Carbohydrates Carbs(continued) Proteins

C-Carbon,H-HydrogenandO-OxygenMaybeseeninringsofwritteninalinearorientation.Monomersareonemolecule.Thesecanincludeglucose,galactoseandfructose.Ifyoulinktwo,youwillgetadisaccharide.Dehydrationsynthesismakesthispossible.Lactose,maltoseandsucroseareafew. Iftherearemanyglucosemoleculestogetheryouwillgetstarch,glycogenorcellulose.Storage-Starchisforenergystorageinplants.Glycogen-EnergystorageinanimalsWehavetheenzymestobreakdownstarchandglycogen(alphalinkages)

Structural-Cellulose-foundinplant-likecellwalls.Animalsthateatalotofcelluloselikecowsandtermitesneedawaytobreakdownthebonds(betalinkages)toextractnutrients.Theydothiswithmicroorganismsfoundinthegut.Otherstructuralcarbohydratesincludechitin,thepolysaccharidefoundinthecellwalloffungiaswellastheshellsofsomeinvertebrates.Whentwomoleculeshavethesamemolecularformulabutdifferentcharacteristics,theyareknownasisomers.Bothmoleculesbelowhavethesameformulabutadoublebondinadifferentposition.

C-Carbon,H-HydrogenandO-OxygenANDN-NitrogenandsomecontainS-SulfurThebasestructureisanaminogroupononesideandacarboxylgroupontheother.LookfortherepeatingpatternofN-C-COneHbondedtothecentralcarbon.InadditiontotheH,thereisavariable“R”groupbondedtothatsamecarbon.Thisiswhatgiveseachaminoacidspecificcharacteristicsincludingpolarityandcharge.Twoaminoacidswillbeformapeptidebondbytheprocessofdehydrationsynthesis.

Proteins(Continued) Lipids

Proteinscomeinmanydifferentorientationsandhaveverydifferentfunctions.Structural-Keratin(hair)Transport-Hemolglobin(oxygeninblood)Hormonal-InsulincontrolsbloodsugarEnzymatic-Acceleratechemicalreactions.Proteinshavefourlevelsoforganization.Primary-ThesequenceofaminoacidsthatiscontrolledbygenesontheDNAandassembledwiththehelpofRNAontheribosomes.Secondary-Thebackbonechainwillinteractandandfoldforminganalphahelixorbetapleatedsheets.Thesewillbestabilizedwithhydrogenbonds.Tertiary-Nowthattheproteinisfolded,thefunctional“R”groupsaregoingtodecidehowtheproteinfolds.Herechargeandbeinghydrophobicorhydrophilicisveryimportant.Hydrophobicaminoacidswillfoldandstayinthemiddleoftheproteinleavingthehydrophilicaminoacidsontheoutsidesotheycaninteractwiththewatersurroundingthem.Mutationsintheaminoacidsequencecanleadtoimproperfoldingandinteractionsbetweenadjacentproteins.Quaternary-Heremorethanoneproteinchainwillinteractandworktogether.Iftheconditionsarenotcorrect(toohotoralteredpH)theproteinwillbegintounfoldandnotfunction.Thisiscalleddenaturing.Thisprocessisirreversible.

C-Carbon,H-HydrogenandO-OxygenandP-Phosphorusinphospholipids.Lipidsincludewaxes,oils,fats,phospholipidsandcholesterol.Mostofthesearenon-polarandhydrophobic.Lipidscontainthemoreenergypermassthananyotherorganicmoleculewetalkedaboutsofar.Theyarefoundwithinthecellmembraneaswellasinsomehormones.Someanimalswillhaveahighlipidcountintheirblubberandhelpinsulatethemandhelpthemfloat.Triglyceridesarecomposedofoneglycerolmoleculebondedtothreefattyacids.Thefattyacidswillbebondedbydehydrationsynthesisandformesterlinkages.GlycerolThreeFattyAcids(Thesearesaturated)

