.
The Indian feudals were weak and divided for their petty
interests. They couldn't bid good bye to their insignificant interests.
The colonial master was enough shrewd to make out their rivalries
and exploit the situation for the building up its dream empire.
The exploitation of Indian wealth by the colonial master was
done in three stages. In the first stage, Indian goods were bought
at low prices and sold in western markets at highest rates. In this
work, the Britishers were assisted by Sethias, mostly Hindus, who
worked as middlemen. The English, with the help of Sethias and
local Gomashtas, arbitrarily decided the prices. In the second stage,
the English started to use India as a potential market. The indigenous
crafts were broken and village economy was destroyed
systematically. This stage produced village Banias who were the
reckless users and peddlers of British goods. During this period the
English took the plantation of certain items in their hands. These
items included indigo, tea, jute and cotton which were to be
produced as per requirement of their master. The third stage
commenced when the English started building up subsidiary
industries in India in collaboration with Indian capitalists.
In the beginning, according to Vikasha, Muslim feudalism was
the chief obstacle for the British rule. They removed this by creating
& patronising a new class of traders & feudal lords. They were
predominantly Hindus. And when the new Class came of age and
253
began to outsmart their masters they exploited the old
contradictions of the Indian society to their benifit and resurrected
the Muslim feudalism in the shape of the Muslim league .1
Indigenous education in India in the 19th century was in a
deplorable condition. From the historicat records it appears that
the indigenous system of education was fast decaying due to the
rampant anarchy and ever-increasing impoverishment under the
British rule. Despite the feeble condition of indigenous system of
education, it was enough capable of being developed into a national
system of education by introducing some appropriate changes and
the modern system of education should have been built upon the
very foundation of the time-tested .indigenous system. unfortunately,
no efforts were made in this direction. Had it been the case, the
Indian masses would not have faced the bi-track system of
education and the present government. would have been bound to
realise to give a second thought to the traditional system of
education. And the whole debate on modernisation of traditional
institutions would have been futile. In spite of some time-to-time
encouragement by the government for the or~ental learning, the
indigenous system of education was either killed by ill-planned
attempts at reforms, or destroyed by deliberate competition, or
allowed to die of sheer neglect.
According to Dr. Naik," The results have been disastrous. It is
1. The Glimpses of Indian Culutre, P. 125.
254
true that attempts were made by the officers of the East India
Company and later by the education department, to create a new
system of education in India. For several reasons, the process was
slow, and it could hardly compensate for the loss of indigenous
schools, with the result that the educational position of India in
1921 was hardly better than that in 1821. In the meanwhile, other
nations of the East and West, whose educational advance was
equal or even inferior to that of India in 1821, made such rapid
advances that India soon lost her position of vantage in the coming
of nations and became one of the most educationally bakward
countries of the world." 1
The 19th century India is marked by creativity and innovation
of ideas in the intellectual history of the world. The century can be
described as the "era of renaissance." During the century, the
world in general and India in particular witnessed a considerable
awareness and awakening 1n the human mind, as India took its
rebirth from its own ashes like phoenix. With the help of awareness,
that India achieved from a new window during the period, a silver
line was drawn. Walking along the silver line India had to reach
the zenith of its lost glory.
The century also witnessed a remarkable intellectual acticivism.
Going by varied intellectual currents, some of which, of course,
flow through the revolutionary channels, India put itself on the
1. Student History of education in India P 28
255
move. Moreover, the century in question brought an unexpected
transformation on the socio cultural plain.
With the firm hold of British trading company, by the turn of
19th century, the wheels of India's political destiny had taken a
new turn. Every morning sun appeared on the sky with new hopes
and pleasant message for the nascent British imperialist power
and dismay and despair for the dying and eroding Indian authority.
The encounter of traditional superstitious India with the emerging
rational and progressive west compelled Indian wisdom and
conscience to research its valuable cultural heritage that had gone
into oblivion, leaving a bleak imprint on the minds of intelligentsia.
It was also realised that the traditional education in vogue in India
for centuries, should be reshaped with the synthesis of modern
westrn education.
Similarly there was an urge to renovate the termite affected
superstitious society, setting aside the evils and backward looking
elements that had become part and parcel of the society since
long, especially during 18th century, the high time of socio-cultural
degeneration of Indian society.
The nascent imperialist authority of India, i.e, 'the British East
India company' for quite a longer period, maintained a policy of
'Laissez fair' (Policy of non-intervention) in regard to educational
matters. Though some company officials in their individual capacity,
advocated the cause for social reforms and changes in educational
256
pattern, but their efforts, whatsoever honest and sincere, could
not be crowned with success due to the indifference of the
company's highest authority.
Despite rampant degeneration 1n socio cultural milieu of India
and repeated pleas made by some of the company's administrators,
the company's authority turned a deaf ear to the cause, keeping
in view the sensitivity of the issue. This is also but the fact that
they were well familiar with the genuineness of the cause, but
they were simply helpless under the given circumstances which
were not enough conducive for resorting to such activities. Instead
of addressing the cause of education and society which was quite
genuine in their minds and inviting their attention too, the authorities
evinced their keen interests in doing something worthwhile in
some other domain without touching the delicate chord of socio
cultural fabric. Commenting on the deliberate apathy of the
company's authorities Dr. Kaye (J. W) observes, "Till 1813 and
more correctly till 1833, the East India Co .. was primarily interested
in its trading activities and the profits derived from the revenue
administration of the territory under its control, it ruled but hardly
governed. Secondly the strong religious base of the Indian society
and culture dispirited many a reformer, administrator and liberal
policy maker of the company, who thought that because of their
alien origin, culture, religion and status any attempt on their part
to rejuvenate the society might be misunderstood by the people of
India, and create antagonism and opposition, bitter and powerful
257
enough, to shake even the foundation of the British rule in India.
It was mainly because of these reasons that in the beginning, the
East India company's government viewed any attempt at
proselytising by the Christian missionaries in India with alarm." 1
This also must be taken into consideration that the East India
Company till 1833 A .D had not been able to build an efficient
government conducive to the rule of law of order. The new
government of the company, as Warren Hastings himself observed
in 1772 A.D, " consisted of a confused heap of indigestion materials
as wild as the chaos itself. 2 " While supporting Fox's India bill Mr.
