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Module 16APPROACHES TO TEACHING LITERARY
AND CULTURAL STUDIES
Contents16.1 Introduction
16.2 Why teach literary and cultural studies?
16.3 Approaches to reading and criticism
16.4 Working with the meta-language
16.5 Using different audio-visual aids in LCS teaching
16.6 Using the Internet
16.7 Assessment materials
16.8 Suggested reading
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Approaches to Teaching Literary and Cultural Studies
16.1 Introduction
The aim of this reader module is to provide advice and guidance for postgraduate teaching
assistants and language assistants in British higher education institutions who teach literary
and cultural studies at undergraduate level.
16.2 Why teach literary and cultural studies?
It is perhaps appropriate to begin by identifying some general aims of teaching literary and
cultural studies as part of the undergraduate modern languages curriculum. We may be
teaching several things at once. For example:
1. Ways of reading a written or visual text.
2. Ways of writing about a written or visual text.
3. A deeper appreciation of a text.
4. The cultural context for language acquisition.
5. A critical awareness of ‘other worlds’, namely the symbolic ‘worlds’ of other communities
as well as the ideological ‘worlds’ which shape or are brought into play by the literary or
visual text. In this way, the text might be viewed as a window onto another world, rather
than a mirror which reflects back the student’s own concerns and immediate points of
identification.
6. Acquisition of vocabulary and structures in the target language.
From your point of view, it is necessary to be clear about the aims and objectives that you
are trying to achieve in the classroom and what you are required to assess. This is perhaps
more difficult to quantify in literary and cultural studies teaching because of the emphasis
on personal interpretation. Nevertheless, the ability to perform a critical interpretation of a
text is an element which we can assess. It is also essential that students know in detail
what they are required to do, how and when they are required to do it, and what is being
assessed. If a student is required to give a seminar paper in French on one of Sartre’s
plays, what is being assessed? Are we assessing the quality of linguistic expression in the
target language, the knowledge of Sartre’s philosophy (if relevant), an awareness of his
stagecraft, the student’s presentation skills or general evidence of his/her wide reading?
Are these elements of assessment equally important? In short, we need to be clear about
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what we are teaching and assessing and be systematic in the application of the assessment
criteria generated.
The way in which you carry out many of your activities will be pre-determined by your
department’s or school’s teaching, learning and assessment requirements, practices which
are regularly inspected by the Quality Assurance Agency. So it is essential that you
familiarise yourself with these requirements and that you seek guidance from more
experienced full-time colleagues.
Before you begin teaching, some preparatory steps are needed. For example:
1. Familiarise yourself with departmental or school policy and ensure that your teaching
adheres to it.
2. Consult experienced colleagues whenever possible.
3. Ask if you can observe classes taught by more experienced colleagues.
4. Ask for a departmental/school mentor (preferably in the same subject area) and meet
with her/him regularly to review your progress.
5. Find out as much as you can about your student group, even if you only teach them for
a one-hour literature seminar a week. Find out what course they are on, whether they
have any relevant experience (for example, if they have studied A Level English
Literature or if they are very interested in contemporary Spanish film, or even that they
did not get on with their former literature teacher) and any relevant information on their
background as a student in your institution (for example, that they are a persistent late-
comer or that they ‘never wanted to study literature’). This type of information helps
you in all sorts of ways, especially to know how to pitch your teaching, and enables you
to work effectively with the students as quickly as possible.
6. If you teach part of a course, try and attend some sessions relating to the rest of the
course or at least read the relevant documentation relating to the rest of the course.
7. Draw up a lesson plan for every class which includes extra activities in case you need
them.
8. Design a scheme of work so that you have a long-term view of your teaching.
9. Distribute course/module documentation to the students which contains all necessary
information (class schedule, assessment information, background information,
bibliographies, etc).
10.Ensure that you know how to operate any equipment or software which you intend to
use in class.
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11. Make students aware of any prerequisites before the module/course begins. For
example, do they need to have seen the film or read the book?
In literary and cultural studies departments in higher education, the notion of ‘text’ has
expanded to include literary, filmic and visual media which are increasingly finding their
way onto the syllabus. Some students who choose to study literary and cultural forms are
less inclined to analyse 500-page novels and are more interested in analysing image-
based cultural forms. They may be dismayed to discover that they may still be required to
read written texts in the target language or that they need to learn specialist terms and
concepts. This requires us to be more attentive to their needs and more inventive than
ever before in arousing and maintaining students’ interest.
