Code-Switching in Singaporean English-
Mandarin 5-6 year-olds Reveals Grammatical
Interaction
Carissa Kang, Yow Wei Quin, Nan Li, & Barbara Lust
10th International Symposium on Bilingualism Rutgers, NJ
Code-Switching
Code-Switching• “The alternation of two languages
within a single discourse, sentence or constituent”
Code-Switching• “The alternation of two languages
within a single discourse, sentence or constituent”
(Poplack, 1980, p.583)
Code-Switching• “The alternation of two languages
within a single discourse, sentence or constituent”
(Poplack, 1980, p.583)
Code-Switching• “The alternation of two languages
within a single discourse, sentence or constituent”
(Poplack, 1980, p.583)
• Here, we use the terms code-switching (CS) and code-mixing (i.e., insertion of words form another language) synonymously
Leading Questions
Leading Questions1. Are there differences between child and adult CS?
Need for a more continuous approach (Gardner-Chloros, 2009) Research on CS in these 2 populations are rarely
referenced togetherUnderestimates insights that can be gleaned
from such comparative studies
Leading Questions1. Are there differences between child and adult CS?
Need for a more continuous approach (Gardner-Chloros, 2009) Research on CS in these 2 populations are rarely
referenced togetherUnderestimates insights that can be gleaned
from such comparative studies
2. What is the nature of grammatical interaction between both languages in children? Are children deficited grammatically compared to
adults in their CS?
Background: Singapore
Background: Singapore• Multilingual, multi-racial/ethnic country in
Southeast AsiaSeveral dominant languages coexist CS prevalent (David & Mclellan, 2007)
Department of Statistics Singapore (2014)
Background: Singapore
• English is the official medium of instructionLearned at first language (L1) level
Background: Singapore
• English is the official medium of instructionLearned at first language (L1) level
Background: Singapore
• English is the official medium of instructionLearned at first language (L1) level
• “Mother Tongue” assigned based on an individual’s father’s ethnicityLearned at second language (L2) level
Background: Singapore
• English is the official medium of instructionLearned at first language (L1) level
• “Mother Tongue” assigned based on an individual’s father’s ethnicityLearned at second language (L2) level
• Home language environmentPredominantly English + some Mandarin +
Dialect
Background: Singapore
Background: Singapore English/Singlish
Background: Singapore English/Singlish
• In Singapore, two “varieties” of English existHigh = Standard EnglishLow = Singapore Colloquial English (SCE) (Gupta,
1986)
Background: Singapore English/Singlish
• In Singapore, two “varieties” of English existHigh = Standard EnglishLow = Singapore Colloquial English (SCE) (Gupta,
1986)
Background: Singapore English/Singlish
• In Singapore, two “varieties” of English existHigh = Standard EnglishLow = Singapore Colloquial English (SCE) (Gupta,
1986)
• Singapore Colloquial English/Singlish:Creole = Product of language contact between
English and several other languagesChinese, Hokkien, Cantonese, Malay, Tamil (Bao & Wee, 1999; Chua, 2011; Platt & Ho, 1989)
Background: Singapore English/Singlish
• In Singapore, two “varieties” of English existHigh = Standard EnglishLow = Singapore Colloquial English (SCE) (Gupta,
1986)
• Singapore Colloquial English/Singlish:Creole = Product of language contact between
English and several other languagesChinese, Hokkien, Cantonese, Malay, Tamil (Bao & Wee, 1999; Chua, 2011; Platt & Ho, 1989)
Determiner/Noun Phrasesin CS utterances
(Tan, 1988, p. 85)
Determiner/Noun Phrasesin CS utterances
• Ong & Zhang (2010, 2012): CS occurs within Determiner (Det) + Noun (N)
phrase:
(Tan, 1988, p. 85)
Determiner/Noun Phrasesin CS utterances
• Ong & Zhang (2010, 2012): CS occurs within Determiner (Det) + Noun (N)
phrase:
(Tan, 1988, p. 85)
