Carbohydrates Carbs (continued) Proteins C-Carbon, H ...
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Carbohydrates Carbs (continued) Proteins C-Carbon, H-Hydrogen and O-Oxygen May be seen in rings of written in a linear orientation. Monomers are one molecule. These can include glucose, galactose and fructose. If you link two, you will get a disaccharide. Dehydration synthesis makes this possible. Lactose, maltose and sucrose are a few. If there are many glucose molecules together you will get starch, glycogen or cellulose. Storage-Starch is for energy storage in plants. Glycogen-Energy storage in animals We have the enzymes to break down starch and glycogen (alpha linkages) Structural-Cellulose-found in plant-like cell walls. Animals that eat a lot of cellulose like cows and termites need a way to break down the bonds (beta linkages) to extract nutrients. They do this with microorganisms found in the gut. Other structural carbohydrates include chitin, the polysaccharide found in the cell wall of fungi as well as the shells of some invertebrates. When two molecules have the same molecular formula but different characteristics, they are known as isomers. Both molecules below have the same formula but a double bond in a different position. C-Carbon, H-Hydrogen and O-Oxygen AND N-Nitrogen and some contain S-Sulfur The base structure is an amino group on side and a carboxyl group on the other. Look for the repeating pattern of N-C-C One H bonded to the central carbon. In addition to the H, there is a variable “R” group bonded to that same carbon. This is what gives each amino acid specific characteristics including polarity and charge. Two amino acids will be form a peptide by the process of dehydration synthesis.
Transcript of Carbohydrates Carbs (continued) Proteins C-Carbon, H ...
Carbohydrates Carbs(continued) Proteins
C-Carbon,H-HydrogenandO-OxygenMaybeseeninringsofwritteninalinearorientation.Monomersareonemolecule.Thesecanincludeglucose,galactoseandfructose.Ifyoulinktwo,youwillgetadisaccharide.Dehydrationsynthesismakesthispossible.Lactose,maltoseandsucroseareafew. Iftherearemanyglucosemoleculestogetheryouwillgetstarch,glycogenorcellulose.Storage-Starchisforenergystorageinplants.Glycogen-EnergystorageinanimalsWehavetheenzymestobreakdownstarchandglycogen(alphalinkages)
Structural-Cellulose-foundinplant-likecellwalls.Animalsthateatalotofcelluloselikecowsandtermitesneedawaytobreakdownthebonds(betalinkages)toextractnutrients.Theydothiswithmicroorganismsfoundinthegut.Otherstructuralcarbohydratesincludechitin,thepolysaccharidefoundinthecellwalloffungiaswellastheshellsofsomeinvertebrates.Whentwomoleculeshavethesamemolecularformulabutdifferentcharacteristics,theyareknownasisomers.Bothmoleculesbelowhavethesameformulabutadoublebondinadifferentposition.
C-Carbon,H-HydrogenandO-OxygenANDN-NitrogenandsomecontainS-SulfurThebasestructureisanaminogroupononesideandacarboxylgroupontheother.LookfortherepeatingpatternofN-C-COneHbondedtothecentralcarbon.InadditiontotheH,thereisavariable“R”groupbondedtothatsamecarbon.Thisiswhatgiveseachaminoacidspecificcharacteristicsincludingpolarityandcharge.Twoaminoacidswillbeformapeptidebondbytheprocessofdehydrationsynthesis.
Proteins(Continued) Lipids
Proteinscomeinmanydifferentorientationsandhaveverydifferentfunctions.Structural-Keratin(hair)Transport-Hemolglobin(oxygeninblood)Hormonal-InsulincontrolsbloodsugarEnzymatic-Acceleratechemicalreactions.Proteinshavefourlevelsoforganization.Primary-ThesequenceofaminoacidsthatiscontrolledbygenesontheDNAandassembledwiththehelpofRNAontheribosomes.Secondary-Thebackbonechainwillinteractandandfoldforminganalphahelixorbetapleatedsheets.Thesewillbestabilizedwithhydrogenbonds.Tertiary-Nowthattheproteinisfolded,thefunctional“R”groupsaregoingtodecidehowtheproteinfolds.Herechargeandbeinghydrophobicorhydrophilicisveryimportant.Hydrophobicaminoacidswillfoldandstayinthemiddleoftheproteinleavingthehydrophilicaminoacidsontheoutsidesotheycaninteractwiththewatersurroundingthem.Mutationsintheaminoacidsequencecanleadtoimproperfoldingandinteractionsbetweenadjacentproteins.Quaternary-Heremorethanoneproteinchainwillinteractandworktogether.Iftheconditionsarenotcorrect(toohotoralteredpH)theproteinwillbegintounfoldandnotfunction.Thisiscalleddenaturing.Thisprocessisirreversible.
