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9
Respiratory System
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Respiration
Ventilation: Movement of air into and
out of lungs
External respiration: Gas exchangebetween air in lungs and blood
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide
in the blood Internal respiration: Gas exchange
between the blood and tissues
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Respiratory System Functions
Gas exchange: Oxygen enters blood andcarbon dioxide leaves
Regulation of blood pH: Altered by changing
blood carbon dioxide levels
Voice production: Movement of air past vocal
folds makes sound and speech
Olfaction: Smell occurs when airborne
molecules drawn into nasal cavity Protection: Against microorganisms by
preventing entry and removing them
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Respiratory System Divisions
Upper tract
Nose, pharynx
and associated
structures Lower tract
Larynx, trachea,
bronchi, lungs
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Nasal Cavity and Pharynx
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Nose and Pharynx
Nose
External nose
Nasal cavity
Functions
Passageway for air
Cleans the air
Humidifies, warms
air Smell
Along with
paranasal sinuses
are resonating
chambers forspeech
Pharynx
Common opening for
digestive and
respiratory systems Three regions
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
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Larynx
Functions Maintain an open passageway for air movement
Epiglottis and vestibular folds prevent swallowed materialfrom moving into larynx
Vocal folds are primary source of sound production
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Vocal Folds
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Trachea
Windpipe Divides to
form
Primary
bronchi
Carina:
Cough
reflex
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Tracheobronchial Tree
Conducting zone
Trachea to terminal bronchioles which is
ciliated for removal of debris
Passageway for air movement Cartilage holds tube system open and
smooth muscle controls tube diameter
Respiratory zone Respiratory bronchioles to alveoli
Site for gas exchange
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Tracheobronchial Tree
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Bronchioles and Alveoli
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Alveolus and Respiratory
Membrane
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Fig. 4. Effects of methacholine ondepth of airway
surface liquid. a: control tissuenot exposed to methacholine.
b: 2-min methacholine exposure.Putative
sol and mucous gel are clearlyvisible. c: 30-min
exposure. Tissues were radiantetched for 20 s to 1
min. Scale bar 5 20 m.
FromAm. J. Physiol. 274 (LungCell. Mol. Physiol. 18): L388L395, 1998.
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Lungs
Two lungs: Principal organs of respiration Right lung: Three lobes
Left lung: Two lobes
Divisions
Lobes, bronchopulmonary segments, lobules
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Thoracic Walls
Muscles of Respiration
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Thoracic Volume
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Pleura
Pleural fluid produced by pleural membranes Acts as lubricant
Helps hold parietal and visceral pleural
membranes together
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Ventilation
Movement of air into and out of lungs
Air moves from area of higher pressure to
area of lower pressure
Pressure is inversely related to volume
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Alveolar Pressure Changes
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Changing Alveolar Volume
Lung recoil Causes alveoli to collapse resulting from
Elastic recoil and surface tension
Surfactant: Reduces tendency of lungs to collapse
Pleural pressure
Negative pressure can cause alveoli to
expand
Pneumothorax is an opening between
pleural cavity and air that causes a loss of
pleural pressure
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Normal Breathing Cycle
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Compliance
Measure of the ease with which lungs
and thorax expand
The greater the compliance, the easier it is
for a change in pressure to causeexpansion
A lower-than-normal compliance means
the lungs and thorax are harder to expand Conditions that decrease compliance
Pulmonary fibrosis
Pulmonary edema
Respiratory distress syndrome
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Pulmonary Volumes
Tidal volume Volume of air inspired or expired during a normal inspirationor expiration
Inspiratory reserve volume Amount of air inspired forcefully after inspiration of normal
tidal volume
Expiratory reserve volume Amount of air forcefully expired after expiration of normal
tidal volume
Residual volume Volume of air remaining in respiratory passages and lungs
after the most forceful expiration
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Pulmonary Capacities
Inspiratory capacity Tidal volume plus inspiratory reserve volume
Functional residual capacity Expiratory reserve volume plus the residual volume
Vital capacity Sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and
expiratory reserve volume
Total lung capacity Sum of inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes plus the
tidal volume and residual volume
S i t d L
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Spirometer and Lung
Volumes/Capacities
Mi t d Al l
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Minute and Alveolar