Determiner/Noun Phrasesin CS utterances
• Ong & Zhang (2010, 2012): CS occurs within Determiner (Det) + Noun (N)
phrase:
(Tan, 1988, p. 85)
Determiner/Noun Phrasesin CS utterances
• Ong & Zhang (2010, 2012): CS occurs within Determiner (Det) + Noun (N)
phrase:
(Tan, 1988, p. 85)
Determiner/Noun Phrasesin CS utterances
• Ong & Zhang (2010, 2012): CS occurs within Determiner (Det) + Noun (N)
phrase:
(Tan, 1988, p. 85)
Determiner/Noun Phrasesin CS utterances
• Ong & Zhang (2010, 2012): CS occurs within Determiner (Det) + Noun (N)
phrase:
Mandarin Det + English N
(Tan, 1988, p. 85)
Determiner/Noun Phrasesin CS utterances
• Ong & Zhang (2010, 2012): CS occurs within Determiner (Det) + Noun (N)
phrase:
Mandarin Det Mandarin Det + English N
(Tan, 1988, p. 85)
Determiner/Noun Phrasesin CS utterances
• Ong & Zhang (2010, 2012): CS occurs within Determiner (Det) + Noun (N)
phrase:
Mandarin Det Demonstrative
Mandarin Det + English N
(Tan, 1988, p. 85)
Determiner/Noun Phrasesin CS utterances
• Ong & Zhang (2010, 2012): CS occurs within Determiner (Det) + Noun (N)
phrase:
Mandarin Det DemonstrativeClassifier
Mandarin Det + English N
(Tan, 1988, p. 85)
Determiner/Noun Phrasesin CS utterances
• Ong & Zhang (2010, 2012): CS occurs within Determiner (Det) + Noun (N)
phrase:
Mandarin Det + English NDemonstrativeClassifier
Mandarin Det + English N
(Tan, 1988, p. 85)
Mandarin Det + English N
• These Mandarin Det + English N pairs were widely found in naturalistic CS corpora of studies of Mandarin-English CS in Singaporean adult bilinguals and older children (7-12)
(Chen 1992; Chong 2001; Kamwangamalu and Lee 1991; Lee 2003; Lee, 2005;
Ong & Zhang, 2010, 2012; Tan 2004)
Mandarin Det + English N
• These Mandarin Det + English N pairs were widely found in naturalistic CS corpora of studies of Mandarin-English CS in Singaporean adult bilinguals and older children (7-12)
(Chen 1992; Chong 2001; Kamwangamalu and Lee 1991; Lee 2003; Lee, 2005;
Ong & Zhang, 2010, 2012; Tan 2004)
Mandarin Det + English N
• These Mandarin Det + English N pairs were widely found in naturalistic CS corpora of studies of Mandarin-English CS in Singaporean adult bilinguals and older children (7-12)
(Chen 1992; Chong 2001; Kamwangamalu and Lee 1991; Lee 2003; Lee, 2005;
Ong & Zhang, 2010, 2012; Tan 2004)
• Participants in previous studies:o Primary school children [7-12] (Tan, 2004)o Polytechnic students [17] (Lee, 2005; Ong & Zhang,
2010)
Mandarin Det + English N
Mandarin Det + English N
• For adults, Mandarin D + English N pattern holds across:Language dominance• Predominantly Mandarin verbatim
transcripts (Kamwangamalu and Lee 1991; Chen 1992; Chong 2001; Lee 2003; Tan 2004)• Predominantly English verbatim transcripts
(Lee, 2005)Pragmatic intention
Mandarin Det + English N
• For adults, Mandarin D + English N pattern holds across:Language dominance• Predominantly Mandarin verbatim
transcripts (Kamwangamalu and Lee 1991; Chen 1992; Chong 2001; Lee 2003; Tan 2004)• Predominantly English verbatim transcripts
(Lee, 2005)Pragmatic intention
• Interestingly, no evidence of English D +
Mandarin Det + English N
Our Study
Our Study• Present new analyses of productive CS by
Mandarin-English children (5-6 years old) in SingaporeComparison to results from previous studies
conducted on adult Mandarin-English bilinguals in Singapore (Determiner/Noun Phrases)
(Ong & Zhang, 2010, 2012)Findings revealing competent grammatical
interaction between both languages Determiner/Noun Phrases in CS utterances Subject/object ellipsis, wh-in situ, tense
Our Study
• Main Argument:There are similarities and differences between
adult and child CS However, differences in child CS do NOT
reflect the lack of grammatical competence on children’s part
Our Study
Our Study:Research Question
Our Study:Research Question
• Motivated by previous work on this Mandarin Det + English N patternsWill we find a similar pattern in younger
children’s speech? (5-6 year olds)Any differences?