C-Carbon,H-HydrogenandO-OxygenandP-Phosphorusinphospholipids.Lipidsincludewaxes,oils,fats,phospholipidsandcholesterol.Mostofthesearenon-polarandhydrophobic.Lipidscontainthemoreenergypermassthananyotherorganicmoleculewetalkedaboutsofar.Theyarefoundwithinthecellmembraneaswellasinsomehormones.Someanimalswillhaveahighlipidcountintheirblubberandhelpinsulatethemandhelpthemfloat.Triglyceridesarecomposedofoneglycerolmoleculebondedtothreefattyacids.Thefattyacidswillbebondedbydehydrationsynthesisandformesterlinkages.GlycerolThreeFattyAcids(Thesearesaturated)
Saturatedfat-ThethreefattyacidchainsdonotcontainanydoublebondswhichallowsthechainstopackclosetogetherbyVanderWaalsforces.Thesewillbesolidatroomtemperature.YoucanusetheformulaCnH2nO2Iftheelementsdonotaddupandyouhavealotofcarbonsandhydrogens,thefatisprobablyunsaturated.Unsaturatedfats-Thefattyacidchainsmaycontainoneormoredoublebondsbetweenthecarbons.Thiswillalterthewaytheystackandtheywillbeliquidsatroomtemperature.Remember,ifyoubondthreefattyacidstoaglycerol,youremovethreewatermolecules.
Lipids(Continued) NucleicAcids NucleicAcids(Continued)
Phospholipidsareveryimportantinthecellmembrane.Thesewillformabi-layerwithhydrophilicheadsontheoutsideandinsideofthecellandthehydrophobictailsprotectedinside.Theremaybeproteinsembeddedinthelipidbilayer.Thephospholipidisaglycerol,twofattyacids(non-polar)andaphosphatidylgroup(polar).Waterdoesnotlikethenon-polarregionandwillberepelledduringosmosis.
C-Carbon,H-HydrogenandO-OxygenN-NitrogenandP-PhosphorusThebuildingblocksofDNAandRNA.Eachcontainaphosphategroup,asugarandanitrogenousbase.
Ifthebaseshavetworingstheyarepurines(AdenineandGuanine)Ifthebaseshaveoneringtheyarepyrimidines(CytosineandThymineandUracil)
DNA-Isdoublestrandedandisfoundinthenucleus.Itcontainsgenesthatcodeforproteins.(RNAbringsthecodetotheribosomewheretheproteinwillbeassembled.)Thetwostrandsareheldtogetherbyhydrogenbonds(atthebases).Theseareantiparallel(runopposite)Thenucleotidesineachstrand(backbone)areheldtogetherbycovalentbonds(phosphodiesterbonds)ThenitrogenousbasesareAdenine-ThymineGuanine-CytosineThepentosesugarinDNAisadeoxyribosesugar.
NucleicAcids(Continued) Water AmazingWater
RNA-Issinglestrandedandisfoundinsideandoutsideofthenucleus.Thenucleotidesinthebackboneareheldtogetherbycovalentbonds(phosphodiesterbonds)ThenitrogenousbasesareAdenine-UracilGuanine-CytosineThepentosesugarinRNAisaribosesugar.
Waterisamoleculeofoxygenandtwomoleculesofhydrogen.Theseformapolarcovalentbond.Thismakeswateraveryimportantmolecule.Becausetheoxygenissoelectronegative,itpullstheelectronsclosercausingtheoxygentohaveaveryslightnegativecharge.Thisinturnleavesthehydrogentohaveaslightpositivecharge.Becauseofthedifferenceincharge,watermoleculewillbondtoeachotherforminghydrogenbonds.
Cohesion-ThehydrogenbondsbetweenThewatermoleculesallowsthemto“stick”together.Adhesion-Thepolarityofthewaterallowsitto“stick”tootherpolarsubstances.Together,adhesionandcohesionallowwatertotravelupwardagainstgravityinarootsystem.Surfacetension- thetensionofthesurfacefilmofaliquidcausedbytheattractionoftheparticlesinthesurfacelayer.Thisallowsmaterialsandanimalswithahigherdensitythanwaterto“walk”or“float”onitssurface.Highspecificheat-Waterishardtoheatandcool.Thisfactiswhatallowslifetosurviveonthisplanet.Thismoderatestheclimate,sointimesofdarkness,thetemperaturedonotchangetoorapidly. Heatofvaporization-Theenergyneededtoevaporateonegramofwaterishigherthanmostliquidsbecauseofthehydrogenbondsbetweenthewatermolecules.Density-Whenwaterfreezes,theanglebetweenthehydrogenatomsincreases,thereforeincreasingthevolumeanddecreasingthedensity.Thatiswhyicefloats.
