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Zero Carbon CompendiumWho's doing what in housing worldwide
NHBC Foundation
NHBC House
Davy Avenue
Knowlhill
Milton Keynes
MK5 8FP
Tel: +44 (0)1908 746739
Fax: +44 (0)1908 747255
E-mail: [email protected]
ww.nhbcfoundation.org
Copyright NHBC Foundation 2011.
Please contact the NHBC Foundation if you wishto reproduce, publish or electronically storeany part of this document.
Researched and published by PRP Architectson behalf of the NHBC Foundation
September 2011
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FOREWORD
Climate change is the biggest threat we faceglobally, but all too often it is discussed in the
abstract, and can appear disconnected fromour daily lives. And yet there are very realand immediate links. Across the globe, as inthe UK, our homes account for between 20%and 25% of all man-made CO
2emissions.
So how homes are designed, built and used,can make an enormous difference. Formany governments, cutting emissions fromhousing is regarded as central to their abilityto meet national and international emissionsreduction targets. As a result, a wide rangeof approaches and policies directed at
housing have developed or are emerging indifferent countries with the common aim offacilitating low carbon living. Some of theseare already providing powerful exampleswhich are informing international thinking.
Originally published in 2009, and nowupdated to include five additional countries,this Compendium provides a broadsynthesis of international activity in thisfield. It gives a unique snapshot of how20 different countries are demonstratingleadership in low carbon technology, culturechange, policy development and changemanagement. For each country, headlineenergy consumption and climatic data
have been assembled to provide context.This is accompanied by an analysis of
progress against national aspirations andpolicy targets for emissions reductions. Asin the 2009 Compendium, the informationhas been organised to facilitate easycomparisons between countries, providingclarity for those wishing to learn frominternational experience and those seekingto build international links and collaboration.
For the UK, where meeting the 2016zero carbon target requires rapid andchallenging performance improvements,
there is an obvious need to learn key lessonsfrom overseas. While every country hasunique domestic circumstances, the 2011Compendium, with its expanded scope andadditional insight gained over time, helpsus all to save time by learning from others,whether on policy, process, technology orconstruction practice.
While the global market can bring powerfulinternational perspectives to our decisionmaking, we rarely have the time to stepback and take in the significant progressthat is being made across the world. TheCompendium both helps provide thatperspective and enables us to appreciate
the significant contribution being madeby our own housing sector and policy
makers to international progress onlow carbon housing.
We hope that the 2011 Compendium, likeits predecessor, will make a valuablecontribution by building internationalawareness of the global importance oflow and zero carbon housing in tacklingclimate change.
Nick Raynsford Paul King
Nick Raynsford
Chair, NHBC Foundation
Paul King
Chair, Zero Carbon Hub
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ABOUT THE NHBC FOUNDATION
The NHBC Foundation was establishedin 2006 by the NHBC in partnership with
the BRE Trust. Its purpose is to deliverhigh-quality research and practicalguidance to help the industry meet itsconsiderable challenges.
Since its inception, the NHBC Foundationswork has focused primarily on thesustainability agenda and the challengesof governments 2016 zero carbon homestarget. Research has included a review ofmicrogeneration and renewable energytechniques and the groundbreakingresearch on zero carbon and what it means
to homeowners and housebuilders.The NHBC Foundation is also involved ina programme of positive engagementwith government, development agencies,academics and other key stakeholders,focusing on current and pressing issuesrelevant to the industry.
Further details on the latest output from theNHBC Foundation can be found atwww.nhbcfoundation.org
NHBC Foundation Advisory Board
The work of the NHBC Foundation is guidedby the NHBC Foundation Advisory Board,which comprises:
Rt. Hon. Nick Raynsford MP,Chairman
Dr Peter Bonfield, Chief Executive, BRE
Professor John Burland CBE, BRE Trust
Imtiaz Farookhi, Chief Executive, NHBC
Richard Hill, Executive Director, Programmesand Deputy Chief Executive at the Homesand Community Agency
Neil Jefferson, Chief Executive, Zero CarbonHub
Rod MacEachrane, NHBC Director (retired)
Robin Nicholson, Senior Partner, EdwardCullinan Architects
Geoff Pearce, Group Director ofDevelopment and Asset Management, EastThames Housing Association
David Pretty CBE, Former Group ChiefExecutive, Barratt Developments PLC
Professor Steve Wilcox, Centre for HousingPolicy, University of York
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ABOUT THE ZERO CARBON HUB
The Zero Carbon Hub was established inthe summer of 2008 to support the delivery
of zero carbon homes from 2016. It is apublic/private partnership drawing supportfrom both Government and the industry andreports directly to the 2016 Taskforce.