Our Study:Research Question
• Motivated by previous work on this Mandarin Det + English N patternsWill we find a similar pattern in younger
children’s speech? (5-6 year olds)Any differences?
Our Study:Research Question
• Motivated by previous work on this Mandarin Det + English N patternsWill we find a similar pattern in younger
children’s speech? (5-6 year olds)Any differences?
• Other interesting patterns revealing grammatical interaction between both languages: E.g., Subject/Object ellipsis, Wh-in-situ, tense
Methodology• Part of a study on the influences of CS on
bilingual children’s language development
(Yow, Flynn, & Patrycia, in press)
• Audio and video naturalistic recordings were conducted during school-time in a Singapore kindergarten
• Daily lessons in English and Mandarin
Methodology• Random sample of 5 sessions
Range: 7 – 30 minContext: Natural interactions over 5-
day periodSubjects: 9 children (5-6 year olds)Each session involved 4 – 8 children
• Analysis of over 1000 utterances
Summary of Data
Session No. Total Utterances
(Child)
Inter-sentential switches
Intra-sententialswitches
1 490 14 (2.9%) 118 (24.1%)2 364 7 (1.9%) 17 (4.7%)3 94 4 (4.3%) 26 (27.7%)4 390 20 (5.1%) 77 (19.7%)
5 183 10 (5.5%) 27 (14.8%)MEAN (SD) 304.2
(161.5)4.1% (1.6) 18.2% (9.0)
Inter-sentential switch• Juxtapose 2 languages/dialects in a conversational
discourseIntra-sentential switch• Elements from 1 language are inserted/mixed into
another (Meisel, 1989; Muysken, 2000; Nicoladis & Genesee, 1997; Poplack, 2001)
Inter-Sentential Switch
Inter-Sentential Switch• C1: look, we find two pets .
Inter-Sentential Switch• C1: look, we find two pets .
Inter-Sentential Switch• C1: look, we find two pets .
Inter-Sentential Switch• C1: look, we find two pets .
Inter-Sentential Switch• C1: look, we find two pets .
• C1: 邓凯, 你看我们有什么 .
Inter-Sentential Switch• C1: look, we find two pets .
• C1: 邓凯, 你看我们有什么 .
Inter-Sentential Switch• C1: look, we find two pets .
• C1: 邓凯, 你看我们有什么 .
Inter-sentential switch from English to Chinese Occurs IMMEDIATELY after the same
subject’s sentence/phrase
• A1: 有 [//] 你 看 有些 窗户 有 curtains 关 住 的 嘞.
• A1: 你 看 有些 窗户 是 有 curtain 关 住 的 .