So, how can we help our students to acquire a deep and critical understanding of the text?
16.3 Approaches to reading and criticism
Given the importance of critical reading in literary and cultural studies, the question is how
we can teach students to read and analyse texts and to construct convincing readings.
This assumes that texts are vehicles of meanings which we can decipher, whether we
think that the meaning is (i) intended by the author, (ii) produced by the formal properties
or stylistic features of the text, (iii) generated in the act of ‘reading’ or (iv) a combination of
these three factors. Again you should consult experienced colleagues who have designed
the relevant module and/or course on which you are teaching to ascertain departmental or
school practice. For example, do colleagues teach author-based criticism which does not
use explicit theoretical methodologies? Do colleagues focus on the stylistic or socio-
historical aspects of texts? Do colleagues draw on a range of theoretical methodologies in
their teaching? These are important questions because they determine what the student
must know, should know and could know, and hence what needs to be taught and is likely
to be assessed. Although you will probably not be involved in administering all forms of
assessment, you must know what skills and knowledge need to be acquired by the students.
The aims and objectives of a given programme of study will determine, on the whole, the
level of knowledge and the degree of sophistication in reading and critical interpretation
which you should expect from students. For example, it would be unreasonable to expect
students who are majoring in Engineering or Accountancy and studying French or German
for only a third of their time to have a detailed knowledge of a writer’s published corpus
and the context in which it was produced. Students who are studying several subjects do
not have the time to reach this degree of sophistication.
Some students may also have difficulty adapting to the specific learning methodologies of
different disciplines. For example, students from science or engineering backgrounds,
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who are used to learning and interpreting facts and figures, may find it difficult to work in
the more abstract context of literary and cultural theory.
Other students may have previously learned ‘how to pass the exam’ to the benefit of
school and college league tables and therefore have precise expectations of the teacher
to tell them the ‘right answer’ or formula for exam success. They may feel anxious when
these expectations are not met. You should make the students aware of the specific aims,
objectives, and learning and teaching methods to be used in literary and cultural studies
so that they have appropriate expectations of themselves and of you, the teacher. Students
need to understand why they are being asked to engage in a particular activity and what
the intended learning outcome may be and how it relates to ‘the bigger picture’ of their
studies.
So, where do we begin to teach reading and critical interpretation?
According to the specific aims and objectives of the course and module in question, you
will have to attribute greater or lesser emphasis to the elements listed in Table 1 below. An
initial way of thinking about texts is for students to relate them to their own experience,
although the problem with this approach is that they can become trapped by their own
concerns and preconceptions. Consequently, they do not encounter the text on its own
terms or develop the skills of objective appraisal. One of the rewards of studying cultural
forms is that it offers the student the possibility of encountering and developing respect for
other world-views, rather than simply reinforcing her or his own. In order to foster this
encounter with difference, students might be encouraged to focus on textual elements
which diverge from their own expectations and experience.
You can use the questions below to guide students as they read and re-read the text:
Argument What is the novel, poem, film about? For example, how would
you describe it objectively to a friend?
Voice Who is speaking? How do you know their identity? Do you
identify with the narrator? If not, why not? Is identification
important?
Setting What is the significance of the chosen setting?
Language How is the target language used? Why is it used in these ways?
Relation to ‘the real’ Does the text claim to represent the world? If so, how?
If not, what does it claim to do?
Genre What kind of a film, poem or book is it? How do you know?
Does that knowledge affect how you read the text?
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Intertextual issues What is the text’s relationship to other texts in a given language
community?
Ideological world-view What values are expressed? How does this ‘world-view’
correspond to or differ from your values and views about the
world? Does this ideological correspondence or difference affect
your reading practices?
Table 1
Teaching and learning activities
Although it is unlikely that you will be able to determine the content of the curriculum or the
method of its delivery, you may be able to determine teaching and learning activities once
in the classroom. Perhaps the key word here is pro-active - the more you encourage your
students to be pro-active learners, rather than passive learners, the more chance you
both have of enjoying the teaching and learning process and for it to be successful.
Below are some examples of teaching and learning activities used in literary and cultural
studies which can be undertaken in English or in the target language. If you are intending
to work in the target language, it will first be necessary to check students’ level in the
language, for example, through general conversation.