The Zero Carbon Hub has developed fiveworkstreams to provide a focus for industryengagement with key issuesand challenges:
Energy Efficiency
Energy Supply
Examples and Scale Up
Skills and Training
Consumer Engagement
To find out more about these workstreams,please visit www.zerocarbonhub.org
If you would like to contribute to the work ofthe Zero Carbon Hub, please [email protected]
Zero Carbon Hub Management Board
The work of the Zero Carbon Hub is directedby its Management Board which comprises:
Paul King, Chairman
David Adams, Director, Zero Carbon Hub
Imtiaz Farookhi, NHBC
Mike Freshney, HBF/Robust Details Ltd.
Neil Jefferson, Chief Executive, Zero CarbonHub
Bob Ledsome, Communities and Local
Government
Ray Morgan OBE, Local GovernmentAssociation
Stephen Muers, Homes and CommunitiesAgency
Rob Pannell, Director, Zero Carbon Hub
John Tebbit, Construction ProductsAssociation
ChrisPearsallPhotography
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ABOUT PRP
A progressive multi-disciplinary architecturalpractice with 48 years' experience in the
built environment across the UK, EasternEurope, Middle East and Asia. PRP'sservices include architecture, urban design,landscape design, planning, interiordesign, environmental consultancy, projectmanagement and research.
PRP is an industry leader in the design anddelivery of sustainable places and buildingswhere people love to live, work and play.Passionate about place making, PRP'sportfolio spans the residential, specialisthousing, mixed use, commercial, retail,
health, education and leisure sectors.PRP is committed to research anddevelopment, continually seeking newissues to investigate and projects to studywhile keeping abreast of European andworld wide housing approaches to helpinform UK best practice.
PRP Environmentalprovides sustainabilityconsultancy services for clients in the
development, construction and assetmanagement sectors. Our multidisciplinaryteam of architects, engineers andsustainability consultants understand thecomplexities of development design, deliveryand operation. We combine expertise withcommercial awareness to develop bespokeproposals which are responsive to projectrequirements whilst considering economicviability, environmental performance andsocial wellbeing.
We provide services to developers,
contractors, housing providers, Government,Local Authorities and NGO's in relation tobuilding design, environmental performanceand assessment, sustainable operation andprocurement, knowledge dissemination,corporate policy and promotion.
For more information, visit
www.prparchitects.co.uk.
Population2006vs2026: an evolvingdemographic
USUK
MiltonKeynes
SouthEast
28.616.917.7 16.2
1.1
3.1
Uganda
China
rgentina6.5
USAUK
iltonKeynes
SouthEast
28.616.917.7 16. 2
1.1
3.1
Uganda
China
Argentina6.5
Compared tothe restofthe Southeast,a MiltonKeynesresidenthasasmallercarbonfootprint,althoughat16.9tonnesofCO2 perpersonperyear,stillslightly higherthantheUK average,roughly fiveand-a-halftimesthatofatypicalChinese resident,and fifteentimesthatofsomeone living inUganda!
A Lowcarbon lifestyleHowdowecompare?
SourcesofData:
UK data fromthe StockholmEnvironmentInstitute (SEI)REAP Programme,2006Internationaldata fromthe NorwegianUniversity ofScience and Technology (NTNU),CarbonFootprintforNationsProgramme
20262006
% of Population
90+85-59
80-8475-79
70-74
65-6960-64
55-5950-54
45-4940-44
35-39
30-3425-29
20-2415-19
10-14
5-90-4
Age
Group
0 2 4
6 8
2026Yesterdaysyuppies:Anaging populationemerges-howwillwe addresstheirneeds?
2006MiltonKeynesisgenerallycomposed of a youthfulpopulation: young professionals,familieswithyoung children
MiltonKeynestoday ismade up ofa young anddynamicdemographicthathasgiventhe city itsenergy and vibrancy.Butwhatwill the populationbelike in2026?The generaltrend predicted forMiltonKeynesaswellasthe restofthe country,isonetowardsa more mature population- by 2026,thecurrentgenerationwillturnintoanolder populationwithvery differentneedsand lifestyles.Withfuelpricespredicted toincrease,willwe have designedtodayshomessothatheating willbe affordableforthe elderly?Willwe have provided enoughinfrastructure and community amenitiesthatwillsupportthe needsofanolderpopulation?We needtofuture-proofourcity sothatitcanmeetthe needsofpresentand future communities.
