A ‘Multiple Needs’ A ‘Multiple Needs’ Model of Model of

Workaholism Workaholism & Other Worker Types& Other Worker Types

Evan J. Douglas & Robyn J. Evan J. Douglas & Robyn J. MorrisMorris

IntroductionIntroduction Why do people work?Why do people work? Why do some work harder than others?Why do some work harder than others? Working hard is ‘good’ for business Working hard is ‘good’ for business

profitability, national income, global profitability, national income, global competitiveness, etc.competitiveness, etc.

But ‘Workaholics’ have negative impacts on But ‘Workaholics’ have negative impacts on themselves, co-workers, family, community, themselves, co-workers, family, community, etc.etc. They They preferprefer to work, but they usually experience low to work, but they usually experience low

work enjoymentwork enjoyment ‘‘Work Enthusiasts’ also work hardWork Enthusiasts’ also work hard

They are They are averseaverse to work itself, but work hard to work itself, but work hard because they gain high levels of work enjoyment. because they gain high levels of work enjoyment.

Previous ResearchPrevious Research Spence & Robbins identified 6 worker Spence & Robbins identified 6 worker

types, based on their ‘triad’ of types, based on their ‘triad’ of characteristics:characteristics: Work Involvement Work Involvement

The extent to which a person works hardThe extent to which a person works hard Psychic Drive to workPsychic Drive to work

Inner need to workInner need to work Work EnjoymentWork Enjoyment

The satisfaction the person gains from workingThe satisfaction the person gains from working

Buelens & Poelmans (2004) identified 2 Buelens & Poelmans (2004) identified 2 more…more…

The Worker TypologyThe Worker TypologyWorker Worker TypeType

InvolvemeInvolvementnt

DriveDrive EnjoymenEnjoymentt

Enthusiastic Enthusiastic WorkaholicWorkaholic HighHigh HighHigh HighHigh

Workaholic Workaholic (Work (Work addict)addict)

HighHigh HighHigh LowLow

Work Work EnthusiastEnthusiast HighHigh LowLow HighHigh

Reluctant Reluctant Hard WorkerHard Worker HighHigh LowLow LowLow

Alienated Alienated ProfessionalProfessional LowLow HighHigh HighHigh

Disenchanted Disenchanted workerworker LowLow HighHigh LowLow

Relaxed Relaxed workerworker LowLow LowLow HighHigh

Disengaged Disengaged workerworker LowLow LowLow LowLow

Focus on Consequences Focus on Consequences Research has focused on the ‘hard Research has focused on the ‘hard

worker’ typesworker’ types Those with high work involvementThose with high work involvement

Focus has been largely on the Focus has been largely on the consequencesconsequences of working hard of working hard Hard workers may cause negative impacts onHard workers may cause negative impacts on

Their own healthTheir own health Co-worker job satisfactionCo-worker job satisfaction Business productivityBusiness productivity

But so might others (who do But so might others (who do notnot work work very hard)very hard)

The Focus of this PaperThe Focus of this Paper

This is a conceptual paper, to identify This is a conceptual paper, to identify and clarify the motives for working (or and clarify the motives for working (or not working) hardnot working) hard And why people gain more (or less) work And why people gain more (or less) work

enjoymentenjoyment Will not address the negative (or Will not address the negative (or

positive) impacts of workaholismpositive) impacts of workaholism Conceptually separate issue (externalities)Conceptually separate issue (externalities)

Will treat ‘hard work’ as long hours Will treat ‘hard work’ as long hours and/or high intensity of workand/or high intensity of work Work Effort = Hours x IntensityWork Effort = Hours x Intensity

Research QuestionsResearch Questions

What causes people to work harder, or less What causes people to work harder, or less hard?hard? Only reason offered so far is ‘psychic drive’ Only reason offered so far is ‘psychic drive’

What causes people to gain greater (or What causes people to gain greater (or lesser) work enjoyment?lesser) work enjoyment?

Can we offer a theory that explains each of Can we offer a theory that explains each of the worker types?the worker types? Why they have high (or low) work involvement;Why they have high (or low) work involvement; Why they have high (or low) work enjoyment; andWhy they have high (or low) work enjoyment; and Why they have higher or lower total satisfaction.Why they have higher or lower total satisfaction.