Burke observed that the company's government was "One of the
most corrupt and obstructive tyrannies, that probably ever existed
m the world. " 3
He further remarked in his speech in the impeachment of Warren
Hastings in 1788, "My lords, by means of this bad system of
things it has so happened, and does happen, that the very laws
we have made, the covenants the company has got its servants
to enter into, and the orders that have been given, have proved
most noxious and mischievous to the country instead of beneficial, "4
An Indian writer justly observed in 1986 that the "government of
the East India company had nearly until the close of the 18th
1. Christianity in india P. 513
2. Dawn of renascent India P. 5
3. !hid
4. !hid
258
century been a despotism with scarcely any mitigating features to
compensate for the loss of the manifold advantages of a native
rule. " 1
Under the elaborated picture, the Govt of East India company
was, indeed, helpless, and it could do nothing except to follow the
policy of Non-intervention in regard to socio-religious matters in
India, as any positive move in this direction was bound to invite
bitter and sharp reactions from the indigenous people who were
keeping an eye on the gradual activities of the colonialists and
constantly trying to take on them with the wink of an eye. In
short, non-interference was the contextual historic compulsion,
without which the survival of colonial authority was in lurch.
With the commencement of 19th century, a debate on the
promotion of socio-cultural welfare of the people in India started in
and outside the British parliament. The nature of the issue was so
complex that might not possibly be addressed without much
hindrance. The Britishers, both in and outside the parliament were
just a divided lot, for some it was a pressing need, while for
others it was none of the business of the company. For the
formers, the company must take the responsibility to educate the
people, while for the latter, the company was a trading
establishment not the welfare association.
1. Ibid
2. N B. K.K. Dutta has taken all the above referencesfrom PN Bose. A history (if Hindu civilization during British rule, Vol. III P -15
259
The conservatives like Warren Hastings and the noted orientalist
H.H wilson wanted to maintain the status quo. To them, the
company should function in the general tradition, looking after
peace and security of the people, without touching the rituals,
customs and traditions. The company must confine itself to the
patronage of existing socio-cultural order without playing with the
established norms. The stand taken by the orientalists was
welcomed by the right-wing Tories in the British parliament, but
was opposed by the Anglicists with equal force.
Despite much commonalities between the orientalists and the
Anglicists on various issues, they were diagonally opposite to
each other on the issue of educational reforms in India. The
Anglicists were terrified with irrational and inhuman cultural
practices in India. On humanitarian grounds they vehemently
opposed the 'policy of status quo' adopted by the then ruling
right-wing Tories on the internecine pressure exerted by the
Orientalists. They were of the view that through preaching of
gospel they should enlighten the people. Once the people will be
able to differentiate between right and wrong, they will follow the
right track and get rid of superstition. The idea floated by the
Anglicists was championed by Willberforce, a protagonist of anti
slavery agitation and Charles Grant, a director, and, later on the
chairman of East India company.
The Anglicists were backed m their struggle against the
260
Orientalists by Utilitarians who had much influence in the decision
making process in Britain. The famous Utilitarian James Mill, who
shot to prominence for his monumental work "History of India" a
guideline for the Britishers to govern India, contributed a lot to the
just cause advocated by the Anglicists. Utilitarians were highly
influenced with Bentham's theory of legislation that societies could
be reformed by enforcing just laws.
Yet further the Anglicists were supported by some of the
administrators of East India company, who sacrificed a lot to the
consolidation of British power in India. They were well experienced
and matured people. They were enough familiar with the inner and
outer currents of the country. This small but powerful group of the
administrators proposed gradual reforms, as any move taken in haste
may backfire. To be on the safer side they wanted to bring reforms
in the form of sugar coated pills, so that Indians could digest smoothly,
without showing any resistance or disdain. The group was led by
Mountstuart Elphinstone, who introduced westrn education at the
prime presidency, Mumbai, Charls Metcalfe, John Malcolm and Thomas
Munro. It was Sir Thomas Munro who paid serious attention towards
the spread of English education after taking charge of governorship in
Madras (Now Chennai).
The intellectual discourses continued between the Anglicists
and the Orientalists for quite a long time, and finally the ruling
right wring Tories had to recede to the long-pending pressing
261
demand of the oppositions. As a token of confession, they
introduced series of reform bills, whereby the ice started melting
and flowing to different channels in India.
The reform initiative undertaken by the East India Company
authority on the instance of British parliament pacified the burning
zeal of pro-reform groups, struggling for this noble cause incessantly.
They welcomed the move with great pleasure and happiness, while
for anti-reform lobby it was a big jolt. Charles, an Anglicist
philanthropist, who after spending some year ( 1792-97) in India,
submitted a treatise on the improvement of Indians to the 'Court of
Directors,' observed, "It is perfectly in the power of this country by
degrees to impart to the Hindus our language; afterwards through
that medium to make them acquainted with our literary compositions
upon a variety of subjects and let not the idea hastily excite derision,
progressively with the simple elements of our arts, our philosophy
and religion. These acquisitions would silently undermine, and at
length subvert the fabric of error." 1
He further observed, "By planting our language, knowledge, our
opinions and our religion in our Asiatic territories, we shall put a
great work beyond the reach of contingencies. " 2
Another notable Anglicist Willberforce, who despite his untiring
efforts could not succeed during 1793 A. D in his mission just
because one of the Directors objected his move saying. "We have
1. Dutta (K.K.), opcit. P. 26
2. /hid
262
just lost America for our folly in having allowed the establishment
of schools and colleges, and that it would not do for us to repeat
the same act of folly in regard to lndia." 1
The resolution moved by Willberforce was rejected by parliament
1n 1793 A.D simply declaring most blatantly that 'Philanthropy
was not a part of Government."
The utilitarians also got an opportunity when James Mill occupid
a key position in the Indian house in 1819 A.D By the year 1928
A. D the situation changed to a great extent and Tory president of
the board of control wrote to lord william Bentinck, Governor General
( 1828-1835). "we have a great moral duty to perform in India."
Now, the situation became completely favourable. The history
of origin and development of modern system of education in India
may be traced out not only from socio-cultural and political condition
of India but also from socio-cultural and political developments in
contemporary England. Several Indian institutions were planned in
tune with the contemporary institutions in England. The change in
educational policy in England also cast its direct impact upon
Indian educational system.