Student Activity Teacher Activity Student Input
Read text/view film Explain role of the LCS critic; Read text/view film; answer
set general and specific questions; note down any
questions to guide reading/ preliminary ideas
viewing (see Table 1 above
for general questions)
Note-taking from text, Explain role of note-taking; Practise and experiment
secondary critical explain method of note- with effective personal note-
material, lecture, taking; supply examples of taking styles; read and
seminar ‘effective’ note-taking which review notes regularly
facilitates recall
Information-gathering Supply information on how Go on library tours; surf the
to access local and virtual ‘Net’; organise research
sources of information; material; review and update
provide reading lists; research material regularly
encourage students to be
judiciously critical of
information sources;
explain relevant research
methodology
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Oral presentations Explain O.P. techniques; Research topic; answer
(solo) explain assessment; give question; reference critics
students chance to practise appropriately; manage
in front of an audience questions from audience;
practise public speaking
Oral presentations Explain O.P. techiniques; Research topic; answer
(pair/group) explain assessment; assign question; reference critics
respective tasks; give appropriately; manage
guidance on pair/group questions from audience;
management techniques; reflect on pair/group
give students chance to management techniques;
practise in front of an practise public speaking as
audience a pair/group
Commentary/close Explain purpose of exercise; Research text; read passage
reading exercise explain technique; supply very thoroughly; note down
list of features to look for; ideas; implement advice on
supply ‘model’ ‘good practice’
commentaries
Critical discussion Explain what critical Research topic; gain
(in pairs/group) discussion is; decide how familiarity with meta-
much meta-language is language; participate in
required; manage discussion; be ready to listen
discussion by probing, to and learn from others;
prompting, asking for practise public speaking
clarification and critical
reflection; help students
build confidence and make
progress by affirmation and
feedback on their
participation
Coursework/exam Guidance on coursework Develop time-management
work and exam technique; give skills; practise writing against
students the chance to the clock; research topic
practise with ‘real’ thoroughly; read question,
questions; give feedback answer question; implement
to aid progress advice given by teaching
staff
Table 2
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An example of a learning activity in the LCS classroom: commentary
The aim of literary and filmic commentary is to enable students to acquire and develop
critical interpretative skills and (where applicable) vocabulary and structures in the target
language. Commentary employs the technique of ‘close reading’ of a sequence of film or
a literary extract. If you want to use commentary as a teaching and learning activity, it is
necessary first to select a short, key extract from the text. You might ask individuals or
groups of students to select an extract and present it to the class. Alternatively, you might
select an extract yourself and ask students to prepare it in their own time and then use the
extract as a basis for classroom discussion.
Students first need to read the extract through several times and look up any unknown
vocabulary or terms. They might reflect on what happens before and afterwards in the
text, or in the text as a whole, which renders the extract significant. After familiarising
themselves with the extract, what should students look for? Remember - these are not
exhaustive lists, merely some suggested features to look for in a commentary passage or
filmic sequence. You may need to explain some of these features and give an easy, relevant
example of their use. It is not sufficient to identify them in the text, students need to
analyse and to argue WHY (in their view) they might be important.
Literary commentary: stylistic and linguistic aspects
• tense usage (e.g. predominance of a particular tense)
• adjectives and adverbs (e.g. repetition)
• punctuation
• syntax and sentence length (significant when considered with the subject matter?)
• alliteration (i.e. words beginning with same letter)
• assonance (corresponding vowel sounds)
• paragraph structure
• use of subject pronouns
• use of names (any symbolic significance?)
• use of direct speech
• use of narrative viewpoint
• use of ‘style indirect libre’ or free indirect speech
• metaphor
• metonymy (use of an attribute to denote a larger concept, e.g. ‘Matignon’ [French
Prime Minister’s office] being used to represent the PM’s position on an issue).
• use of interrogative forms
• use of litotes (negative understatement)
• periphrasis (long-winded method of communicating for stylistic effect)
• linguistic register (slang? formal? ‘everyday’ language?)
• passive and impersonal constructions
• enumeration (use of lists)
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• generalisations
• irony
• emphasis
• symbolism
• ellipsis
Filmic language: some general features to note
Make sure your students understand these terms in English and in the target language
before you ask them to identify their significance in a given sequence of film. Once they
understand the terms, show students some brief film clips which contain the relevant
features, for example:
• types of shot
• characteristics of image (e.g. composition, angle, depth of field)
• characteristics of lens (e.g. wide angle, telephoto)
• camera movement
• editing
• lighting
• soundtrack
• use of colour/black and white
• scenario
• special effects
• flashback
• frame composition
• opening and closing credits.