Ventilation
Minute ventilation: Total amount of airmoved into and out of respiratory systemper minute
Respiratory rate or frequency: Number ofbreaths taken per minute
Anatomic dead space: Part of respiratorysystem where gas exchange does not take
place Alveolar ventilation: How much air per
minute enters the parts of the respiratory
system in which gas exchange takes place
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Ph i l P i i l f G
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Physical Principles of Gas
Exchange
Partial pressure The pressure exerted by each type of gas in a
mixture
Daltons law Water vapor pressure
Diffusion of gases through liquids
Concentration of a gas in a liquid is determined byits partial pressure and its solubility coefficient
Henrys law
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Physical Principles of Gas
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Physical Principles of Gas
Exchange
Diffusion of gases through therespiratory membrane Depends on membranes thickness, the diffusion
coefficient of gas, surface areas of membrane, partial
pressure of gases in alveoli and blood
Relationship between ventilation andpulmonary capillary flow Increased ventilation or increased pulmonary capillary
blood flow increases gas exchange Physiologic shunt is deoxygenated blood returning
from lungs
O d C b Di id
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Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Diffusion Gradients
Oxygen Moves from alveoli into
blood. Blood is almost
completely saturated
with oxygen when itleaves the capillary
P02in blood decreases
because of mixing with
deoxygenated blood
Oxygen moves from
tissue capillaries into
the tissues
Carbon dioxide
Moves from tissues
into tissue capillaries
Moves from
pulmonary capillaries
into the alveoli
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Changes in Partial Pressures
Hemoglobin and Oxygen
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Hemoglobin and Oxygen
Transport
Oxygen is transported by hemoglobin(98.5%) and is dissolved in plasma (1.5%)
Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve shows
that hemoglobin is almost completely
saturated when P02is 80 mm Hg or above.
At lower partial pressures, the hemoglobin
releases oxygen.
A shift of the curve to the left because of anincrease in pH, a decrease in carbon dioxide,
or a decrease in temperature results in an
increase in the ability of hemoglobin to hold
oxygen
Hemoglobin and Oxygen
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Hemoglobin and Oxygen
Transport
A shift of the curve to the right because of a
decrease in pH, an increase in carbon dioxide,
or an increase in temperature results in a
decrease in the ability of hemoglobin to holdoxygen
The substance 2.3-bisphosphoglycerate
increases the ability of hemoglobin to release
oxygen
Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen
than does maternal
Oxygen Hemoglobin
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Oxygen-Hemoglobin
Dissociation Curve at Rest
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Bohr effect:
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Temperature effects:
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Shifting the Curve
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Transport of Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonateions (70%) in combination with blood proteins
(23%) and in solution with plasma (7%)
Hemoglobin that has released oxygen binds
more readily to carbon dioxide than
hemoglobin that has oxygen bound to it
(Haldane effect)
In tissue capillaries, carbon dioxide combineswith water inside RBCs to form carbonic acid
which dissociates to form bicarbonate ions
and hydrogen ions
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Transport of Carbon Dioxide
In lung capillaries, bicarbonate ions andhydrogen ions move into RBCs and chloride
ions move out. Bicarbonate ions combine
with hydrogen ions to form carbonic acid.
The carbonic acid is converted to carbon
dioxide and water. The carbon dioxide
diffuses out of the RBCs.
Increased plasma carbon dioxide lowersblood pH. The respiratory system regulates
blood pH by regulating plasma carbon dioxide
levels
CO Transport and Cl- Movement
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CO2Transport and Cl-Movement
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Ventilation-perfusion coupling:
Respiratory Areas in
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Respiratory Areas in
Brainstem
Medullary respiratory center
Dorsal groups stimulate the diaphragm
Ventral groups stimulate the intercostal and
abdominal muscles
Pontine (pneumotaxic) respiratory group
Involved with switching between inspiration
and expiration
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Respiratory Structures in Brainstem
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Rhythmic Ventilation
Starting inspiration Medullary respiratory center neurons are continuously active Center receives stimulation from receptors and simulation from
parts of brain concerned with voluntary respiratory movementsand emotion
Combined input from all sources causes action potentials tostimulate respiratory muscles
Increasing inspiration More and more neurons are activated
Stopping inspiration Neurons stimulating also responsible for stopping inspiration and
receive input from pontine group and stretch receptors in lungs.Inhibitory neurons activated and relaxation of respiratory musclesresults in expiration.