The whole controversy on the introduction of modern system
of education in India revolved around the old and the new, between
the efforts of colonial power to impose a blind imitation of British
education system and the desire of the indigenous people to evolve
1. Social History of Modem India P. 12
263
a system that could cater to their needs and aspirations. Till the
beginning of 19th century, the indigenous Indian system of
education was in the saddle. Soon afterwards of the christian
missionaries who were wei-armed with the gospel of Evangelisation.
These missionaries were joined by some of the forward-looking
administrators associated with East India company, and some
enlightened Indians who were either well grounded in modern
system of education or enough far-sighted to look into the destiny
of India in the days to come. Due to the earnest efforts of the
above three groups, modern system of education knocked at the
door of Indian brain in the remotest zone of this vast land.
The modern system of education engulfed the country for several
reasons. According to the prominent educationists Syed Nurullah
and J.P Naik," The British people of the Victorian era complacently
believed that their language, Literature and Educational methods
were the best in the world and that India could do no better than
adopt them in totality, Secondly, the Indians of this period, on
their part were dazzled by their first contact with the western
civilization and believed that their country could do no better than
imitate the British model, and thirdly, the system attained an
artificial popularity and importance because the young men and
women educated under it were freely employed in government * services" As a result the indigenous system of education, by the
* The quotation has been takken from the introduction of the book "'Students History of education in India", joint(y written by Syed Nuru/lah and Naik (JP) and published by Macmillan & Co. Ltd., Mumhai in 1945.
264
end of the 19th century, completely replaced by a new system of
education aimed at the spread of western knowledge through the
medium of English. With the advent of 20th century the political
scinario changed the world over. During 1904-05 A.D the defeat
of a rising power of Europe like Russia by a tiny state of Asia like
Japan exhorted the dwindling morale of Asian nations. The victory
of Japan was a message for the Asian nations not to imitate the
west blindly and irrationally. The idea was further strengthened by
the outbreak of the world war first (1914-18 A.D). The world war
revealed to the world in general and India in particular that
something was wrong with the western civilization. Hence, it was
inviting the people to the western values before their adoption in
totality. The logical corollary of these two incidents was that India
put a check to the blind imitation of the west, and started searching
for a system of education, not alien to its people. In its sincere
and honest pursuit India succeeded, as the institutions like Vishwa
Bharti, Jamia Millia lslamia, Banaras Hindu University and Aligarh
Muslim University came to exist.
As pointed out at the very outset, modern education in India
was mainly introduced by three agencies : the missionaries, the
British officials with education department, and the Indian
intelligentsia. Setting aside, the motive of missionaries for
Evangelisation, one has to admit their precious contribution to the
promotion of English in India. If one compares the quantum of
their success, it would be difficult for him/her to assess whose
265
efforts should be given the first priority: the company's efforts or
the missionaries. The decision should be left on the academic
analysts.
Nevertheless, due to the policy of non intervention, it was a
hard task before the missionaries to operate freely without much
hindrance and seek their desired goal, as the prime motive of East
India Company was to make money not to propagate religion and
disseminate knowledge. To maintain its commercial and political
stability, the company was empowered by the British parliament
in 1783 to restrict the entry of the missionaries, "As a result the
entire number of missionaries sent out up to the end of 18th
century was only 50, and at no time were there more than ten in
the field. " 1 These missionaries wanted to spread the western
education in India for evangelical preparations, for the recruitment
of Indians for the propagation of gospel among their countrymen.
The missionaries people continued their struggle to overcome
the restrictions, imposed on their entry into India, by the British
parliaments. After a long struggle, they succeeded in their motive in
1813 A.D, whereby the restrictions, were removed. With the
removed of barrier, many institutions sprang up within a short span
of time. Moreover, their contributions to the mental upliftment of
the general masses in general and the depressed section, in particular
are worth appreciation. Their efforts to eradicate socio-cultural evils
1. History of Protestant missions in India P -19
266
widespread in the Indian society at that time apparently may not
have succeeded but they helped a lot in the popularisation of an
ideology.
Their functioning style among the people inspired many for
rendering selfless social services. And finally their efforts proved
to be a milestone in shaping the prominent personalities who
proved their latent & calibre during the freedom struggle of the
nation. The emergence of such personalities testifies the utility
and vitality of missionary activities on the Indian soil.
The British officials of the education department came to the
force only after the historic wood despatch ( 1854 A.D) but
dominated the educational domain for the period more than others.
The admisnistrators like Mountstuart Elphinstone who introduced
western education in Mumbai presidency, Charles Metcalfe who
practiced liberal policies when ruling Delhi territory and John
Malcolm who is known for his just policies in central India did a lot
for the promotion of English language in India.
The Indian intelligentsia stepped in the beginning of 19th century,
and by the end of the century started their demand for lndiansation
of education, they partially succeeded in their mission in 1921
A.D, and more correctly in 1937. By the time of independence,
the system of education, in India, assumed an indigenous colour.
The whole journey of modern education system in India can be
described in six stages, as done by Syed Nurullah and Naik (J .P)
267
but since, I am least concerned with the last two stages, I will * confine myself to four stages only.
The first stage starts from the beginning of 18th century and
ends with the remarkable charter act ( 1813). Despite the fact that
East India company was established in 1600 AD, but it maintained
its complete indifference towards educational cause. The conflict
at this stage, mainly centred around two basic issues: first there
was a dispute between the Directors of the company who had no
willingness to accept the responsibility to educate the people and
the company officials who were pressing their demands to educate
the people. Secondly, there was a dispute between the court of
Directors who were not ready to allow the missionaries to operate,
and the missionaries were adamant to spread gospel of Jesus
among the Indians. Both the disputes were diluted after the
enactment of charter Act of 1813. And this was the beginning of
the state system of education in India under the British rule.
The second stage starts with the Charter Act ( 1813 A.D) and
ends with declaration of remarkable wood's education despatch
( 1 854). The second stage is replete with controversies between
the groups and sub-groups.
The conflict of this stage revolves around the controversial
views of two schools of thought. The earlier school was led by
*All these four points have been taken from the introduction of book"students History(~! education in India "jointly written by syed Nurrllah and Naik (J.P)
268
Macaucay, believed in the replacement of traditional Indian
education with modern western one, and decided to create a class
of loyal Indians; Indians in blood and colour, but English in tastes,
in opinions, in morals and in intellect. This school was, mainly
comprised of missionary people whose prime task was
proselytisation, while the latter school believed in a synthesis of
the Eastern and Western cultures. This school of thought mainly
consisted of the senior officials of the company who were the
brain child of Hastings and Lord Minto.
