A ‘Multiple Needs’ A ‘Multiple Needs’ Model of Model of
Workaholism Workaholism & Other Worker Types& Other Worker Types
Evan J. Douglas & Robyn J. Evan J. Douglas & Robyn J. MorrisMorris
IntroductionIntroduction Why do people work?Why do people work? Why do some work harder than others?Why do some work harder than others? Working hard is ‘good’ for business Working hard is ‘good’ for business
profitability, national income, global profitability, national income, global competitiveness, etc.competitiveness, etc.
But ‘Workaholics’ have negative impacts on But ‘Workaholics’ have negative impacts on themselves, co-workers, family, community, themselves, co-workers, family, community, etc.etc. They They preferprefer to work, but they usually experience low to work, but they usually experience low
work enjoymentwork enjoyment ‘‘Work Enthusiasts’ also work hardWork Enthusiasts’ also work hard
They are They are averseaverse to work itself, but work hard to work itself, but work hard because they gain high levels of work enjoyment. because they gain high levels of work enjoyment.
Previous ResearchPrevious Research Spence & Robbins identified 6 worker Spence & Robbins identified 6 worker
types, based on their ‘triad’ of types, based on their ‘triad’ of characteristics:characteristics: Work Involvement Work Involvement
The extent to which a person works hardThe extent to which a person works hard Psychic Drive to workPsychic Drive to work
Inner need to workInner need to work Work EnjoymentWork Enjoyment
The satisfaction the person gains from workingThe satisfaction the person gains from working
Buelens & Poelmans (2004) identified 2 Buelens & Poelmans (2004) identified 2 more…more…
The Worker TypologyThe Worker TypologyWorker Worker TypeType
InvolvemeInvolvementnt
DriveDrive EnjoymenEnjoymentt
Enthusiastic Enthusiastic WorkaholicWorkaholic HighHigh HighHigh HighHigh
Workaholic Workaholic (Work (Work addict)addict)
HighHigh HighHigh LowLow
Work Work EnthusiastEnthusiast HighHigh LowLow HighHigh
Reluctant Reluctant Hard WorkerHard Worker HighHigh LowLow LowLow
Alienated Alienated ProfessionalProfessional LowLow HighHigh HighHigh
Disenchanted Disenchanted workerworker LowLow HighHigh LowLow
Relaxed Relaxed workerworker LowLow LowLow HighHigh
Disengaged Disengaged workerworker LowLow LowLow LowLow
Focus on Consequences Focus on Consequences Research has focused on the ‘hard Research has focused on the ‘hard
worker’ typesworker’ types Those with high work involvementThose with high work involvement
Focus has been largely on the Focus has been largely on the consequencesconsequences of working hard of working hard Hard workers may cause negative impacts onHard workers may cause negative impacts on
Their own healthTheir own health Co-worker job satisfactionCo-worker job satisfaction Business productivityBusiness productivity
But so might others (who do But so might others (who do notnot work work very hard)very hard)
The Focus of this PaperThe Focus of this Paper
This is a conceptual paper, to identify This is a conceptual paper, to identify and clarify the motives for working (or and clarify the motives for working (or not working) hardnot working) hard And why people gain more (or less) work And why people gain more (or less) work
enjoymentenjoyment Will not address the negative (or Will not address the negative (or
positive) impacts of workaholismpositive) impacts of workaholism Conceptually separate issue (externalities)Conceptually separate issue (externalities)
Will treat ‘hard work’ as long hours Will treat ‘hard work’ as long hours and/or high intensity of workand/or high intensity of work Work Effort = Hours x IntensityWork Effort = Hours x Intensity
Research QuestionsResearch Questions
What causes people to work harder, or less What causes people to work harder, or less hard?hard? Only reason offered so far is ‘psychic drive’ Only reason offered so far is ‘psychic drive’
What causes people to gain greater (or What causes people to gain greater (or lesser) work enjoyment?lesser) work enjoyment?
Can we offer a theory that explains each of Can we offer a theory that explains each of the worker types?the worker types? Why they have high (or low) work involvement;Why they have high (or low) work involvement; Why they have high (or low) work enjoyment; andWhy they have high (or low) work enjoyment; and Why they have higher or lower total satisfaction.Why they have higher or lower total satisfaction.