General questions to aid close reading
• What effects are created in the passage or sequence?
• How is the literary extract or film sequence structured?
• How is the reader or viewer positioned in relation to the text (as collaborator, enemy,
gullible recipient)?
• What, in your view, is the aim of the passage/sequence/frame?
• What is the writer’s or director’s attitude towards the subject matter? How is this evident?
• What tensions exist in the extract?
• What is the rhythm of the piece chosen?
16.4 Working with the meta-language
In many modern languages departments, lectures and seminars on aspects of literary
and cultural studies are delivered in the target language. In addition, as detailed above,
students are expected to develop their skills of critical expression. This raises a number of
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issues for the student and consequently, for the teacher.
Barriers to discussion: interpretation and use of the target language
As most experienced teachers recognise, it can be difficult to get a discussion started in
any area, be it in English or in the target language. The abstract nature of literary and
cultural studies and the emphasis on interpretation can frighten many students off,
preventing them from developing their own skills of critical analysis and expression. Some
weaker students may perceive the requirement to express their slight knowledge and
interpretation of the text in the target language as an ‘added burden’. In the course of their
prior learning experience, they may not have acquired adequate proficiency in the target
language to discuss a text in detail, or they may not be familiar with the relevant critical
terms. This can result in a total lack of student participation and consequently an entirely
‘teacher-led’ seminar which tends towards facilitating ‘surface learning’ rather than critical
and independent learning (see Module 1 - How Students Learn).
The acquisition of these meta-languages in literary and cultural studies - be it in the target
language or the critical language - is crucial because without them, students will not develop
their expertise in the target language or the necessary skills of critical thinking and
expression. Consequently, they will not be enabled to achieve the aims and learning
outcomes of their programme of study. Students need to be made aware that if they are to
take a professional attitude to their studies, they need to acquire the necessary linguistic
and conceptual tools. If the aim is for students to acquire vocabulary and structures in the
target language, then source material, discussion and handouts should all ideally be in
the target language to avoid giving the students the chance to ‘lapse’ into their native
language. Similarly, if the aim is for students to acquire a critical vocabulary, then these
terms and concepts must be introduced. How might this acquisition and practice of the
meta-language be achieved?
• Students can be introduced to key terms in seminars, lectures and web-based
materials.
• Students can be asked to draw up a glossary of key terms and concepts with which
they are unfamiliar from entries in text books, encyclopedias and the Internet.
• Key terms from lectures can be reinforced by teachers soliciting the appropriate
terminology, by supplying the correct terminology when students are floundering
and by short question-and-answer slots at the start/end of a class.
• Students can practise key terms, vocabulary and structures in different exercises
(see ‘Teaching and learning activities’ above).
Using critical theory
For many years now, some modern languages syllabi have included optional introductory
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modules on aspects of critical and cultural theory which stand apart from the core syllabus.
Other approaches have been to import information on diverse theoretical approaches
directly into core literary and cultural studies classes. Although there is no obligation to
use critical theory in teaching interpretative reading strategies to students, no teaching
practices are value-free and you should at least make your own perspective and
assumptions explicit. Moreover, many published works of literary and cultural criticism are
informed by a diverse range of theoretical approaches, and for that reason too, students
should be made aware of these approaches. Within any department, there will be staff
who are more or less interested in using critical theory in their teaching of literary and
cultural studies. Problems can arise when students and teachers have to find their way
through a range of secondary critical material which employs unfamiliar theoretical
approaches. How should you proceed?
1. Use annotated bibliographies.
Providing a brief commentary on texts cited in a bibliography which is distributed to
students is an established practice and helps them navigate their way through an ever-
expanding field of reference material. If they know that Text ‘A’ is a psychoanalytic
reading of Madame Bovary, then they can eliminate it or include it in their search for
bibliographic material, according to their level of theoretical literacy and to the remit of
their assignment. Such annotation may encourage them to discover and appreciate
the wealth of critical approaches available to them.