What causes people to What causes people to work harder?work harder?

They want more incomeThey want more income To buy goods and services To buy goods and services

They don’t enjoy their non-work timeThey don’t enjoy their non-work time Lack of leisure activities, friends, toys to play with…Lack of leisure activities, friends, toys to play with…

They enjoy the non-monetary aspects of workThey enjoy the non-monetary aspects of work Social networking, good managers, good co-workersSocial networking, good managers, good co-workers Tangible and intangible perquisites (perks) of workTangible and intangible perquisites (perks) of work

They have perfectionist tendenciesThey have perfectionist tendencies Getting things perfect requires working longer Getting things perfect requires working longer

They want to achieve success or specific targetsThey want to achieve success or specific targets Achieving targets takes longer than not achieving Achieving targets takes longer than not achieving

themthem

People work to satisfy People work to satisfy needs…needs…

Need for goods and services Need for goods and services (+)(+) Economic OrientationEconomic Orientation

Need for leisure Need for leisure (-)(-) Leisure OrientationLeisure Orientation

Need for perquisites associated with the Need for perquisites associated with the workplace workplace (+)(+) Perquisite OrientationPerquisite Orientation

Need to work Need to work (+/-)(+/-) Work OrientationWork Orientation

Need for perfectionism Need for perfectionism (+/-)(+/-) Perfectionist OrientationPerfectionist Orientation

Need for achievement Need for achievement (+)(+) Achievement OrientationAchievement Orientation

What causes people to be What causes people to be happier?happier?

Having and enjoying goods and services Having and enjoying goods and services Economic OrientationEconomic Orientation

Having and enjoying their leisure (non-work) Having and enjoying their leisure (non-work) time time Leisure OrientationLeisure Orientation

Having and enjoying perquisites at work Having and enjoying perquisites at work Perquisite OrientationPerquisite Orientation

Having the opportunity to work Having the opportunity to work Work OrientationWork Orientation

Getting closer to perfectionGetting closer to perfection Perfectionist OrientationPerfectionist Orientation

Achieving targets and successAchieving targets and success Achievement OrientationAchievement Orientation

Economic OrientationEconomic Orientation Defined as ‘the strength of preference for income’Defined as ‘the strength of preference for income’

This preference is derived from the strength of This preference is derived from the strength of preference for goods and services (i.e. materialism)preference for goods and services (i.e. materialism)

Some strongly prefer material things, others less so…Some strongly prefer material things, others less so… Income is generally related to productivity, which Income is generally related to productivity, which

is generally related to time spent working…is generally related to time spent working… Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964)Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964)

It encompasses the preference for future incomeIt encompasses the preference for future income E.g. One might work harder to gain a promotion E.g. One might work harder to gain a promotion

Also encompasses the preference for financial Also encompasses the preference for financial securitysecurity E.g. One might work harder to build a bigger ‘nest egg’E.g. One might work harder to build a bigger ‘nest egg’

Leisure OrientationLeisure Orientation Defined as ‘the attitude of an individual to Defined as ‘the attitude of an individual to

leisure’leisure’ For simplicity in this paper, Leisure = Non-work For simplicity in this paper, Leisure = Non-work

The strength of preference for non-work timeThe strength of preference for non-work time Is derived from the strength of preference one has Is derived from the strength of preference one has

for for Time spent by oneself, relaxing, sleeping Time spent by oneself, relaxing, sleeping Time spent with familyTime spent with family Doing choresDoing chores Playing with one’s ‘toys’Playing with one’s ‘toys’ Participating in the communityParticipating in the community Involvement in sport and recreation, etc.Involvement in sport and recreation, etc.

High and low preferences for leisure…High and low preferences for leisure… Depend on your preferences for the above Depend on your preferences for the above

componentscomponents The income-leisure trade-off The income-leisure trade-off

Only 24 hours in a dayOnly 24 hours in a day

The Income-Leisure The Income-Leisure Trade-offTrade-off

W3

I3

I2

I1

Y3

Y2

Y1

Income

S

W2

0 E1 E2 E3 Work Effort

W1

Different Work-Effort Supply Different Work-Effort Supply CurvesCurves

E

S

S

0 Emax 0 Emax 0 Emax

Y (a) Y (b) Y (c)