What causes people to What causes people to work harder?work harder?
They want more incomeThey want more income To buy goods and services To buy goods and services
They don’t enjoy their non-work timeThey don’t enjoy their non-work time Lack of leisure activities, friends, toys to play with…Lack of leisure activities, friends, toys to play with…
They enjoy the non-monetary aspects of workThey enjoy the non-monetary aspects of work Social networking, good managers, good co-workersSocial networking, good managers, good co-workers Tangible and intangible perquisites (perks) of workTangible and intangible perquisites (perks) of work
They have perfectionist tendenciesThey have perfectionist tendencies Getting things perfect requires working longer Getting things perfect requires working longer
They want to achieve success or specific targetsThey want to achieve success or specific targets Achieving targets takes longer than not achieving Achieving targets takes longer than not achieving
themthem
People work to satisfy People work to satisfy needs…needs…
Need for goods and services Need for goods and services (+)(+) Economic OrientationEconomic Orientation
Need for leisure Need for leisure (-)(-) Leisure OrientationLeisure Orientation
Need for perquisites associated with the Need for perquisites associated with the workplace workplace (+)(+) Perquisite OrientationPerquisite Orientation
Need to work Need to work (+/-)(+/-) Work OrientationWork Orientation
Need for perfectionism Need for perfectionism (+/-)(+/-) Perfectionist OrientationPerfectionist Orientation
Need for achievement Need for achievement (+)(+) Achievement OrientationAchievement Orientation
What causes people to be What causes people to be happier?happier?
Having and enjoying goods and services Having and enjoying goods and services Economic OrientationEconomic Orientation
Having and enjoying their leisure (non-work) Having and enjoying their leisure (non-work) time time Leisure OrientationLeisure Orientation
Having and enjoying perquisites at work Having and enjoying perquisites at work Perquisite OrientationPerquisite Orientation
Having the opportunity to work Having the opportunity to work Work OrientationWork Orientation
Getting closer to perfectionGetting closer to perfection Perfectionist OrientationPerfectionist Orientation
Achieving targets and successAchieving targets and success Achievement OrientationAchievement Orientation
Economic OrientationEconomic Orientation Defined as ‘the strength of preference for income’Defined as ‘the strength of preference for income’
This preference is derived from the strength of This preference is derived from the strength of preference for goods and services (i.e. materialism)preference for goods and services (i.e. materialism)
Some strongly prefer material things, others less so…Some strongly prefer material things, others less so… Income is generally related to productivity, which Income is generally related to productivity, which
is generally related to time spent working…is generally related to time spent working… Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964)Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964)
It encompasses the preference for future incomeIt encompasses the preference for future income E.g. One might work harder to gain a promotion E.g. One might work harder to gain a promotion
Also encompasses the preference for financial Also encompasses the preference for financial securitysecurity E.g. One might work harder to build a bigger ‘nest egg’E.g. One might work harder to build a bigger ‘nest egg’
Leisure OrientationLeisure Orientation Defined as ‘the attitude of an individual to Defined as ‘the attitude of an individual to
leisure’leisure’ For simplicity in this paper, Leisure = Non-work For simplicity in this paper, Leisure = Non-work
The strength of preference for non-work timeThe strength of preference for non-work time Is derived from the strength of preference one has Is derived from the strength of preference one has
for for Time spent by oneself, relaxing, sleeping Time spent by oneself, relaxing, sleeping Time spent with familyTime spent with family Doing choresDoing chores Playing with one’s ‘toys’Playing with one’s ‘toys’ Participating in the communityParticipating in the community Involvement in sport and recreation, etc.Involvement in sport and recreation, etc.