MILTONKEYNES - WHAT KIND OFCITY?
CRBF T PR I T of atypicalKresident
(intC 2/person/year)
Y U R I I V I U L C R B F T PR I T
16.91 tonnesof C 2perpersonperyear
P ri va te Ca r A ir R ailWaterBuses& TaxisInfrastructure
0 . 76 0 . 20 0 . 182.55 0.130.17
YOUR TRAVEL
3.98
THER
0.81
Clothing &F o o t e a r
HomeFurnishings
Homeppliances
Recreation&Leisure
PersonalCare
0.170.290.300.330.5
Y UR C S UE R I TE S1.
ccommodation
0.15
Holidaysbroad
0.67
Y UR H L I Y S0.81
YOUR HOME4.08
E n er g y Us e M a te r ia l s M a in tenanceWater&Sanitation
0 . 59 0 . 353.00 0.14
Y U R F & R I K2.58
Equipment& Facilities
0.1
Catering
0.53
e at B ev er ag esFruit& V eg B re ada ir y F is h S ee ts
0.21 0.050.090 .8 2 0 .3 1 0 .2 6 0 .1 7
SHARED SERVICES2.87
Land &Buildings
0.53
GovernanceHealthServices
Recreation& Culture
FinancialServices
Telecoms& PostalServices
SocialServicesEducation
0 .8 1 0 .2 5 0 .2 1 0 .1 9 0 . 18 0 .0 90.60
YOUR INDIVIDUALCARBON FOOTPRINT
16.91 tonnesof CO2perpersonperyear
P ri va te C ar i r R ailaterBuses& TaxisInfrastructure
0 . 76 0 . 20 0 . 182.55 0.130.17
Y UR TR V E L 3.98
OTHER0.81
Clothing &Footwear
HomeFurnishings
HomeAppliances
Recreation&Leisure
PersonalCare
0.170.290.300.330.45
YOUR CONSUMER ITEMS1.77
Accommodation
0.15
HolidaysAbroad
0.67
YOUR HOLIDAYS
0.81
YOUR FOOD &DRINK
2.58
Equipment& Facilities
0.14
Catering
0.53
M ea t B ev er ag esFruit& V eg B re adD ai ry F is h Sw ee ts
0.21 0.050.090 .8 2 0 .3 1 0 .2 6 0 .1 7
SHRE SERVICES2.8
Land &Buildings
0.53
GovernanceHealthServices
Recreation& Culture
FinancialServices
Telecoms& PostalServices
SocialServicesEducation
0 .8 1 0 .2 5 0 .2 1 0 .1 9 0 . 18 0 .0 90.60
Carbon footprinttonnesofCO 2 perperson peryear
Based ondata fromthe StockholmEnvironmentInstitute (SEI)REAP Programme,2006
Thisgraphicshowsthe componentsofthe carbonfootprintofa typicalMiltonKeynesresident.The biggestcarbonfootprintfromthe six maincategoriescomesfromourhomes,followed bytransport.The use ofenergy forlighting,heating and appliancesaccountsfor18%ofourtotalfootprint,and driving around ina caraccountsfor15%.The size ofeachiconisproportionaltothe amountofCO
2emitted,and looking atitthisway doesrevealsome interesting patterns-
throughcarbongoggles,carsinMiltonKeynesare muchbiggerthanbusesortrains.
AverageGasConsumptionperdwelling ( kWhperyear )
15000
16000
17000
18000
19000
20000
21000
22000
23000
24000
25000
1 9 3 0 1 9 4 0 1 9 5 0 1 9 6 0 1 9 7 0 1 9 8 0 1 9 9 0 2 0 0 0
AverageDwellingAge (yearofconstruction)
2010
Notonly doesMiltonKeyneshaveinnovative energy-efficientestatesanddevelopments,allMiltonKeyneshousingbuiltafter1970wasdesigned tobetterlevelsofefficiency thanthe requiredBuilding Regulationsofthe time.Inaddition,there issome evidence thattheactualenergy consumptionforheating inMiltonKeyneshousesislowerthantheUK average.
In1999,EnglishPartnershipsannouncedthatallnewhousesbuiltin MiltonKeynesmusthave anenergy efficiency rating of10/10,compared tothe nationalaverageof4.3/10.