E E

S

Changed Economic or Leisure Changed Economic or Leisure OrientationsOrientations

A

C

B

S S’I”

I’I

I2

0 E2 E’ E” Emax Work Effort

Income

Y’

Y2

The ‘wall’

Perquisite OrientationPerquisite Orientation Perquisite Orientation is defined as the Perquisite Orientation is defined as the

strength of preference for the non-monetary strength of preference for the non-monetary benefits associated with workingbenefits associated with working

Perks are both tangible & intangiblePerks are both tangible & intangible Physical things – office, car, location, etc.Physical things – office, car, location, etc. Social interaction with co-workers, fun at work, good Social interaction with co-workers, fun at work, good

management/leadership, achievement, etcmanagement/leadership, achievement, etc

Some perks are negativeSome perks are negative Irksome co-workers, traffic congestion, etcIrksome co-workers, traffic congestion, etc Net perks = Perks – IrksNet perks = Perks – Irks This is what we mean when we say ‘perquisites’This is what we mean when we say ‘perquisites’

Perquisite orientation shifts the Supply Curve Perquisite orientation shifts the Supply Curve outwardoutward

Work OrientationWork Orientation Defined as the individual’s attitude to work Defined as the individual’s attitude to work

per seper se Economists traditionally expect this is to be Economists traditionally expect this is to be

negative; i.e. workers have an aversion to negative; i.e. workers have an aversion to work.work.

Calvinistic ‘work ethic’ assumes that for some Calvinistic ‘work ethic’ assumes that for some people this attitude is positive:people this attitude is positive: An inner psychic need to workAn inner psychic need to work

Work itself gives satisfactionWork itself gives satisfaction

This means the indifference curves will be This means the indifference curves will be positively sloping in income-work effort spacepositively sloping in income-work effort space

The Range of Work The Range of Work OrientationsOrientations

YS3

S2

0 Ewall 0 Ewall 0 Ewall

(a) Work Preference (b) Preference & Aversion (c) Work Aversion

Income

S1

E E E

YY

I*

The Workaholic’s Supply The Workaholic’s Supply CurveCurve

Y3

CA

0 E Emax

Income I8

I7

I6

I5

S

I4

I3

I2

I1

W2

Y2

Work effort

B

Perfectionist Orientation Perfectionist Orientation

Defined as the strength of preference for Defined as the strength of preference for achieving perfect outcomes at workachieving perfect outcomes at work

Some people have stronger preference for Some people have stronger preference for perfectionism than othersperfectionism than others Has been associated with workaholismHas been associated with workaholism

Spence & Robbins (1992)Spence & Robbins (1992) Scott, Moore & Miceli (1997)Scott, Moore & Miceli (1997)

May cause utility or disutility at workMay cause utility or disutility at work Satisfaction from achieving perfect outcomesSatisfaction from achieving perfect outcomes Frustration with not getting things perfectFrustration with not getting things perfect

Therefore, may shift the supply curve out, or back.Therefore, may shift the supply curve out, or back.

Achievement OrientationAchievement Orientation

Defined as the strength of one’s preference Defined as the strength of one’s preference for achieving desired results at workfor achieving desired results at work Completion of projects on time, on budgetCompletion of projects on time, on budget Winning formal or informal competitionsWinning formal or informal competitions Gaining market share, increased profitability, Gaining market share, increased profitability,

etcetc Need for achievement has long been Need for achievement has long been

recognized as underlying people’s recognized as underlying people’s motivation to excelmotivation to excel

McClelland (1953)McClelland (1953) Scott, Moore & Miceli (1997)Scott, Moore & Miceli (1997)

Types of Work Types of Work EnthusiastEnthusiast

TYPETYPE WorWork k efforeffortt

Work Work orientorient’n’n

WorWork k enjoenjoy.y.

Econ Econ orientorient’n’n

LeisurLeisure e orientorient’n’n

PerquPerquis. is. orientorient’n’n

AchieAchieve ve orientorient’n’n

Total Total satisf’satisf’nn

MaterialiMaterialist Work st Work EnthusiasEnthusiastt

HigHighh

LowLow HighHigh HighHigh HighHigh

Low-Low-Leisure Leisure Work Work EnthusiasEnthusiastt

HigHighh

LowLow HighHigh LowLow HighHigh

Perk-Perk-loving loving Work Work EnthusiasEnthusiastt

HigHighh

LowLow HighHigh HighHigh HighHigh

Achieving Achieving Work Work EnthusiasEnthusiastt

HigHighh

LowLow HighHigh HighHigh HighHigh

Further SpeculationsFurther SpeculationsTYPETYPE WorWor

k k efforeffortt

Work Work orientorient’n’n

WorWork k enjoenjoy.y.