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M difi ti f V til ti
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Modification of Ventilation
Cerebral and limbic
system
Respiration can be
voluntarily controlled
and modified by
emotions
Chemical control Carbon dioxide is
major regulator
Increase or decrease in
pH can stimulatechemo- sensitive area,
causing a greater rate
and depth of respiration
Oxygen levels in blood
affect respiration whena 50%or greater
decrease from normal
levels exists
M dif i R i ti
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Modifying Respiration
Regulation of Blood pH and
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Regulation of Blood pH and
Gases
H i B R fl
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Herring-Breuer Reflex
Limits the degree of inspiration and
prevents overinflation of the lungs
Infants
Reflex plays a role in regulating basic rhythm ofbreathing and preventing overinflation of lungs
Adults
Reflex important only when tidal volume large as in
exercise
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Ventilation in Exercise
Ventilation increases abruptlyAt onset of exercise Movement of limbs has strong influence
Learned component
Ventilation increases gradually
After immediate increase, gradual increaseoccurs (4-6 minutes)
Anaerobic threshold is highest level ofexercise without causing significant changein blood pH If exceeded, lactic acid produced by skeletal
muscles
Eff t f A i
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Effects of Aging
Vital capacity and maximum minute
ventilation decrease
Residual volume and dead space
increase
Ability to remove mucus from
respiratory passageways decreases
Gas exchange across respiratory
membrane is reduced
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19
U
nitFive
Holes
Human Anatomy & Physiology
Eighth Edition
Chapter 19
Respiratory System
I Introduction
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I. Introduction
(p. 739)
A. The respiratory system consists of a group of
passageways that filter incoming air and
transport it into the microscopic alveoli where
gases are exchanged.
B. The entire process of exchanges gases between
the atmosphere and body cells is called
respiration and consists of the following;
ventilation, external respiration, transport in the
bloodstream, internal respiration, and cellularrespiration.
II Why We Breathe
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II. Why We Breathe
(p. 739)
A. We, on a macroscopic level, need to breathe
because our cells, on a microscopic level,
require oxygen as a final electron acceptor in the
process of cellular respiration, and must rid
themselves of carbon dioxide as a by-product of
the same metabolic pathways.
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III. Organs of the Respiratory System
(p.740; Fig. 19.1; Table 19.1)A. The organs of the respiratory tract can be
divided into two groups: the upper respiratory
tract (nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, and pharynx),
and the lower respiratory tract (larynx, trachea,
bronchial tree, and lungs).
B. Nose (p. 740)
C. Nasal Cavity (p. 740; Figs. 19.2, 19.3)
D. Sinuses (p. 741; Fig. 19.4)
.System (p 740; Fig 19 1; Table
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System (p.740; Fig. 19.1; Table
19.1)
E. Pharynx (p. 741)
F. Larynx (p. 742; Figs. 19.5-19.7)
G. Trachea (p. 744; Figs. 19.8-19.11)
H. Bronchial Tree (p. 746, Figs. 19.12-19.18)I. Lungs (p. 750; Fig. 19.19)
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IV Breathing Mechanism
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IV. Breathing Mechanism
(p. 751)
A. Ventilation (breathing), the movement of air in
and out of the lungs, is composed on inspiration
and expiration.
B. Inspiration (p. 751; Figs. 19.20-19.23; Table 19.2)
C. Expiration (p. 756; Fig. 19.24; Table 19.3)
D. Respiratory Volumes and Capacities (p. 757; figs.
19.25, 19.26; Table 19.4)
E. Alveolar Ventilation (p. 758)
F. Nonrespiratory Air Movements (p. 759; Table19.5)
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V. Control of Breathing
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V. Control of Breathing
(p. 760)
A. Normal breathing is a rhythmic, involuntary act.
B. Respiratory Center (p. 760; Figs. 19.27, 19.28)
C. Factors Affecting Breathing (p. 762; Figs. 19.29,
19.30; Table 19.6)
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VI. Alveolar Gas Exchanges
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eo a Gas c a ges
(p. 764)
A. The alveoli, located at the end of the bronchial
tree, are the sites of gas exchange between the
atmosphere and the blood.
B. Alveoli (p. 764; Fig. 19.31)
C. Respiratory Membrane (p. 765; Figs. 19.32-19.34)
D. Diffusion through the Respiratory Membrane (p.
765)
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VII. Gas Transport
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p
(p. 767; Table 19.7)
A. Gases are transported in association with
molecules in the blood or dissolved in the
plasma.
B. Oxygen Transport (p. 767; Figs. 19.35-19.39)
C. Carbon Monoxide (p. 769)
D. Carbon Dioxide Transport (p. 769; Figs.
19.40-19.42)
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The End.