MiltonKeyneshousesused 6to10%lessgasenergy perdwelling thanthe averageUK house in2006- thisdespite the factthatMiltonKeynesresidentsare generallymore affluentthanthe UK average,which
normally resultsinhigherratherthanlowerenergy use!
AllnewhomesinMiltonKeynesare builttoenergy specificationswhichare wellinexcessofthe Building Regulationsrequirements.
There are currently more than5,200employmentestablishmentsinMiltonKeynes,and 151,000jobs.Unemploymentstandsatlessthan2%ofthe workforce,and 29%ofthisworkforceisinskilled,managerialand professionalcategories.MiltonKeynesisconsideredtobe anenterprise city with80%oftheworkforce employed incompaniesof10employeesorless.
Jobgrowththousands
HousingDwellingageandgasconsumption
1960
21
1970
28.3
1980
51.5
1990
82.1
2007
151
Data:The UCL Energy Institute
Eachhouse representsone postcode sectorin
MiltonKeynes
howcanwe gettoZERO CARBON?
Todaysmost energyefficient homeshave beenaround since the 1970s-The UKsfirst active solarhouse wasbuiltinBradville in1972!
Trendsshowthatourhousingstockisim proving...
butisitim provingquicklyenough?
Approximately1,600houseshave beenbuilt eachyearinMiltonKeynessince 1998withanenergyefficiencyrating of 9(out of 10)
500kmpublicr ight sofway
60kmr iver
sandstreams
225kmRedways
MiltonKeynestoLondon:100trainsa day
500kmpublicr ight sofway
Defining the City
MK1.79
China1.43
USA0.86
A healthylifestyle?cyclesperhousehold
CuriousMiltonKeynesfactoid:a typicalMiltonKeynesresidentownsmore bikesonaverage thana typicalChinese person,and twice asmany bikesasa typicalAmericanperson!
MiltonKeyneshasover550kmoffootpathsand cycle ways,including225kmofwell-maintained Redways.Anexcellentinfrastructure toencouragegreatercycle use aspartofa sustainable,healthy lifestyle.
9%workfromhome
7%walktowork(nationalav.10%)
3%cycle,1%ride a motorbike
4%take the bus
71%drive towork(nationalav.61%)
4%take the train
1%take a cab
Thisgraphicshowshowpeople inMiltonKeynesgettowork,compared tothe restofthe country.Thepatternsare roughly the same forpeople workingfromhome,cycling,taking a bus,and riding amotorbike.Butpeople inMiltonKeynesuse cars10%more,use trains3%less,and walktowork3%less!
ModeoftransportHowdopeoplein Milton Keynesgettowork?
NewYork5.2milliontrees(0.27treesperperson)
Milton Keynes22milliontrees(thats95treesperperson!)
The ParksTrustestimate thatthey are managing over22milliontreesinMiltonKeynes- thisisa staggering numberoftrees(almosta hundred treesperperson!)MiltonKeyneshasa well-founded reputationforitsopenspaces,whichare jointly maintained by the MiltonKeynesCounciland t he ParksTrust,comprising around 3,000ha ofopenspace,565play areas,550kmtrailsand pathways,250ha ofwoodland,60kmriversand streams,900ha ofgrass,210kmofhedges,and 21 kmofcanalsand towpaths.
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CONTENTS
Country Case Studies
Australia .........................................................................................16
Austria.............................................................................................18
Brazil ..............................................................................................20
Canada..........................................................................................22
China..............................................................................................24
Denmark........................................................................................26
France ............................................................................................28
Germany .......................................................................................30
India ...............................................................................................32Ireland............................................................................................34
Japan.............................................................................................36
Netherlands ..................................................................................38
New Zealand ................................................................................40
Russia ............................................................................................42
Singapore......................................................................................44
South Africa ...................................................................................46
Sweden..........................................................................................48
Switzerland....................................................................................50
UK...................................................................................................52
USA ................................................................................................54
20 Countries, 7 Themes: Lessons Learned ......................................56
Sources of Information........................................................................58
Foreword
About the NHBC Foundation
About the Zero Carbon Hub
About PRP
Introduction......................................................................................7
Zero Carbon Housing Worldwide ................................................8
Guide to the Country Case Studies............................................15
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INTRODUCTION
The 1997 Kyoto Protocol (born out of theWorld Summit in Rio de Janeiro 1992) was
the world's first collaborative initiative toreduce carbon emissions on a global scale.Buildings, with housing in particular, play amajor part in the emissions of the world'sdeveloped and rapidly-developing nationsand as such, have been the subject ofincreased regulation since the early 1990's.The challenge of improving coordinationbetween the Kyoto signatories and meetingthe tougher targets set at Copenhagen andCancun, as well as the rapid approach ofthe end of the first commitment period for
the agreement in 2012 mean that theseissues remain at the forefront ofglobal concern.