Unfortunately, the latter school of thought succumbed to the
difference of opinions between the Calcutta group and Mumbai
group. Calcutta officials believed that such a synthesis could be
brought about by spreading western science and knowledge through
the medium of Indian classical languages. On the other lard Mumbai
officials believed that this synthesis is possible by spreading western
knowledge and science through the spoken language of the Indian
people.
The controversy between the missionary people and the people
of pro-synthesis, likewise the difference of opinions between two
pro-synthesis groups confounded the issue further, and it reached
a point where it became difficult to distinguish English as a medium
of instruction from English as a subject. Hence the whole issue
centred around following major points:
( 1) What should be the object of the educational policy to
269
spread western knowledge or to preserve Eastern learning?
(2) What should be the medium of instruction- English Sanskrit,
or Arabic, or the modern Indian languages?
(3) What should be the agency for the spread of education-the
mission schools, the institutions directly controlled by the company
or the indigenous school conducted by Indians themselves?
(4) what should be the method of spreading education- should
government try to educate the masses directly, or should it only
educate a few Indians and leave it to them to educate others?
The woods educational despatch ( 1854) set aside the above
conflicting issues by its historic proclamation:
( 1) The main object of the educational policy was to spread
western knowledge and science. The oriental learning would be
given some encouragement at collegiate stage only.
(2) Both English and spoken languages of the people should be
used as medium of instruction at the secondary stage.
(3) The government can't cater to the educational needs of the
country. The bulk of the educational institutions would have to be
organised by private bodies- whether missionary or Indian.
(4) From now onwards, the education of the masses should be
regarded as a duty of the state.
The third stage ( 1854-1900 A.D) is marked by rapid westernization
270
of the educational system in India. The period in question witnessed
a major conflict between the fading indigenous system of education
and the new system of education created by wood's despatch.
The oriental learning, despite getting assurance from the despatch
for some official encouragement, got sidelined out of utter
contempt. Under such condition of helplessness, it had to fight a
battle for its survival.
The oriental learning was further cornored by the undue
importance attached to new system of education by the
gover.nment, as there was a free employment in government
services for the persons educated and trained, in new system.
This discriminatery policy of the government led to the almost
complete extinction of the indigenous system of education in India.
The fourth stage that starts with the conference of directors of
Public instruction convened by lord Curzon at Shimla in 1901 A.D,
and closes with the transfer of education to the control of Indian
ministries in 1921 A.D, was a period of ever-increasing political
unrest in the country.
The period under discussion passed through various political ups
and downs across the world. India itself was heading towards its
independence with more rapidity than ever before. The day-to-day
development in the country led to the awakening. The people started
waking up from their deep long slumber. Amidst these developments,
the educational conflict of the period saw the light of the day.
271
On the efficacy of the educational system in India, the opinions
of Indian educationists as well as Europeans were divided. Some
thinkers believed that the quality of education in India had
deteriorated since the recommendations of Indian education
commission in 1880. The schools and colleges operating under
private management could not maintain the desired standard of
discipline. The alien western culture could not be digested by the
educated Indians. The new education system could not equip its
learners with ideal character. These thinkers, for all the above
defects, blame the government that followed the policy of expansion
without paying much attention to the schools and colleges run by
private managements. To these thinkers, the government should
concentrate on the improvement of quality rather than increasing
their number.
Contrary to the above thinkers, some other educationists believed
that the recommendations of Indian education system was an
appropriate action at appropriate time. To these educationists,
quality was not everything spread of western knowledge and
sciences was the need of the hour to create renaissance in the
Indian national life. They suggested an expansion of higher studies
on the voluntary basis and the introduction of compulsory
elementary education for the entire masses. And the private
enterprise must be given a free hand. Any policy to control private
enterprise means depriving a large section of the Indians of their
basic needs.
272
The conflict between the above two groups of thinkers at the
level of perception, continued at various stages. The earlier
dominated the latter, as it mainly consisted of company officials,
while the latter comprised of enlightened Indians. Despite their
defeat at various levels, the enlightened Indian put their demand
persistently "to control the educational policy of the country. Keeping
in view their persistent demand the department of education was
transferred to Indian ministers.
"The enthusiasm for English education, however, was practically
confirmed to Hindus. The Muslim community was opposed to it.
In 1835, the new educational policy was announced and its
objectives came to be known that the government is encouraging
English, ar:td discouraging Hindu and Islamic religious studies, was
the conversion of the people to Cristianity. There was scarcely
any relaxation from this attitude of suspicion and hostility for half
a century. The Muslim remained attached to their traditional culture
and desired to study only the Law, Literature and theology of
Islam, even though the government announced in 1844 A.D, that
in making appointments in public service it would give preference
to those who had received education in English. English education
was accordingly almost the exclusive possession of the Hindus,
and only of the upper classes among them, for it did not as yet
penetrate to the lower strata of the society. 1
I. Evolution of Indian Culture PP 14-15.
273
Replacement of Persian with English as an official language in
1937 A.D, was another setback for the Muslims in India. With the
adoption of English as an official language, the Muslims lost their
hopes and aspirations, as it was the only means for their survival.
The policy was considered by the community as a direct attempt
to deprive them from their last means of bread and butter. But
even this harsh step could not make them to follow the foot-steps
of the British and hug the changes brought about by them. Still
they resisted the western influences with the maximum possible
might at thier disposal.
Mr. 0. Malley rightly pointed out saying, "While Hindu thought
was swinging away a reaction against western influences, a
movement in the opposite direction set in among the Muslims.
English education was hitherto been regarded with mistrust and
dislike as being divorced from relation and alien to Islamic culture,
which made the Indian born Muslim conscious that he was one of
an international fraternity. The idea of purely secular education
was opposed to the tradition of Islam, and it was feared that its
rationalising tendencies would undermine the foundations· of faith.
But experience had shown that English education was a valuable
qualification for admission to, and promotion in, government service,
as well as for success in other walks of life, and that by abstention
from it, the Muslims have fallen into a position of inferiority vis
a-vis Hindus. There was a growing realization among an influential
section that in their own interests they must fall in line with their
274
Hindu competitors and march with the times. This change of front was,
very largely due to the enlightened guidance of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan,
a man of outstanding personality, who was convinced that the adoption
of western learning was essential for the welfare of his co-religionists.