Intra-sentential switches
Intra-Sentential Switch
4 Examples of Grammatical Interactions
1. Determiner/Noun Phrases2. Subject/Object Ellipsis3. Wh-in-situ4. Tense
1. Det/Noun PhrasesOverall Summary
• Out of 9 children, over 5 sessions
1. Det/Noun PhrasesOverall Summary
• Out of 9 children, over 5 sessions
Mean (SD) RangeMandarin Det + Eng N
16.7% 0 – 55.3%
English Det +Mandarin N
1.8% 0 – 10/5%
1. Det/Noun PhrasesOverall Summary
• Out of 9 children, over 5 sessions
Mean (SD) RangeMandarin Det + Eng N
16.7% 0 – 55.3%
English Det +Mandarin N
1.8% 0 – 10/5%
Mandarin Det + Mandarin N
25.3% 3.6% – 36.8%
English Det +Eng N
56.7% 0 – 100%
1. Det/Noun PhrasesOverall Summary
• Out of 9 children, over 5 sessions
Mean (SD) RangeMandarin Det + Eng N
16.7% 0 – 55.3%
English Det +Mandarin N
1.8% 0 – 10/5%
Mandarin Det + Mandarin N
25.3% 3.6% – 36.8%
English Det +Eng N
56.7% 0 – 100%
1. Det/Noun Phrases:a) Mandarin Det + English N
Det: Determiner, N: Noun, CL: Classifier, CL.PL: Plural classifier
English NEnglish N-s +s
Mandarin Singular Det
一 个 roller KEN3 one CL
那 个 pilot ISW1 that CL
一 个 red ones DYZ1 one CL
Mandarin Plural Det
一 些 game DYZ2
one CL.PL
两 个 soldier THA5 two CL
这 些 blocks ERI5 This CL.PL
1. Det/Noun Phrases:a) Mandarin Det + English N
Det: Determiner, N: Noun, CL: Classifier, CL.PL: Plural classifier
• not many 柱子 DYZ5 pole
• the 飞 龙 SEA3 flying dragon
• your 大 哥哥 SEA3 big brother
1. Det/Noun Phrases:b) English Det + Mandarin N
ExampleDem + Cl + N 一 个 名字 YJY4
one CL name这 个 打 结 ALY3
This CL knotNum + Cl + N 一 团 肉 ERI2
one CL meat两 根 绳子 DYZ4
two CL ropePron + Poss +
N你 的 眼睛 KEN3
You PRT eye
Dem: Demonstrative, Cl: Classifier, Num: Numeral, N: Noun, Pron: Pronoun, Poss: Possessive
1. Det/Noun Phrases:
c) Mandarin Det + Mandarin N
ExampleDet + N the bad guy THA1
a water gun KEN3
Num + N Three big clays DYZ4
Two pets YJY1
Poss Pron + N your idea NIU3
my cube YJY4
Det: Determiner, Num: Numeral, N: Noun, Poss Pron: Possessive pronoun
1. Det/Noun Phrases:d) English Det + English N
Conclusion
ConclusionAdult CS
(Ong & Zhang, 2012)Child CS
Our Study
Similarities Adult bilinguals prefer Mandarin Det + English N > English Det + Mandarin N
We also find more instances of Mandarin Det + English N than English Det + Mandarin N
Differences Adults consistently add English plural morphemes to plural noun phrases
Most children do not inflect English nouns in these utterances
e.g.s, 两 个 soldier
English NEnglish N-s +s
Mandarin Singular Det
一 个 roller K3那 个pilot I1
一 个 red ones D1
Mandarin Plural Det
一些 game D2两个soldier T5
这些 blocks E5
Conclusion
English NEnglish N-s +s
Mandarin Singular Det
一 个 roller K3那 个pilot I1
一 个 red ones D1
Mandarin Plural Det
一些 game D2两个soldier T5
这些 blocks E5
Conclusion
English NEnglish N-s +s
Mandarin Singular Det
一 个 roller K3那 个pilot I1
一 个 red ones D1
Mandarin Plural Det
一些 game D2两个soldier T5
这些 blocks E5
Conclusion
• In Mandarin Det + English N phrases, children do not add plural morpheme on English Nouns Incompetent English grammar?
