Chapter 3

Networking

Slide 4- 2Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Chapter Overview (1/2) Introduction Email and spam Fighting spam World Wide Web Ethical perspectives on pornography

Slide 4- 3Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Chapter Overview (2/2)

Censorship Freedom of expression Children and the Web Breaking trust on the Internet Internet addiction

Slide 4- 4Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Introduction

Networking increases computer’s utility Internet connects millions of computers

Powerful computational resource Even more powerful communication medium

Network utility grows as number of users squared 10 users 90 sender-receiver combinations 100 users 9900 sender-receiver

combinations

Slide 4- 5Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Email and Spam

How email works The spam epidemic Ethical evaluations of spamming

Slide 4- 6Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

How Email Works

Email: Messages embedded in files transferred between computers

Email address: Uniquely identifies cyberspace mailbox

Messages broken into packets Routers transfer packets from sender’s mail

server to receiver’s mail server

Slide 4- 7Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

The Spam Epidemic (1/2)

Spam: Unsolicited, bulk email Amount of email that is spam has increased

8% in 2001 40% in 2003 More than 50% in 2004

Spam is effective More than 100 times cheaper than “junk mail” Profitable even if only 1 in 100,000 buys

product

Slide 4- 8Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

The Spam Epidemic (2/2)

How firms get email addresses Opt-in lists Dictionary attacks

Spammers seek anonymity Change email and IP addresses to disguise sending

machine Hijack another system as a spam launch pad

Spam blockers Attempt to screen out spam Have led to more picture-based spam

Slide 4- 9Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Ethical Evaluations of Spamming Kantian evaluation Act utilitarian evaluation Rule utilitarian evaluation Social contract theory evaluation From all these perspectives, it is wrong to

send spam

Slide 4- 10Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Fighting Spam

Mail Abuse Prevention System Ethical evaluations of blacklisting by MAPS Proposed solutions to the Spam epidemic CAN SPAM Act of 2003

Slide 4- 11Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Mail Abuse Prevention System MAPS is a not-for-profit organization Contacts marketers who violate MAPS

standards for bulk email Puts marketers who violate standards on a

Realtime Blackhole List (RBL) Some mail relays refer to RBL list

Looks up email host name on RBL list If name on list, the email gets bounced back

All email from blacklisted hosts gets bounced, even email from non-spammers

Slide 4- 12Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Ethical Evaluations of Publishing Blacklist

Social contract theory evaluation Utilitarian evaluation Kantian evaluation

Slide 4- 13Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Proposed Solutions to Spam Epidemic

Require an explicit opt-in of subscribers Require labeling of email advertising Add a cost to every email that is sent Ban unsolicited email

Slide 4- 14Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

CAN SPAM Act of 2003 Took effect January 1, 2004

Consumers have right to “opt out” Sexually explicit messages must contain subject line

notice Prohibits dictionary attacks and falsifying header

information Critics call it “You CAN Spam Act”

Spam still legal, as long as regulations followed Opting out can have harmful consequences Federal law weaker than state laws it preempted

Spammers can avoid prosecution by locating outside United States

Slide 4- 15Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

The World Wide Web

Attributes of the Web How we use the Web Too much control or too little?

Slide 4- 16Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Attributes of the Web

It is decentralized Every Web object has a unique address It is based on the Internet

Slide 4- 17Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

How We Use the Web Shopping Promoting business Learning Exploring our roots Playing games Entering virtual worlds Paying taxes Gambling Blogging Lots more!

Slide 4- 18Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Too Much Control or Too Little?

Not everyone in world has Internet access Saudi Arabia: centralized control center People’s Republic of China: ISPs sign

“self-discipline” agreement Germany: Forbids access to neo-Nazi sites United States: Repeated efforts to limit access of

minors to pornography

Slide 4- 19Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Ethical Perspectives on Pornography

Pornography is immoral Adult pornography is moral Commentary

Slide 4- 20Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Pornography Is Immoral Kant

Loved person an object of sexual appetite Sexual desire focuses on body, not complete person All sexual gratification outside marriage wrong

Utilitarianism Pornography reduces dignity of human life, harming

everyone Pornography increases crimes such as rape Pornography reduces sympathy for rape victims Pornography is like pollution that poisons the

environment Pornography industry diverts resources from more

socially redeeming activities

Slide 4- 21Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Adult Pornography Is Moral

Utilitarianism Those who produce pornography make money Consumers of pornography derive physical

pleasure Pornography is a harmless outlet for exploring

sexual fantasies

Slide 4- 22Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Commentary

Performing utilitarian calculus is difficult How to deal with contradictory “facts” by

“experts?” How to quantify harms/benefits, such as harm

done to people who find pornography offensive?