Islamic culture, however, was to be preserved and harmonized with
western learning. Education was not to be divorced from religion, and
moral training was to go hand in hand with scholastic instruction. " 1
1. Modern India and the West
275
II
British policy in the socio-cultural and political sphere produced
certain far-reaching effects. The introduction of English education
proved to be a chief solvent to superstitious ideas in India, and
chief source from which new ideas were supplied to the dried
veins of the society. It irrigated the barren minds of the Indians
through instilling creative and imaginative capacities. In short, it
was the main source for the proliferation of dormant ideas. English
influenced not only one or two spheres, but opened a new window
to peep into the new horizon altogether. It left indelible marks on
sociocultural plain.
According to stephen Neil (F.B.A), "In the first quarter of the 19th
century conditions changed with great rapidly. Indians became aware
of the importance of English language, not only as a means to
securing remunerative employment under government, but as a key
of liberty; liberty to enter a vast world of thought and knowledge to
which previously they had no access. Minds which had began to be
trained in the thought of Newton, lock and Burke, could no longer •
remain contended in the world of Puranas and the ancient mythologies.
But the possibilities of acquiring English, or gravely limited, or
elementary in some cases hindered by gross incompetence. " 1
The spread of western knowledge and science changed the
whole intellectual climate of the country. In the light of new ideas
1. History of Christianity in India P 327
276
from the west, the process of self instruction began, and this
proved to be a catalyst to initiate socio cultural reform through
various organisations.
During the early decades of 19th century translations of English
classics into the Indian languages enriched the intellectual domain
of India. The scientific study of Indian classical languages was
also encouraged by an influential section of British officials. British
scholars, helped by Indians contributed a lot to the promotion of
classical Indian heritage. Apart from books on grammars, they
compiled a number of dictionaries. And last but not the least,
contacts with English literature led to development of prose literature
in the Indian languages, which had been dominated by poetry for
centuries.
"The influence of English literature on the literature in the main
Indian languages was continuous and more intensive in the period
after 1857 A.D, than before. The forms of prose literature, that
were adopted in this period were mainly the novel, the essay and
drama. The short story came in a little later and was developed
particularly during the period between the two world wars. In
poetry lyrics were adopted from English and such other poetic
forms as the sonnet was also adopted." 1
The intimate contact with the west effected through the advent
of the British brought a radical change in the political, social and
1. Modern India and the West P. 93
277
religious outlook of the Indians. The 19th century India witnessed
a christian missionary movement from Europe and elsewhere,
unparalleled in the history of christianity. The missionaries took
their faith to the remotest part of India and touched the cultural
chord of the country. In the name of service to the 'children' of
God, they did not confine their activities to the establishment of
schools, hospitals and other charitable organisations but exceeded
their limit, under the garb of missionaries, they attacked the Indian
society and religion of both-Hindus and Muslims. Through their
activities, they tried to shake up the whole existing religious set-up.
They presented christianity as the only true religion of the world.
As a result, many Indians embraced christianity for economic &
other benefits and gave up the religion of their forefathers.
Nevertheless, aggressive nature of proselytization aroused the
religious feelings of Muslims and Hindus and provided an opportunity
for self introspection. Hence, various socio-cultural and religious
movements appeared among the Hindus.
Muslims, on the other hand, were also a target of missionary's
criticism. Muslim theologians (Uiemas) responded the challenges
of missionaries. They had given them a befitting reply. Their
vehement attack on certain historical events of Islam compelled
the Ulemas on debates with them in the public arena. It can be
said that missionary activities helped increasing the number of
Madrasas in India, some way or the other.
278
The missionaries, however, can not be discredited wholly for
their attack on Indian religions and society. Apart from this and
many other, their contributions are countless, especially when it
comes to the Indian renaissance.
Indian renaissance which has been a matter of spirit producing
brought about hanges in the realms of religion, society and culture
along with a demand for nation regeneration. The Indian renaissance
stirred the Indian soul to its very depths and produced far-reaching
changes in several spheres of Indian life. According to Dr. R.C
Majumdar, II A critical outlook on the past and new aspiration for
the future marked the new awakening. Reason and judgement
took the place for faith and belief, superstition yielded to science,
immobility was replaced by progress and zeal for reform of proven
abuses, overpowered age long apathy and inertia and a complacent
acquiscence in whatever was current in society. The traditional
meaning of the 'Sastras' was subjected to critical examination and
new conceptions of morality and religion remodelled the orthodox
beliefs and habits. 111
The above remark suffices to testify the precious contributions
of renaissance, which is a product of western science and
knowledge, and the missionaries share in the spread of western
knowledge and science is known to all.
According to Dr. B.N. Lunia, II In the closing years of the 18th
1. Studies in the cultural history of India P. 357
279
century channels of Indian culture were getting dry. The culture of
the country had become moribund, decadent and effete. The
creative spirit had disappeared in fine arts, Literature, Science,
Philosophy and religion. The intellectual life had become dull and
sluggish, knowledge was pertified. Society with all its evil customs
was like a pool of stagnant water. The traditional charms of Indian
society collapsed. India needed a violent shock and a rude challenge
to remedy this state of affairs. This was provided by the people of
western countries and their culture. It is a mistake to think that
this shock, challenge, and effect of the West on India were due to
the advent of the British. Sometimes, the British endeavoured to
hinder the healthy influence of the West by reactionary elements.
In fact, the Western influence in India was the outcome of the
forces of times and history as it happened in China and Japan. In
courses of time, the western influence would have entered India
even without the advent of the British." 1
The old values of India were threatened by the rising Western
Civilization and culture by the end of the 18th century. Indian
Socio-religious institutions could not withstand the cultural storm
of the west, and ultimately there was no option but to yield the
western pressure. The edifice of the Indian culture was flown
away in the flood of western superiority. The western current
revolutionised the ideas of all those who came close to it. As a
1. Evolution of Indian culture P 522
280
consequence, the Indian intelligentsia were sharply divided in three
blocks. The first block consisting of those who immediately bade
good bye to their long traditions and culture and advocated to
follow the western life-style without any cross examination. The
second block consisted of those who along with their positive
resistance to the blind imitation of the West, resorted to reform
within their existing fold. And the third block consists of those
who outrightly rejected the exotic alien culture without going into
rational discourses and pragmatic implications altogether.