High and low preferences for leisure…High and low preferences for leisure… Depend on your preferences for the above Depend on your preferences for the above
componentscomponents The income-leisure trade-off The income-leisure trade-off
Only 24 hours in a dayOnly 24 hours in a day
The Income-Leisure The Income-Leisure Trade-offTrade-off
W3
I3
I2
I1
Y3
Y2
Y1
Income
S
W2
0 E1 E2 E3 Work Effort
W1
Different Work-Effort Supply Different Work-Effort Supply CurvesCurves
E
S
S
0 Emax 0 Emax 0 Emax
Y (a) Y (b) Y (c)
E E
S
Changed Economic or Leisure Changed Economic or Leisure OrientationsOrientations
A
C
B
S S’I”
I’I
I2
0 E2 E’ E” Emax Work Effort
Income
Y’
Y2
The ‘wall’
Perquisite OrientationPerquisite Orientation Perquisite Orientation is defined as the Perquisite Orientation is defined as the
strength of preference for the non-monetary strength of preference for the non-monetary benefits associated with workingbenefits associated with working
Perks are both tangible & intangiblePerks are both tangible & intangible Physical things – office, car, location, etc.Physical things – office, car, location, etc. Social interaction with co-workers, fun at work, good Social interaction with co-workers, fun at work, good
management/leadership, achievement, etcmanagement/leadership, achievement, etc
Some perks are negativeSome perks are negative Irksome co-workers, traffic congestion, etcIrksome co-workers, traffic congestion, etc Net perks = Perks – IrksNet perks = Perks – Irks This is what we mean when we say ‘perquisites’This is what we mean when we say ‘perquisites’
Perquisite orientation shifts the Supply Curve Perquisite orientation shifts the Supply Curve outwardoutward
Work OrientationWork Orientation Defined as the individual’s attitude to work Defined as the individual’s attitude to work
per seper se Economists traditionally expect this is to be Economists traditionally expect this is to be
negative; i.e. workers have an aversion to negative; i.e. workers have an aversion to work.work.
Calvinistic ‘work ethic’ assumes that for some Calvinistic ‘work ethic’ assumes that for some people this attitude is positive:people this attitude is positive: An inner psychic need to workAn inner psychic need to work
Work itself gives satisfactionWork itself gives satisfaction
This means the indifference curves will be This means the indifference curves will be positively sloping in income-work effort spacepositively sloping in income-work effort space
The Range of Work The Range of Work OrientationsOrientations
YS3
S2
0 Ewall 0 Ewall 0 Ewall
(a) Work Preference (b) Preference & Aversion (c) Work Aversion
Income
S1
E E E
YY
I*
The Workaholic’s Supply The Workaholic’s Supply CurveCurve
Y3
CA
0 E Emax
Income I8
I7
I6
I5
S
I4
I3
I2
I1
W2
Y2
Work effort
B
Perfectionist Orientation Perfectionist Orientation
Defined as the strength of preference for Defined as the strength of preference for achieving perfect outcomes at workachieving perfect outcomes at work
Some people have stronger preference for Some people have stronger preference for perfectionism than othersperfectionism than others Has been associated with workaholismHas been associated with workaholism
Spence & Robbins (1992)Spence & Robbins (1992) Scott, Moore & Miceli (1997)Scott, Moore & Miceli (1997)
May cause utility or disutility at workMay cause utility or disutility at work Satisfaction from achieving perfect outcomesSatisfaction from achieving perfect outcomes Frustration with not getting things perfectFrustration with not getting things perfect
Therefore, may shift the supply curve out, or back.Therefore, may shift the supply curve out, or back.
Achievement OrientationAchievement Orientation
Defined as the strength of one’s preference Defined as the strength of one’s preference for achieving desired results at workfor achieving desired results at work Completion of projects on time, on budgetCompletion of projects on time, on budget Winning formal or informal competitionsWinning formal or informal competitions Gaining market share, increased profitability, Gaining market share, increased profitability,
etcetc Need for achievement has long been Need for achievement has long been
recognized as underlying people’s recognized as underlying people’s motivation to excelmotivation to excel
McClelland (1953)McClelland (1953) Scott, Moore & Miceli (1997)Scott, Moore & Miceli (1997)
Types of Work Types of Work EnthusiastEnthusiast
TYPETYPE WorWork k efforeffortt
Work Work orientorient’n’n
WorWork k enjoenjoy.y.
Econ Econ orientorient’n’n
LeisurLeisure e orientorient’n’n
PerquPerquis. is. orientorient’n’n
AchieAchieve ve orientorient’n’n
Total Total satisf’satisf’nn
MaterialiMaterialist Work st Work EnthusiasEnthusiastt
HigHighh
LowLow HighHigh HighHigh HighHigh
Low-Low-Leisure Leisure Work Work EnthusiasEnthusiastt
HigHighh
LowLow HighHigh LowLow HighHigh
Perk-Perk-loving loving Work Work EnthusiasEnthusiastt
HigHighh
LowLow HighHigh HighHigh HighHigh
Achieving Achieving Work Work EnthusiasEnthusiastt
HigHighh
LowLow HighHigh HighHigh HighHigh
Further SpeculationsFurther SpeculationsTYPETYPE WorWor
k k efforeffortt
Work Work orientorient’n’n
WorWork k enjoenjoy.y.