Verify this in “English Det + English N” context
ExampleDet + N the bad guy T1
a water gun K3
Num + N Three big clays D4
Two pets Y1
Poss Pron + N your idea N3
my cube Y4
Det: Determiner, Num: Numeral, N: Noun, Poss Pron: Possessive pronoun
1. Det/Noun Phrases:d) English Det + English N
ExampleDet + N the bad guy T1
a water gun K3
Num + N Three big clays D4
Two pets Y1
Poss Pron + N your idea N3
my cube Y4
Det: Determiner, Num: Numeral, N: Noun, Poss Pron: Possessive pronoun
1. Det/Noun Phrases:d) English Det + English N
English plural morphemes were added to ALL plural noun phrases
ExampleDet + N the bad guy T1
a water gun K3
Num + N Three big clays D4
Two pets Y1
Poss Pron + N your idea N3
my cube Y4
Det: Determiner, Num: Numeral, N: Noun, Poss Pron: Possessive pronoun
1. Det/Noun Phrases:d) English Det + English N
English plural morphemes were added to ALL plural noun phrases
Suggests children know about plural inflection of nouns
Conclusion
Conclusion• Children are not omitting plural inflections on nouns
in their Mandarin Det + English N utterances because of lack of grammatical competence For children, syntactic context of Det/Noun phrase is
Chinese Chinese nouns do not inflect for plurality Consulting this to determine what to do with the
nouns (more so than adults) Influence of Chinese grammar greater for
children?
Other phenomenon revealing mutual grammatical
influence
2. Subject/Object Ellipsis
• Competent language interactions occurred in other CS utterances like N ellipsis (allowed in Mandarin but not English)Occurred more frequently in mixed utterances
compared to English-only utterancesSuggests syntactic context of the code-
switched utterance is relevant
2. Subject/Object Ellipsis
2. Subject/Object Ellipsis
2. Subject/Object EllipsisExample Object Ellipsis in a Mandarin utterance:
2. Subject/Object EllipsisExample Object Ellipsis in a Mandarin utterance:这 个 brown color 的 我有 点 讨厌 但是是 好 的
2. Subject/Object EllipsisExample Object Ellipsis in a Mandarin utterance:这 个 brown color 的 我有 点 讨厌 但是是 好 的This CL PRT I have little hate but is good PRT
2. Subject/Object EllipsisExample Object Ellipsis in a Mandarin utterance:这 个 brown color 的 我有 点 讨厌 但是是 好 的This CL PRT I have little hate but is good PRT
所以我 还 要 用(它)。(D1)
2. Subject/Object EllipsisExample Object Ellipsis in a Mandarin utterance:这 个 brown color 的 我有 点 讨厌 但是是 好 的This CL PRT I have little hate but is good PRT
所以我 还 要 用(它)。(D1)
so I still want use it
2. Subject/Object EllipsisExample Object Ellipsis in a Mandarin utterance:这 个 brown color 的 我有 点 讨厌 但是是 好 的This CL PRT I have little hate but is good PRT
所以我 还 要 用(它)。(D1)
so I still want use it
2. Subject/Object EllipsisExample Object Ellipsis in a Mandarin utterance:这 个 brown color 的 我有 点 讨厌 但是是 好 的This CL PRT I have little hate but is good PRT
所以我 还 要 用(它)。(D1)
so I still want use it
I hate this brown color (block) a little, but it’s a good one, so I still want to use*(it).
2. Subject/Object EllipsisExample Object Ellipsis in a Mandarin utterance:这 个 brown color 的 我有 点 讨厌 但是是 好 的This CL PRT I have little hate but is good PRT
所以我 还 要 用(它)。(D1)
so I still want use it
I hate this brown color (block) a little, but it’s a good one, so I still want to use*(it).
2. Subject/Object EllipsisExample Object Ellipsis in a Mandarin utterance:这 个 brown color 的 我有 点 讨厌 但是是 好 的This CL PRT I have little hate but is good PRT
所以我 还 要 用(它)。(D1)
so I still want use it
I hate this brown color (block) a little, but it’s a good one, so I still want to use*(it).