The contact of India with the outside world was not a new
phenomenon. Its historical records show that it had been frequently
in touch with foreign powers, during the course of history. And
every contact with the outside world resulted in some exchanges
in different spheres of life.
Its contact with Islam also brought about some major implications.
Nevertheless, the impact of Islam was largely confined to the urban
life, but the impact of the west on Indian socio-cultural life is
durable and engulfed far-flung areas in the remote. With the passage
of time, these influences in the Indian life are becoming more
pronounced.
One of the striking impacts of western culture on India was the
growth of Indian vernacular literatures. Contact with the European
minds benefited Indians. Through the English language a flood of
western ideas threw itself before the Indians. Penetration of western
281
ideas brought a mental revolution. Dr. B.N. Lunia observes,
"Numerous works in the English language provided new trends of
thought and action in India. The western literature offered several
brilliant specimens in the different branches of literature and Indian
writers copied them. The best of the writers of the Indian vernacular
literatures have been western in spirit, in outlook, in literary devices,
in the choice and treatment of the subjects. Though they retained
a close connection with the west in literature and life of ancient
India they represented the spirit of the west clad in a half oriental
garb." 1
Before the advent of the British, the Indian vernacular literatures
dealt with religious subjects. Prose which was developed and
improved during the British rule in India, started its journey from
the translated works of English Prose. Before, poems were the
only means of expression, replete with mythological stories. The
stories, novels, and the history of literature popular in Europe for
centuries before 1850 A.D, were quite unknown in India. As a
result of contact with the west, Indian vernacular literatures not
only improved the strength of vocabulary but also variety, neutrality
and flexibility of the language.
The influence of English prose 1s very much reflected in the
writings of Indians prose writers in terms of both form and content.
In terms of form, Indian writers adopted the English method and
1. Evolution of Indian Culture P 522
282
in technique of expression, and interms of content, they switched
over from religious and mythological stories to the issues faced by
the commoners. The Indian plays changed their colour. The growth
of one Act play in the Indian dramas and the analytical expression
speak of the influence of the west. In the Indian stories, novels
and essays western models were adopted. The art of literary
criticism in the Indian vernacular literatures was also taken from
the west. Western scholars and missionaries played a pivotal role
in the compilation of Dictionaries and composing of grammars in
Indian vernaculars. The publication of Bible in the Indian spoken
languages, the establishments of printing press, circulation of Indian
newspapers and study of western literature further facilitated the
way for the promotion of Indian vernaculars.
Like prose, poetry also was influenced by the West. English
Sonnet, Ode and Blank Verse were adopted by the Indian vernacular
writers. English lyrics freely followed. In poems of love and
mysticism, British ideas were initiated. And the feelings of
nationalism and patriotism, in the Indian vernaculars were also
expressed in line with the west by the great poets of the time.
Freedom and individuality also echoed in the poetry poems of
those days.
Impact on Indian society: Due to Indian proximity with the
west, age-old moral values changed beyond recognition. The very
concept of morality was transformed, manners, etiquetes, dress
283
and diet, thinking patterns and living style of the Indians took a
new shape altogether. Collectivism and social consciousness were
replaced with individualisation. The whole set-up of traditional
joint family was shattered and nuclear family took its place.
Impact on religion and philosophy: Superstition was replaced by
reason and rationality. Conservatism gave gave way to freethinking
and freedom of expression. The traditional beliefs and faiths were
questioned and cross-questioned. The whole religious thoughts
and social questions were reoriented in a Western paradigm. In the
realm of philosophy, materialism, realism and idealism came into
being on the western pattern. Impact on scientific research: with
the contact of the West enlightened Indians realised that scientific
inventions and research are the key to success for any nation.
Progress of Western World on this line was a living example to it.
Indians learnt from the west rational thinking, scientific approach
to the problems and application of science in various walks of life.
In the contact, Indians gained not only the curiosity and spirit for
scientific research but also got some courage and capabilities to
peep into the mysteries of human life and universe which were
lost during the medieval age.
284
Ill
The aforementioned account leaves an impression on the minds
of the readers that it was only Indian that was influenced with the
ideas and thoughts of the west in almost all walks of life, and the
west remained intact without being influenced by the Indian views
and thinking. This impression makes a person feels that India has
always been on the receiving end. This can not be a real picture
of the story. The fact is that it was altogether a matter of mutual
exchanges between the two different 'Cultures and civilizations -
East and West. The way west influenced India, India also
reciprocated the west with something or the other. India, too left
its deep imprint on the western intelligentsia through the ages,
right from the ancient times.
Without touching the detailed account of the influence of India's
culture and civilisation on the west, during the ancient time and
medieval ages, we must concentrate on the modern era, as we
have done in the case of western influence on India's culture and
civilisation.
By the closing years of 18th and the beginning of 19th century,
European, American and British scholars endeavoured both individually
and collectively for the systematic study of Indian cultures and
ethos. Many great scholars sought solace and relief in the Indian
wisdom from the mechanised, materialistic and soul-corroding
civilization of the west. This particular class of the western may be
285
termed as the dissatisfied children of the west. The Indian influence
reflects itself abundantly in their writing and speeches. Germany
was the first country in Europe that took a lead in the discovery
of precious Indian treasures of socio-cultural life. German scholars
made untiring efforts to bring the shining aspects of Indian culture
to the European Public. To Schopenhauer, a noted German scholar
Upnishads came as a new revelation. For him, the study of
Upnishads had been the solace of his life and it would be solace
of his death. Kant, another reputed German thinker was highly
influenced by the doctrine of Upnishads. And yet another well
known German thinker Count Hermann Keyserling was so much
influenced by Indian mysticism and spiritual ideology that he
recognised the absolute superiority of India over the west in
philosophy.
In the domain of poetry the Indian poets exerted their profound
influence on their German counterparts. Goethe, an established
German poet, was highly influenced by the writings of Kalidasa,
the author of a famous poem 'Meghdoot' (The messenger of
clouds). Max Muller, a notable German scholar derived such an
inspiration from India that he convinced the Westerners of
magnificence of Indian culture.