Slide 4- 23Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Censorship

Direct censorship Self-censorship Challenges posed by the Internet Ethical perspectives on censorship

Slide 4- 24Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Direct Censorship

Government monopolization Prepublication review Licensing and registration

Slide 4- 25Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Self-censorship

Most common form of censorship Group decides for itself not to publish Reasons

Avoid subsequent persecution Maintain good relations with government

officials (sources of information) Ratings systems

Movies, TVs, CDs, video games Not the Web

Slide 4- 26Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Challenges Posed by the Internet

Many-to-many communication Dynamic connections Huge numbers of Web sites Extends beyond national borders, laws Can’t determine age of users

Slide 4- 27Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Ethical Perspectives on Censorship

Kant opposed censorship Enlightenment thinker “Have courage to use your own reason”

Mill opposed censorship No one is infallible Any opinion may contain a kernel of truth Truth revealed in class of ideas Ideas resulting from discourse are more

influential

Slide 4- 28Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Mill’s Principle of Harm

“The only ground on which interventionis justified is to prevent harm to others;the individual’s own good is not asufficient condition.”

Slide 4- 29Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Freedom of Expression

History Freedom of expression not an absolute right FCC v. Pacifica Foundation et al.

Slide 4- 30Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

History De Scandalis Magnatum (England, 1275) Court of Star Chamber 18th century

No prior restraints on publication People could be punished for sedition or

libel American states adopted bills of rights

including freedom of expression Freedom of expression in 1st amendment to

U.S. Constitution

Slide 4- 31Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

1st Amendment to U.S. Constitution

Congress shall make no law respecting anestablishment of religion, or prohibiting thefree exercise thereof; or abridging thefreedom of speech, or of the press; or theright of the people peaceably to assemble,and to petition the government for aredress of grievances.

Slide 4- 32Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Freedom of ExpressionNot an Absolute Right

1st Amendment covers political and nonpolitical speech

Right to freedom of expression must be balanced against the public good

Various restrictions on freedom of expression exist

Slide 4- 33Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

FCC v. Pacifica Foundation et al.

George Carlin records “Filthy Words” WBAI in New York airs “Filthy Words” (1973) FCC issues declaratory order to Pacifica Pacifica sues U.S. Supreme Court ruled FCC did not violate 1st

Amendment (5-4 decision) Broadcast media “uniquely pervasive” Broadcasting uniquely accessible to children

Slide 4- 34Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Children and the Web

Web filters Child Internet Protection Act Ethical evaluations of CIPA

Slide 4- 35Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Web Filters

Web filter: software that prevents display of certain Web pages May be installed on an individual PC ISP may provide service for customers

Methodologies Maintain “black list” of objectionable sites Examine content for objectionable

words/phrases

Slide 4- 36Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Child Internet Protection Act

Libraries receiving federal networking funds must filter pages containing obscenity or child pornography

U.S. Supreme Court ruled CIPA did not violate 1st Amendment guarantees(6-3 decision in June 2003)

Slide 4- 37Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Ethical Evaluations of CIPA

Kantian evaluation: CIPA is wrong Act utilitarian evaluation: depends on how

benefits and harms are weighed Social contract theory: freedom of conscience

should be given precedence

Slide 4- 38Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Breaking Trust on the Internet

Identity theft Chat room predators Ethical evaluations of police “sting” operations False information

Slide 4- 39Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Identity Theft

Identity theft: when a person uses another person’s electronic identity

Leading form: credit card fraud (more about this in Chapter 5)

Many victims are experienced computer users comfortable with typing credit card number online

Slide 4- 40Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Chat Room Predators

Chat room: supports real-time discussions among many people connected to network

Instant messaging and chat rooms replacing telephone for many people

Some pedophiles meeting children through chat rooms

Police countering with “sting” operations

Slide 4- 41Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Ethical Evaluations of “Stings”

Utilitarian evaluation Kantian evaluation Social contract theory evaluation

Slide 4- 42Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

False Information

Quality of Web-based information varies widely Other media also have information of varying quality

The New York Times v. The National Enquirer 60 Minutes v. Conspiracy Theory

Google attempts to reward quality Ranking uses “voting” algorithm If many links point to a page, Google search engine

ranks that page higher

Slide 4- 43Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Internet Addiction

Is it real? Factors contributing to addictive behavior Ethical evaluation

Slide 4- 44Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Is Internet Addiction Real?

Some liken compulsive computer use to pathological gambling

Traditional definition of addiction: Compulsive use of harmful substance or drug Knowledge of its long-term harm

Kimberly Young created test for Internet addiction Her test is controversial

Slide 4- 45Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Contributing Factors Social factors

Peer groups Situational factors

Stress Lack of social support and intimacy Limited opportunities for productive activity

Individual factors Tendency to pursue activities to excess Lack of achievement Fear of failure

Slide 4- 46Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Ethical Evaluation

Enlightenment view Individuals can and should govern their lives People are responsible for their choices

Jeffrey Reiman’s view Addict’s behavior makes sense if addict has no

hope for a better future Society bears responsibility for putting people

in hopeless situations