Saturatedfat-ThethreefattyacidchainsdonotcontainanydoublebondswhichallowsthechainstopackclosetogetherbyVanderWaalsforces.Thesewillbesolidatroomtemperature.YoucanusetheformulaCnH2nO2Iftheelementsdonotaddupandyouhavealotofcarbonsandhydrogens,thefatisprobablyunsaturated.Unsaturatedfats-Thefattyacidchainsmaycontainoneormoredoublebondsbetweenthecarbons.Thiswillalterthewaytheystackandtheywillbeliquidsatroomtemperature.Remember,ifyoubondthreefattyacidstoaglycerol,youremovethreewatermolecules.

Lipids(Continued) NucleicAcids NucleicAcids(Continued)

Phospholipidsareveryimportantinthecellmembrane.Thesewillformabi-layerwithhydrophilicheadsontheoutsideandinsideofthecellandthehydrophobictailsprotectedinside.Theremaybeproteinsembeddedinthelipidbilayer.Thephospholipidisaglycerol,twofattyacids(non-polar)andaphosphatidylgroup(polar).Waterdoesnotlikethenon-polarregionandwillberepelledduringosmosis.

C-Carbon,H-HydrogenandO-OxygenN-NitrogenandP-PhosphorusThebuildingblocksofDNAandRNA.Eachcontainaphosphategroup,asugarandanitrogenousbase.

Ifthebaseshavetworingstheyarepurines(AdenineandGuanine)Ifthebaseshaveoneringtheyarepyrimidines(CytosineandThymineandUracil)

DNA-Isdoublestrandedandisfoundinthenucleus.Itcontainsgenesthatcodeforproteins.(RNAbringsthecodetotheribosomewheretheproteinwillbeassembled.)Thetwostrandsareheldtogetherbyhydrogenbonds(atthebases).Theseareantiparallel(runopposite)Thenucleotidesineachstrand(backbone)areheldtogetherbycovalentbonds(phosphodiesterbonds)ThenitrogenousbasesareAdenine-ThymineGuanine-CytosineThepentosesugarinDNAisadeoxyribosesugar.

NucleicAcids(Continued) Water AmazingWater

RNA-Issinglestrandedandisfoundinsideandoutsideofthenucleus.Thenucleotidesinthebackboneareheldtogetherbycovalentbonds(phosphodiesterbonds)ThenitrogenousbasesareAdenine-UracilGuanine-CytosineThepentosesugarinRNAisaribosesugar.

Waterisamoleculeofoxygenandtwomoleculesofhydrogen.Theseformapolarcovalentbond.Thismakeswateraveryimportantmolecule.Becausetheoxygenissoelectronegative,itpullstheelectronsclosercausingtheoxygentohaveaveryslightnegativecharge.Thisinturnleavesthehydrogentohaveaslightpositivecharge.Becauseofthedifferenceincharge,watermoleculewillbondtoeachotherforminghydrogenbonds.

Cohesion-ThehydrogenbondsbetweenThewatermoleculesallowsthemto“stick”together.Adhesion-Thepolarityofthewaterallowsitto“stick”tootherpolarsubstances.Together,adhesionandcohesionallowwatertotravelupwardagainstgravityinarootsystem.Surfacetension- thetensionofthesurfacefilmofaliquidcausedbytheattractionoftheparticlesinthesurfacelayer.Thisallowsmaterialsandanimalswithahigherdensitythanwaterto“walk”or“float”onitssurface.Highspecificheat-Waterishardtoheatandcool.Thisfactiswhatallowslifetosurviveonthisplanet.Thismoderatestheclimate,sointimesofdarkness,thetemperaturedonotchangetoorapidly. Heatofvaporization-Theenergyneededtoevaporateonegramofwaterishigherthanmostliquidsbecauseofthehydrogenbondsbetweenthewatermolecules.Density-Whenwaterfreezes,theanglebetweenthehydrogenatomsincreases,thereforeincreasingthevolumeanddecreasingthedensity.Thatiswhyicefloats.