• Here, 我还 要用 (它) is an example of Object N ellipsis
2. Subject/Object Ellipsis
Subject ellipsis in a mixed utterance
2. Subject/Object Ellipsis
Subject ellipsis in a mixed utterance
2. Subject/Object Ellipsis
Subject ellipsis in a mixed utterance
If you stay together then (the house) 这 么 大? I1
2. Subject/Object Ellipsis
Subject ellipsis in a mixed utterance
If you stay together then (the house) 这 么 大? I1
so big?
2. Subject/Object Ellipsis
Subject ellipsis in a mixed utterance
If you stay together then (the house) 这 么 大? I1
so big?
• Subject N ellipsis: the house
2. Subject/Object Ellipsis
2. Subject/Object Ellipsis
Object ellipsis in a mixed utterance:
2. Subject/Object Ellipsis
Object ellipsis in a mixed utterance:
2. Subject/Object Ellipsis
Object ellipsis in a mixed utterance:
刚才 我, I drop (it) 然后可以弄出来
2. Subject/Object Ellipsis
Object ellipsis in a mixed utterance:
刚才 我, I drop (it) 然后可以弄出来
2. Subject/Object Ellipsis
Object ellipsis in a mixed utterance:
刚才 我, I drop (it) 然后可以弄出来 Earlier, I dropped it, then can take it out
2. Subject/Object Ellipsis
Object ellipsis in a mixed utterance:
刚才 我, I drop (it) 然后可以弄出来 Earlier, I dropped it, then can take it out
• Object ellipsis: “it”
2. Subject/Object Ellipsis
Object ellipsis in a mixed utterance:
刚才 我, I drop (it) 然后可以弄出来 Earlier, I dropped it, then can take it out
• Object ellipsis: “it”• Also did not inflect for tense: “dropped”
Influence of Mandarin grammar Uninflected language; concept of time isn’t conveyed through use
2. Subject/Object Ellipsis
In fact, the influence of one language’s grammar on the other was observed even in
non-code-switched
Object Ellipsis in an English utterance:
you can use *(it) anywhere you want D1
• English structure Cannot be directly translated this into Mandarin
• Yet, speaker dropped object of the verb (“use”) because Mandarin grammar allows object ellipsis Influence of Mandarin grammar in English
sentence
2. Subject/Object Ellipsis
• Chinese grammar influencing syntactic structure of the code-switched utterance as well as pure English utterances
Conclusion
3. Wh-in-situ
• Wh-in-situ English: For Wh questions, we move Wh to the
front (e.g., “How many did we lose?”) Chinese: Wh words stay in their position
we lost how many ? S2
3. Wh-in-situ
• Wh-in-situ English: For Wh questions, we move Wh to the
front (e.g., “How many did we lose?”) Chinese: Wh words stay in their position
we lost how many ? S2
• Again, this shows that children are consulting Mandarin context/grammar to determine what to do with their utterances
3. Wh-in-situ
4. Tense
4. Tense• How tense works in Mandarin:
你找到什么?你找到了什么?Both could be asking what someone found in
the past
4. Tense• How tense works in Mandarin:
你找到什么?你找到了什么?Both could be asking what someone found in
the past
你 found out 什么 东西, ah ?