Influence of Indian thought and culture entered America from
the early years of 19th century through the study of Indian classical
works in English translation, commercial relations and writings of
286
Rajaram Mohan Roy. The famous American writer and thinker
Ralph Waldo Emersion ( 1803-1882), poet Wall whitman and Alcott
were profoundly influenced by Indian Philosophy. Emersion had an
attitude of admiration for the Indian teachings. The Indian teachings
he observed, "through its cloud of legends, has yet a simple and
grand religion, like a queenly countenance seen throughout a rich
evil. It teaches to speak truth, love others as yourself, and to
despise trifles ... identity, identity! friend and foe are of one stuff.
Cheerful and noble is the genius of this cosmology. 1 Poet Walt
Whitman's poems "Passage to India" and "leaves of grass" reflect
distinctly the spiritual life of India.
Yet another celebrated American Philosopher poet and a
contemporary of Emersion, Henry Davi Thoreau, author of the
famous book "Waldem" (Life on the woods) was fascinated by
Indian thought and wisdom. Heedless towards glamour of mundane
existence, he spent his life as an Indian ascetic. He observed,
"The new testament is remarkable for its pure morality; the best
of Hindu scripture, for its pure intellectuality. The reader is nowhere
raised into and ·sustained into a higher, purer or rare origin of
thought than in the Bhagwat Gita. " 2
Dr. Datta maintained, "Roman Rolland, a French scholar with a
1. Quoted in Aronson, "Europe looks at India" P. Jl8
I have taken here from Dutta (K.K.), Modem India and World fellowship, Macmillan, Madras, 1970. PP 40-41
2. Ihid pp 42-43
287
marvellous appreciation of Indian thought and culture, preached
the gospel of a perfect synthesis between East and West as a
panacea for the evils from which humanity was suffering due to
the ravages of war and pernicious effects of western materialisation.
Referring to Europe and Asia he remarked in Jan. 1922 A.D, This
hand stretched by Asia we take it into ours. Our cause is one: To
save humanity and its harmony, Europe, Asia their forces are
different: Let us unite them to accomplish the common work; the
greatest civilization, the total human genesis. Teach us to
understand all, Asia, teach us your life wisdom. And learn from us
how to act. 1 The renowned French mystic Paul Richard was
considerably influenced by the doctrines of Aurobindo.
Gigantic Russian personality like Tolstoy was also influenced
with the ideas of some outstanding Indians. Swami Vivekanand
and M.K. Gandhi's ideas left a deep imprint on him. Tolstoy made
his observations about Indian in his letter to Hindu, written in
1908 A.D, in reply to a letter from the editor of "Free Hindustan",
which was one of the organs of the Indian revolutionaries and had
as its motto, "Resistance to aggression is not simply justifiable
but imperative; non resistance hurts both, Altruism and Egoism. 2
The British poets writers, thinkers philosophers and scholars
have also, like others, been influenced by Indian religion and
i. ibid P. 47
2. See for detail ibid P. -1-1
288
philosophy. The Indian influence is very much evident in the writings
of great British poets like Shelley, Wordsworth, Carlyle and Robert
Browning. Lord Tennyson, the famous laureate poet of England
referred to Indian topics in some of his poems. The Tantrik Indian
system was introduced in the west by Sir John Woodroff. Similarly
Indian thoughts and wisdom are reflected in the philosophical
writings of thinkers like Gerald Heard and Aldous Huxley. Somerset
Maugham, a famous novelist favoured visit to India to acquire
knowledge of higher values of life. 1
During the 19th century the impact of Indian culture and tradition
can be seen in day-to-day's life of the Britishers living in India in
variant capacities. The old-age Indian tradition of 'Huqqa', the
medieval heritage of Polao were adopted by the Britishers and
many Indian manners and dishes became popular among them. On
the intellectual plain, the British officials were left with no option
but to be fascinated. Historians like Elphinstone, Tod, Malcome,
John Smith and Dull introduced India to the west. The Indian
culture found an expression in the writings of poets like Edwin
Arnold and Kipling and novelist like Thackeray. To be concise on
the subject we are dealing with, let me quote B.N. Luniao who
observes, "The impact of the west felt by us in the domains of
religion, society, politics, literature - may, in every walk of life -
and after a violent shock we were awakened to our own inborn
1. See for detail Evolution of Indian Culture PP 52-1-525
289
potentialities. But the west could not escape the effect of India's
close contact. It not only realised the glory that was India, but
was raised into a higher and spiritual life of divine knowledge,
bliss and harmony. '11
After giving a bird's eye v1ew to the impact of the west on
Indian society and culture, especially education and vice versa, we
must cast a glance at the impact of colonialism on some other
countries in Asia as well, so that the picture of Indian society and
culture under the colonial regime becomes more clear in a paradigm
of comparision and contrast.
"Looking at the British impact on India as a whole and contrasting
it with the impact of the west generally on other countries in Asia
like Japan and China certain differences stand out. India observed
most of the theoritical knowledge and the philosophical ideas of
the west, but did not to that extent imbibing the techniques and
the know-how of the west. Japan in contrast took on most of the
latter and left the former very much outside her shores. The
Chinese tried to absorb the techniques of the west, especially in
regard to warfare, and did not make much effort to take over the
ideational foundations of the same. " 2
The book further says, "Education under the British, was always
1. Ibid PP 527-528
2. Studies in the Cultural history of India P 3()4
290
characterised as being an excessively literary system which
produced quiet drivers rather than technicians. II 1
Analysing the reasons for more pronouncement of western
education in India than that in China or Japan, the book says, II As
a consequence of the British conquest of India, the old leadership
was almost completely wiped out. The new leadership that arose
in the country came mainly from the English educated classes and
the intellectualists, mainly Brahamans. This did not happen in
Japan and China, where the old leadership continued to hold
sway. The new leadership in India was more theoretical than
practical. This was no accident. The intellectual tradition in India,
which is mainly the Brahamins tradition, has that characteristics.
It is singularly free from restrictions or inhibitions regarding
intellectual speculation. In India, there has rarely been a persecution
for holding certain opinions. This was partly because, though
intellectual speculation was free, the translation of new ideas into
practice was hidebound by the prevailing ethics and modes of
behaviour. The Brahamins themselves had laid down the rule that
many things might be rationally obvious and good, they should not
be brought into practice if they were not in tune with the prevailing
traditional behaviour patterns and were contrary to popular folk
ways. Such a tradition would naturally be much more ready to
absorb ideas on the philosophical plane than in actual life. Today,
1. Ibid P 364
291
therefore, the intellectual climate in India appears to be much
more pronounced by western than that in Japan or China. " 1
The above three explanations raise many questions in the minds
of the readers, as why the traditional system of education in India
took a back seat with the introduction of western system of
education. The answer is easily available. The traditional system
of education mainly confined to literary and grammatical taste
could not withstand before the severe storm of the western one,
which was well-equipped with modern science and technology.