2. Explain the jargon.
Critical theory has produced a huge lexicon of complex terms and concepts which can
seem incomprehensible and off-putting. These conceptual and terminological ‘tools of
the trade’ should be used as a shorthand to facilitate critical thinking and discussion,
not to ‘blind your students with science’! Explain the necessary terms and concepts in
stages as simply as possible by using easy, relevant examples and familiar vocabulary.
Students are almost always capable of understanding the concept if it is explained
clearly.
3. Use introductory guides to literary and cultural theory.
There is now a mass of accessible and short introductory guides to literary and cultural
theory available (some of which are listed at the end of this module). Refer to them and
encourage your students to use them from the outset.
4. Read the same passages using different theoretical approaches in small groups;
assess the merits and shortcomings of these different approaches.
Using departmental Web pages or seminar discussions, you can distribute textual
extracts employing a range of different theoretical approaches among groups of students
for close reading. You can use question and answer sessions or buzz groups (break
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the class into small groups for discussion) to check understanding and identify the
strengths and weakness of the different approaches. Obviously, this must be preceded
by explanation of the particular approach at issue, for example, feminist psychoanalytic
or new historicist, although this can be hard-going for students and can seem irrelevant
until you explain your aims. Most usefully, once the basic concepts of a given theoretical
approach have been explained, the discussion should be kept as practical as possible
- providing examples of features of a particular interpretative strategy in the text under
discussion.
A helpful approach to understanding the practical use of theory is offered by Peter Barry in
Beginning Theory, An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory (Manchester University
Press, 1995) in his sections ‘What Structuralist/Feminist/Freudian Psychoanalytic, etc,
Critics Do’. In these sections relating to the various critical methodologies, Barry lists the
activities involved in applying a particular theoretical approach to a text. For example, we
learn that (among other activities) feminist critics ‘rethink the canon’ to include texts by
women, challenge representations of women as ‘Other’ and examine gendered power
relations as they affect reading and writing practices. Supplying students with practical
applications of different theoretical methodologies in this way should help them use theory
effectively.
16.5 Using different audio-visual aids in LCS teaching
It is now broadly accepted that using a variety of audio-visual material to stimulate the
learner is good pedagogic practice. Using a range of materials to appeal to students’
different ‘preferred learning styles’ is important to keep learning interesting and effective.
Some students learn more effectively if information is delivered via a combination of written
text and image - perhaps because we learn approximately 70% of information by visual
means. For this reason, it is important that you vary methods of information delivery and
techniques in small group teaching in order to maximise the chance of accommodating
students’ different preferred learning styles. What kinds of audio-visual media can you
use in LCS teaching?
1. Use films in conjunction with novels or film adaptations of novels to promote
intertextual readings.
Students might watch the entire film in their own time or extracts in class time. You
can distribute a questionnaire in advance to guide their viewing which they complete
during and after seeing the film. Students might compare how a thematic issue is
treated in a literary text and in a film. In the case of film adaptations, students can
be invited to comment on the casting, the deletions of characters and scenes, the
differences between the written text and the film version(s), the merits and
disadvantages of viewing film adaptations of written texts.
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2. Use visual arts materials (in the form of slides, prints, computer-generated
images) with literary texts to promote learning of the cultural context.
The pairing of artists and writers’ work - such as Zola’s novels or art criticism with
Manet’s paintings, or Verlaine’s poetry with Watteau’s paintings - in the teaching of
a literary module can enable students to understand the cultural context of a given
writer more effectively and broaden their knowledge base. You will need to supply
students with basic terms relating to visual arts criticism. In pairs or small groups
they can think about how these different media might affect what the writer or artist
is communicating and how multi-media access to texts might facilitate different
readings of a given theme. For example, students might compare the representation
of ‘orientalism’ in Delacroix’s painting with that of nineteenth-century French travel
writing.
3. Use music of the period to promote learning of the cultural context.
For example, you might contrast Baroque with Romantic music in a module on the
nineteenth-century German novel. You should explain any relevant musical or
cultural terms in advance. If there are any students who have a musical background,
you can pair them with students who do not. You might then play music in the
background and invite students to comment on it or complete a questionnaire on
their personal responses to the music in relation to the texts being studied. Once
they understand the concept of Romanticism, you might ask them to identify common
Romantic elements in an extract of music and a written text.
4. Use the ‘Net’ (see below).
16.6 Using the Internet
(For general information on how to use the Internet, please refer to Module 12 - IT in
Language Learning.)