4. Tense• How tense works in Mandarin:
你找到什么?你找到了什么?Both could be asking what someone found in
the past
你 found out 什么 东西, ah ? You what thing PRT
If child was following Mandarin grammar (literal translation), child could just say “你find out什么东西”
4. Tense• How tense works in Mandarin:
你找到什么?你找到了什么?Both could be asking what someone found in
the past
你 found out 什么 东西, ah ? You what thing PRT
If child was following Mandarin grammar (literal translation), child could just say “你find out什么东西”
• But child used the past form of “find” “found out”
Conclusion
Conclusion• Examples from different linguistic areas revealing
that syntactic context of 1 language determines nature of code-switched utterance
Conclusion• Examples from different linguistic areas revealing
that syntactic context of 1 language determines nature of code-switched utterance
Conclusion• Examples from different linguistic areas revealing
that syntactic context of 1 language determines nature of code-switched utterance
• Children are integrating competent grammatical knowledge Also using accurate structural components
from both languages
Conclusion
Conclusion• Similarities and differences between child
and adult CSChildren don’t differ qualitatively, but may
reveal heightened ‘sensitivity’ to syntactic context More creative grammatical interaction
between systems? Characteristic of language development
Acknowledgments• Prof. W. Quin Yow (Singapore University of
Technology and Design)o Language and Social Cognition Labo Ferninda Patrycia, Yvonne Yong, Li
Xiaoqian, Hung Wan-yu, Yap Oixuan, Wei Xing Toh
• Cornell University Cognitive Science & ISB 10 travel grants
References• David, M.K. (2008). Language Policies - Impact on Language Maintenance
and Teaching. Focus on Malaysia, Singapore and The Philippines. In T. de Graaf, N. Ostler & R. Salverda (Eds). Endangered Languages and Language Learning. Bath & Leeuwarden: F.E.L. & Fryske Akademy. (79-86)
• Gardner-Chloros, P. (ed.) (2009). Code-switching. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Lanza, E. (2000). In “Cross-linguistic structures in simultaneous bilingualism” (Eds Dopke, S. 2000). Concluding Remarks: Language contact – A dilemma for the bilingual child or for the linguist? (pp 227- 245).
• Myers-Scotton, C. (1993). Social Motivations for Code-switching: Evidence from Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Ong, K. K. W., & Zhang, L.J. (2010). Metalinguistic filters within the bilingual language faculty: A study of young English-Chinese bilinguals. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 39, 243-272.
• Ong, K. K. W. & Zhang, L. J. (2012). Code-switching in Singaporean classroom discourse. In R. Barnard & J. McLellan (Eds.), Codeswitching in university English language classes: Case studies and perspectives from Asian contexts. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Appendix
• (Ong & Zhang): Det + N
• Ours: [ Num/Dem. + CL] + N
• English: Det + N (the + table)• Chinese: Dem. + CL + N 这/那 个桌子 This/that CL table
• English: the tables• Chinese: plurality indicated on classifier 这/那 些 桌子 this/that CL.PL table
Our Classification
Definite NPs
• English: Det + N ( a + table)• Chinese: Num. + CL + N 一 张 桌子 One CL table
• English: some tables• Chinese: yi + CL.PL + N 一 些 桌子 one CL.PL table• Note: In this case, we can only use “yi” (one)
Our Classification
Indefinite NPs
ALL D S I Y T E A N K
# of transcripts
4 2 3 2 4 2 1 1 1
Mandarin Det + English N
38(20.2%)
0 21(55.3%)
3(9.7%)
10(16.7%)
6(27.3%)
0
0
6(21.4%)
English Det + Mandarin
N
1(0.6%)
2(10.5%)
Mandarin Det + Mandarin
N
53(28.2%)
5(26.3%)
14(36.8%)
9(29%)
16(26.7%)
16(72.7%)
1(4.5%)
0
1(3.6%)
English Det + English N
96(51.0%)
12(63.2%)
3(7.9%)
19(61.3%)
34(56.7%)
0
21(95.5%)
12(100%)
21(75%)
TOTAL 188 19 38 31 60 22 22 12 28
Why?Mandarin Det + English N
• Some Mandarin Det play multiple functional roles Mandarin doesn’t have articles like English
(e.g., the, a, an) denoting definiteness and indefiniteness
• But, Dem + Cl and Num + Cl can multifunctionDenote definiteness and indefiniteness
respectively (Li & Thompson, 1981)
• “Num + Cl” (一个; yī gè)
One
A, An
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