Econ Econ orientorient’n’n
LeisurLeisure e orientorient’n’n
PerquPerquis. is. orientorient’n’n
AchieAchieve ve orientorient’n’n
Total Total satisf’satisf’nn
MaterialiMaterialist Work st Work EnthusiasEnthusiastt
HigHighh
LowLow HighHigh HighHigh Low?Low? HighHigh
Low-Low-Leisure Leisure Work Work EnthusiasEnthusiastt
HigHighh
LowLow HighHigh LowLow High?High? HighHigh
Perk-Perk-loving loving Work Work EnthusiasEnthusiastt
HigHighh
LowLow HighHigh Low?Low? HighHigh HighHigh
Achieving Achieving Work Work EnthusiasEnthusiastt
HigHighh
LowLow HighHigh Low?Low? High?High? HighHigh HighHigh
Other Worker TypesOther Worker Types
Worker typesWorker typesWork Work hourshours
Inner Inner DriveDrive
Enjoy-Enjoy-mentment
Income Income orientatiorientationon
Leisure Leisure orientatiorientationon
PerquisiPerquisite te orientatiorientationon
Enthusiastic Enthusiastic workaholicworkaholic
HiHi HiHi HiHi ?? ?? HiHi
Work addict Work addict workaholicworkaholic
HiHi HiHi LoLo ?? ?? LoLo
Reluctant Reluctant hard workerhard worker
HiHi LoLo LoLo HiHi ?? ??
Alienated Alienated professionalprofessional
LoLo HiHi HiHi ?? HiHi ??
Disenchanted Disenchanted workerworker
LoLo HiHi LoLo ?? ?? LoLo
Relaxed Relaxed workerworker
LoLo LoLo HiHi ?? ?? HiHi
Disengaged Disengaged workerworker
LoLo LoLo LoLo ?? ?? LoLo
Some Further Some Further SpeculationsSpeculations
Worker typesWorker typesWork Work hourshours
Inner Inner DriveDrive
Enjoy-Enjoy-mentment
EconomiEconomic c orientatiorientationon
Leisure Leisure orientatiorientationon
PerquisiPerquisite te orientatiorientationon
Enthusiastic Enthusiastic workaholicworkaholic
HiHi HiHi HiHi Hi?Hi? Lo?Lo? HiHi
Work addict Work addict workaholicworkaholic
HiHi HiHi LoLo Lo?Lo? Lo?Lo? LoLo
Reluctant Reluctant hard workerhard worker
HiHi LoLo LoLo HiHi Hi?Hi? Lo?Lo?
Alienated Alienated professionalprofessional
LoLo HiHi HiHi Lo?Lo? HiHi Hi?Hi?
Disenchanted Disenchanted workerworker
LoLo HiHi LoLo Lo?Lo? Hi?Hi? LoLo
Relaxed Relaxed workerworker
LoLo LoLo HiHi Lo?Lo? Hi?Hi? HiHi
Disengaged Disengaged workerworker
LoLo LoLo LoLo Lo?Lo? Hi?Hi? LoLo
Summary and Summary and ConclusionsConclusions
Six main motivations for work have been Six main motivations for work have been identified and clarified:identified and clarified: Income, Leisure, Perquisite, Work, Perfectionist, Income, Leisure, Perquisite, Work, Perfectionist,
and Achievement orientations and Achievement orientations Four types of Work Enthusiasts are identified:Four types of Work Enthusiasts are identified:
Materialists, Low-leisure, Perk-loving, High-Materialists, Low-leisure, Perk-loving, High-AchievingAchieving
Explanations offered for the high/low levels of Explanations offered for the high/low levels of work involvement and/or work enjoyment in work involvement and/or work enjoyment in the other worker types.the other worker types.
A series of propositions offered for empirical A series of propositions offered for empirical testingtesting
Thank you!Thank you!
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