Econ Econ orientorient’n’n

LeisurLeisure e orientorient’n’n

PerquPerquis. is. orientorient’n’n

AchieAchieve ve orientorient’n’n

Total Total satisf’satisf’nn

MaterialiMaterialist Work st Work EnthusiasEnthusiastt

HigHighh

LowLow HighHigh HighHigh Low?Low? HighHigh

Low-Low-Leisure Leisure Work Work EnthusiasEnthusiastt

HigHighh

LowLow HighHigh LowLow High?High? HighHigh

Perk-Perk-loving loving Work Work EnthusiasEnthusiastt

HigHighh

LowLow HighHigh Low?Low? HighHigh HighHigh

Achieving Achieving Work Work EnthusiasEnthusiastt

HigHighh

LowLow HighHigh Low?Low? High?High? HighHigh HighHigh

Other Worker TypesOther Worker Types

Worker typesWorker typesWork Work hourshours

Inner Inner DriveDrive

Enjoy-Enjoy-mentment

Income Income orientatiorientationon

Leisure Leisure orientatiorientationon

PerquisiPerquisite te orientatiorientationon

Enthusiastic Enthusiastic workaholicworkaholic

HiHi HiHi HiHi ?? ?? HiHi

Work addict Work addict workaholicworkaholic

HiHi HiHi LoLo ?? ?? LoLo

Reluctant Reluctant hard workerhard worker

HiHi LoLo LoLo HiHi ?? ??

Alienated Alienated professionalprofessional

LoLo HiHi HiHi ?? HiHi ??

Disenchanted Disenchanted workerworker

LoLo HiHi LoLo ?? ?? LoLo

Relaxed Relaxed workerworker

LoLo LoLo HiHi ?? ?? HiHi

Disengaged Disengaged workerworker

LoLo LoLo LoLo ?? ?? LoLo

Some Further Some Further SpeculationsSpeculations

Worker typesWorker typesWork Work hourshours

Inner Inner DriveDrive

Enjoy-Enjoy-mentment

EconomiEconomic c orientatiorientationon

Leisure Leisure orientatiorientationon

PerquisiPerquisite te orientatiorientationon

Enthusiastic Enthusiastic workaholicworkaholic

HiHi HiHi HiHi Hi?Hi? Lo?Lo? HiHi

Work addict Work addict workaholicworkaholic

HiHi HiHi LoLo Lo?Lo? Lo?Lo? LoLo

Reluctant Reluctant hard workerhard worker

HiHi LoLo LoLo HiHi Hi?Hi? Lo?Lo?

Alienated Alienated professionalprofessional

LoLo HiHi HiHi Lo?Lo? HiHi Hi?Hi?

Disenchanted Disenchanted workerworker

LoLo HiHi LoLo Lo?Lo? Hi?Hi? LoLo

Relaxed Relaxed workerworker

LoLo LoLo HiHi Lo?Lo? Hi?Hi? HiHi

Disengaged Disengaged workerworker

LoLo LoLo LoLo Lo?Lo? Hi?Hi? LoLo

Summary and Summary and ConclusionsConclusions

Six main motivations for work have been Six main motivations for work have been identified and clarified:identified and clarified: Income, Leisure, Perquisite, Work, Perfectionist, Income, Leisure, Perquisite, Work, Perfectionist,

and Achievement orientations and Achievement orientations Four types of Work Enthusiasts are identified:Four types of Work Enthusiasts are identified:

Materialists, Low-leisure, Perk-loving, High-Materialists, Low-leisure, Perk-loving, High-AchievingAchieving

Explanations offered for the high/low levels of Explanations offered for the high/low levels of work involvement and/or work enjoyment in work involvement and/or work enjoyment in the other worker types.the other worker types.

A series of propositions offered for empirical A series of propositions offered for empirical testingtesting

Thank you!Thank you!