Chapter 3
Networking
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Chapter Overview (1/2) Introduction Email and spam Fighting spam World Wide Web Ethical perspectives on pornography
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Chapter Overview (2/2)
Censorship Freedom of expression Children and the Web Breaking trust on the Internet Internet addiction
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Introduction
Networking increases computer’s utility Internet connects millions of computers
Powerful computational resource Even more powerful communication medium
Network utility grows as number of users squared 10 users 90 sender-receiver combinations 100 users 9900 sender-receiver
combinations
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Email and Spam
How email works The spam epidemic Ethical evaluations of spamming
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How Email Works
Email: Messages embedded in files transferred between computers
Email address: Uniquely identifies cyberspace mailbox
Messages broken into packets Routers transfer packets from sender’s mail
server to receiver’s mail server
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The Spam Epidemic (1/2)
Spam: Unsolicited, bulk email Amount of email that is spam has increased
8% in 2001 40% in 2003 More than 50% in 2004
Spam is effective More than 100 times cheaper than “junk mail” Profitable even if only 1 in 100,000 buys
product
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The Spam Epidemic (2/2)
How firms get email addresses Opt-in lists Dictionary attacks
Spammers seek anonymity Change email and IP addresses to disguise sending
machine Hijack another system as a spam launch pad
Spam blockers Attempt to screen out spam Have led to more picture-based spam
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Ethical Evaluations of Spamming Kantian evaluation Act utilitarian evaluation Rule utilitarian evaluation Social contract theory evaluation From all these perspectives, it is wrong to
send spam
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Fighting Spam
Mail Abuse Prevention System Ethical evaluations of blacklisting by MAPS Proposed solutions to the Spam epidemic CAN SPAM Act of 2003
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Mail Abuse Prevention System MAPS is a not-for-profit organization Contacts marketers who violate MAPS
standards for bulk email Puts marketers who violate standards on a
Realtime Blackhole List (RBL) Some mail relays refer to RBL list
Looks up email host name on RBL list If name on list, the email gets bounced back
All email from blacklisted hosts gets bounced, even email from non-spammers
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Ethical Evaluations of Publishing Blacklist
Social contract theory evaluation Utilitarian evaluation Kantian evaluation
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Proposed Solutions to Spam Epidemic
Require an explicit opt-in of subscribers Require labeling of email advertising Add a cost to every email that is sent Ban unsolicited email
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CAN SPAM Act of 2003 Took effect January 1, 2004
Consumers have right to “opt out” Sexually explicit messages must contain subject line
notice Prohibits dictionary attacks and falsifying header
information Critics call it “You CAN Spam Act”
Spam still legal, as long as regulations followed Opting out can have harmful consequences Federal law weaker than state laws it preempted
Spammers can avoid prosecution by locating outside United States
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The World Wide Web
Attributes of the Web How we use the Web Too much control or too little?
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Attributes of the Web
It is decentralized Every Web object has a unique address It is based on the Internet
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How We Use the Web Shopping Promoting business Learning Exploring our roots Playing games Entering virtual worlds Paying taxes Gambling Blogging Lots more!
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Too Much Control or Too Little?
Not everyone in world has Internet access Saudi Arabia: centralized control center People’s Republic of China: ISPs sign
“self-discipline” agreement Germany: Forbids access to neo-Nazi sites United States: Repeated efforts to limit access of
minors to pornography
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Ethical Perspectives on Pornography
Pornography is immoral Adult pornography is moral Commentary
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Pornography Is Immoral Kant
Loved person an object of sexual appetite Sexual desire focuses on body, not complete person All sexual gratification outside marriage wrong
Utilitarianism Pornography reduces dignity of human life, harming
everyone Pornography increases crimes such as rape Pornography reduces sympathy for rape victims Pornography is like pollution that poisons the
environment Pornography industry diverts resources from more
socially redeeming activities
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Adult Pornography Is Moral
Utilitarianism Those who produce pornography make money Consumers of pornography derive physical
pleasure Pornography is a harmless outlet for exploring
sexual fantasies
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Commentary
Performing utilitarian calculus is difficult How to deal with contradictory “facts” by
“experts?” How to quantify harms/benefits, such as harm
done to people who find pornography offensive?