Again it is yet to be answered, if that was the reason then why
India did not follow the foot-steps of Japan or China. Probably,
India off late moved towards the knowledge of science and
technology, for quite a longer period it remained reluctant. And
more importantly, spread of science and technology had never
been on the agenda of British education policy.
Even after independence, it was a big question before the first
education minister of India, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. Indian
intellectuals even the parliamentarians were divided on the issue.
Consequently, India has to pay a heavy price for its late step in.
Due to delayed action India could not reach to the extent Japan or
China could in the field of science and technology. Hence, India,
not as a winner, but as runner playing its role.
As I stated above, the old leadership in Japan or China did not
1. Ibid PP 364-365
292
loose their grip over the state affair's with the introduction of new
system of education, the obvious result was that they tried to
synthesize and make a balance between the two systems. India,
contrary to them, had seen a new class of leadership, which has
nothing to do with the old system of education. The institutions
under the new system of education happened to be their nursery,
so their reluctance to the old model can't be a surprise. Had it not
been the case, the scene of system of education in India would
have been altogether different, and it would have been more
similar to that of China or Japan. Instead of dual stream of education
India would have had one synthesised form of the two. And that
was the only answer to bridge the gap between the two and cater
to the ever-growing needs of the exploding population. India neither
can go to the west way, setting aside its age-old spiritual values
nor it can sit across hands, shutting eyes to the developments,
taking place in and around.
293
IV
After discussing at length the impact of western culture on
Indian culture & other related walks of life and vice versa we must
take an analytical stock of correct position. As a matter of fact
the colonial masters, despite their best efforts to westernise
education could not influence India to the extent they got influenced
with Indian culture. The only aspect of western civilization that
invited appreciation from Indians was the technological progress
of the west.
For various reasons both internal and external the British
government could not succeed in its mission. On the internal
front, the Indians were satisfied with their own culture and tradition,
and that they did not realise that their cultural inferiority and
degeneration brought this political downfall, hence, it was out of
question to replace their own with a new imported alien culture.
And on the external front, western culture was introduced in India
primarily by men of mediocre ability - the businessmen and the
unskilled administrators. In the words of Prof. S. A bid Husain,
"obviously the unfavourable climate and uncongenial social
atmosphere could not be expected to attract great scholars and
artists from England and other western countries to help build a
genuine western culture. The result was that this work had to be
done by the amateurs, that is, by British officials and businessmen
who could not achieve more than an imitation of outdated English
294
fashions, in dress and furniture, art and architecture and in the
general way of living and thinking. The culture which emerged in
this way should not really be called English or western but an
Indian variety of the colonial culture which was springing up in the
colonies and dependencies of the western powers in Asia and
Africa. " 1
Secondly, due to their superiority feelings, the colonial masters,
were not prepared mentally to have social interaction with Indians,
as it was against their dignity and sublimity. With that much
arrogance, they were not in position to leave their deep imprint on
the Indian minds. As a result the very aim of western education
fell flat. Prof. A bid Husain rightly pointed out, "Lord Macaulay had
hoped that the study of English and the modern science would
produces a class of the people Indian in appearance but European
in spirit. What actually happened was that many educated Indians
became imitating Englishmen in outward appearance, but in the
moral and intellectual spheres, they were either totally uninfluenced
by the English Character, or assimilated its worst features, which
turned them into unprincipled, unbalanced denationalised
individualists. "2
If we just have a glance at the baneful influence of colonial
English culture, which was exercised through school and university
1. The National Culture of India
2. 1hid P. 107-108
295
education, we will find that on the elementary level the religious
education was set aside and some new disciplines like Geography,
History etc. were added to the syllabus and some arrangement
was made for the training of teachers. Of course this was a
welcome change, brought some remarkable results, but at the
same time these changes made the education expensive and
unaccessible to many heepless poor people. As a result, many
schools were closed.
On the secondary level, the problem of education was manifold.
A uniform syllabus of purely literary type was introduced, without
caring for the personal aptitude of the students. Similarly English
was made the medium of instruction. These two major changes
lowered the general intellectual standard of the students and
destroyed their imaginative and creative calibre.
Despite above demerits on the elementry and secondary levels
there are some products of system who short to fame in various
domains, but their prominence can't be attributed to the success
of the system. It was all their mental calibre by which they
reached the pinnacle. Otherwise, generally those educated in modern
western educational institutions were like the products of the old
fashioned oriental seminaries.
Comparing the two systems Prof. Abid Husain says, "obviously
these bearers of colonial English culture who could not even derive
enjoyment or benefit from the intellectual aesthetic wealth which
296
the English language offered were incapable of making any
contribution of their own to it. The only writing of any value in
English was done by those Indians whose mind had originally been
trained by the traditional oriental education and who had
subsequently learnt English. They wrote books on Indians
Philosophy, Law, religion, history and archaeology in English as
well as in their own languages. They also tried to adjust their
literature and art to new circumstances and cast them in new
modules. " 1
He went on say1ng, "Those educated exclusively in English
medium schools and colleges during this period had very little
share in the transmission of knowledge, interperation of life or
creation of beauty. Their effusions, if any, were mainly confined
to newspaper articles contributed to English journals under Indian
direction, only a few having the singular honour of being accepted
by Anglo-Indian Newspapers. Their verbosity, confused thinking,
involved writing, faulty grammar and idiom made them the laughing
stock of Englishmen. Caricatures of their 'Babu English' and of
them under fictious names like Babu Jabbar Jee B.A. or Babu
Biche Lal M.A. were often published in Anglo-Indian Journals. " 2
Under the given analytical assessment one can easily understand
the dynamics of East-West exchanges and the contributions made
1. Ibid P 115
2. Ibid PP 115-116
297
by the products of both the systems in vogue side by side finally
he has to conclude that the intellectual as well as spiritual
foundation of colonial English culture was hollow and weak. And
traditional learning system despite its formal victimisation by the
colonial lords resisted and survived with its lion share in the cultural
domain.
298
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