Educational use of the Internet is commonplace these days and teachers have access to
a vast range of resources. It is very likely that staff in your department or school use the
‘Net’ for pedagogic purposes, and this section aims only to be a brief overview of areas of
resources which you might consider using to facilitate student learning. So, what can you
and your students use the Net for?
• obtaining pedagogical advice
• using Author/Topic web sites for teaching/learning resources
• access to general information on political, historical, cultural background
• participating in discussion lists
• accessing text archives
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• reading film, literature and visual arts journals and magazines
• designing web sites for student use (hyperlinked extracts, booklists, etc)
• accessing bibliographical databases
16.7 Assessment materials
It is imperative that you consult colleagues in your department for information on
departmental assessment requirements and practices. On the next pages, there are some
sample assessment materials which you may find useful to use. For general information
on assessment, please refer to Module 5 - Assessment.
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SAMPLE 1
Coursework Assessment Sheet which supplies student with detailedfeedback and mark.
COURSEWORK ASSESSMENT
MODULE:
STUDENT:
MARK AWARDED:
———————————————————————————————————————
1. CONTENT:
2. QUALITY OF ARGUMENT AND ANALYSIS:
3. ORGANISATION AND STRUCTURE:
4. QUALITY OF LANGUAGE AND EXPRESSION:
5. USE OF REFERENCE SOURCES:
6. QUALITY OF PRESENTATION:
7. GENERAL COMMENTS:
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SAMPLE 2
Some suggested essay marking criteria
The criteria below are suggested only as a general guide. All features may not necessarily
be present simultaneously in a given piece of work. If an essay is written in the target
language, it will be necessary to decide what percentage of the marks is devoted to the
use of the target language and the quality of target language required. This will depend on
the specific aims and objectives of the module and the course of which it is a component.
For example, depending on your department’s or school’s policy, certain types of error
might be overlooked in first year students’ work but will be heavily penalised if they appear
in final year students’ work.
Classmark Features which may be found
I (70 and above) Well-structured; analytical approach to key terms of question;
answers the question, evidence of original thought and insight;
well-researched and refers to a wide range of primary and
secondary reading; logical reasoning; essay methodology is
explicit; appropriate use of quotation; concise; well-presented;
bibliography included and correctly laid out.
II.i (60-69) Largely well-structured; analytical approach to key terms of
question; answers the question, some limited evidence of original
thought and insight; well-researched and refers to a range of
primary and secondary reading; logical reasoning; essay
methodology is explicit; appropriate use of quotation; usually
concise; well-presented; bibliography included and correctly laid
out.
II.ii (50-59) Some apparent structure; more descriptive than analytic; engages
with only some of the key terms of the question; no real evidence
of original thought or insight; some research evident but not
sufficiently well-organised to answer the question; refers to primary
and some secondary reading although this is not always relevant;
essay methodology is not always explicit; use of quotation may not
always be appropriate in choice/length; tends towards a superficial
engagement with question; presentation acceptable; bibliography
included but incorrectly laid out.
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III (40-49) Little apparent structure; descriptive; engages only vaguely with
some of the key terms of the question; no evidence of original
thought or insight; little research evident, essay methodology is
not very explicit; use of quotation may not always be appropriate in
choice/length; a superficial engagement with question; illogical
reasoning; presentation acceptable; no bibliography.
FAIL (below 40) No structure; descriptive; does not engage with the question; no
evidence of original thought or insight; no research evident,
essay methodology non-existent; use of quotation inappropriate;
illogical and chaotic reasoning; badly-presented; no bibliography.
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16.8 Suggested reading
Barry P. (1995): Beginning Theory. An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory.
Manchester University Press, Manchester.
Computers in Teaching Initiative Textual Studies. Humanities Computing Unit, OUCS, 13
Banbury Road, Oxford, OX2 6NN. Web site: http://info.ox.ac.uk/ctitext/
Culler J. (1997): Literary Theory. A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Durant A. & Fabb N. (1990): Literary Studies in Action. Routledge, London.
Eagleton T. (1983): Literary Theory. An Introduction. Blackwell. Oxford.
Gibaldi J. (series editor) Approaches to Teaching World Literature, Modern Language
Association of America. An extensive series of guides to teaching specific literary texts
which is aimed at specialists and non-specialists.
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