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Censorship
Direct censorship Self-censorship Challenges posed by the Internet Ethical perspectives on censorship
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Direct Censorship
Government monopolization Prepublication review Licensing and registration
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Self-censorship
Most common form of censorship Group decides for itself not to publish Reasons
Avoid subsequent persecution Maintain good relations with government
officials (sources of information) Ratings systems
Movies, TVs, CDs, video games Not the Web
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Challenges Posed by the Internet
Many-to-many communication Dynamic connections Huge numbers of Web sites Extends beyond national borders, laws Can’t determine age of users
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Ethical Perspectives on Censorship
Kant opposed censorship Enlightenment thinker “Have courage to use your own reason”
Mill opposed censorship No one is infallible Any opinion may contain a kernel of truth Truth revealed in class of ideas Ideas resulting from discourse are more
influential
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Mill’s Principle of Harm
“The only ground on which interventionis justified is to prevent harm to others;the individual’s own good is not asufficient condition.”
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Freedom of Expression
History Freedom of expression not an absolute right FCC v. Pacifica Foundation et al.
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History De Scandalis Magnatum (England, 1275) Court of Star Chamber 18th century
No prior restraints on publication People could be punished for sedition or
libel American states adopted bills of rights
including freedom of expression Freedom of expression in 1st amendment to
U.S. Constitution
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1st Amendment to U.S. Constitution
Congress shall make no law respecting anestablishment of religion, or prohibiting thefree exercise thereof; or abridging thefreedom of speech, or of the press; or theright of the people peaceably to assemble,and to petition the government for aredress of grievances.
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Freedom of ExpressionNot an Absolute Right
1st Amendment covers political and nonpolitical speech
Right to freedom of expression must be balanced against the public good
Various restrictions on freedom of expression exist
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FCC v. Pacifica Foundation et al.
George Carlin records “Filthy Words” WBAI in New York airs “Filthy Words” (1973) FCC issues declaratory order to Pacifica Pacifica sues U.S. Supreme Court ruled FCC did not violate 1st
Amendment (5-4 decision) Broadcast media “uniquely pervasive” Broadcasting uniquely accessible to children
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Children and the Web
Web filters Child Internet Protection Act Ethical evaluations of CIPA
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Web Filters
Web filter: software that prevents display of certain Web pages May be installed on an individual PC ISP may provide service for customers
Methodologies Maintain “black list” of objectionable sites Examine content for objectionable
words/phrases
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Child Internet Protection Act
Libraries receiving federal networking funds must filter pages containing obscenity or child pornography
U.S. Supreme Court ruled CIPA did not violate 1st Amendment guarantees(6-3 decision in June 2003)
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Ethical Evaluations of CIPA
Kantian evaluation: CIPA is wrong Act utilitarian evaluation: depends on how
benefits and harms are weighed Social contract theory: freedom of conscience
should be given precedence
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Breaking Trust on the Internet
Identity theft Chat room predators Ethical evaluations of police “sting” operations False information
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Identity Theft
Identity theft: when a person uses another person’s electronic identity
Leading form: credit card fraud (more about this in Chapter 5)
Many victims are experienced computer users comfortable with typing credit card number online
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Chat Room Predators
Chat room: supports real-time discussions among many people connected to network
Instant messaging and chat rooms replacing telephone for many people
Some pedophiles meeting children through chat rooms
Police countering with “sting” operations
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Ethical Evaluations of “Stings”
Utilitarian evaluation Kantian evaluation Social contract theory evaluation
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False Information
Quality of Web-based information varies widely Other media also have information of varying quality
The New York Times v. The National Enquirer 60 Minutes v. Conspiracy Theory
Google attempts to reward quality Ranking uses “voting” algorithm If many links point to a page, Google search engine
ranks that page higher
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Internet Addiction
Is it real? Factors contributing to addictive behavior Ethical evaluation
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Is Internet Addiction Real?
Some liken compulsive computer use to pathological gambling
Traditional definition of addiction: Compulsive use of harmful substance or drug Knowledge of its long-term harm
Kimberly Young created test for Internet addiction Her test is controversial
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Contributing Factors Social factors
Peer groups Situational factors
Stress Lack of social support and intimacy Limited opportunities for productive activity
Individual factors Tendency to pursue activities to excess Lack of achievement Fear of failure
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Ethical Evaluation
Enlightenment view Individuals can and should govern their lives People are responsible for their choices
Jeffrey Reiman’s view Addict’s behavior makes sense if addict has no
hope for a better future Society bears responsibility for putting people
in hopeless situations
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