In 2009, PRP were asked to provide asnapshot view of the position countriesaround the world have taken in addressingthe carbon emissions in their respectiveresidential sectors. That study, publishedas the 2009 edition of this Compendium,proved a valuable international reference.It was reprinted in 2010, by which timeother countries were registering interestin being included.
The 2011 Compendium continues the workestablished with the first edition and hasbeen updated to include new exemplarprojects, updates of national targets,and further assessment of programmes,government policy and incentives. Inaddition to the original fifteen country case
studies, five new countries Brazil, India,Russia, Singapore and South Africa havebeen added. Each country has beenassessed against a framework of questionsand presented in a standard format for easycomparison. These case studies provideinformation on the geographic, climatic,and statistical indicators for each countryas well as a brief review of each country'sapproach to low and zero-carbon housing.They also include an overview of policy andincentives to achieve environmental targets,mandatory requirements in terms of buildingenergy and design, and an exemplar projectthat features good practice, innovation andthe potential for deployment on a medium tolarge scale.
We knew a comparative study wouldprove to be difficult as factors of lifestyle,climate and carbon intensity of nationalgrids have a significant impact on carbon
emissions. For example, a country oftenexperiencing -10C temperatures in winter,
such as Austria or Canada, requires moreheating energy overall compared to thoseof temperate countries like France or theUK. A country running mainly on nuclearpower would have lower carbon emissionsoverall compared to a country runningmainly on coal. This would influence thecarbon emissions of that country whilstnot necessarily reflecting improvements inbuilding energy efficiency. Any statisticaldata must always be analysed with the localsocio-political context in mind.
This Compendium aims to create a betterunderstanding of the issues surrounding theachievement and delivery of zero carbonhousing, improve the quality of the debate,and set out a basis for better internationalcomparisons and collaboration. Whilethe data from the country case studies doidentify a lack of harmony of approach toassessing building performance, they doprovide a basis for more detailed evaluationof specific energy and carbon emissionscriteria on an international level.
This Compendium aims to
create a better understandingof the issues surroundingthe delivery of zero carbonhousing, improve thequality of the debate, andset out a basis for betterinternational comparisons andcollaboration.
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ONTARGET
GermanyTarget: -21%2009: -24.28%beyond target
NetherlandsTarget: -6%2009: 6.63%need 12.6% reduction by 2012
UKTarget: -12.5%2009: -18.3%beyond target
FranceTarget: 0% (no change)2009: -4.6%beyond target
JapanTarget: -6%2009: 0.30%
need 6.3% reduction by 2012
DenmarkTarget: -21%2009: -8.23%need 12.8% reduction by 2012
SwitzerlandTarget: -8%2009: -1.65%need 6.3% reduction by 2012
SwedenTarget: 4%2009: -17.7%beyond target
IrelandTarget: 13%2009: 31%need 18% reduction by 2012
RussiaTarget: 0% (no change)2009: -38.9%beyond target
AustraliaTarget: 8%2009: 43,9%need 35.9% reduction by 2012
AustriaTarget: -13%2009: 8.81%need 21.8% reduction by 2012
CanadaTarget: -6%2009: 18.2%need 24.2% reduction by 2012
New ZealandTarget: 0% (no change)2009: 33.8%need 33.8% reduction by 2012
USATarget: -7%2009: 8.0%need 15% reduction by 2012
CanadaTarget: -6%2009: 18.2%need 24.2% reduction by 2012
LEGEND
Country Name
Country Flag
Kyoto Protocol reduction target(% reduction based on 1990 levelsfrom 2008 - 2012)
Progress as of 2009(latest available data)
Distance to target
Global Drivers
It has been six years since the KyotoProtocol (under the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change)came into force for ratifying countries. Asthe first commitment period ends in 2012, itis clear that the major Annex I emitters willnot meet their commitments. While the EUis expected to achieve its collective target,a number of countries, including Canada,Australia, New Zealand and Austria,will need to purchase a significant numberof CDM credits to fulfil their commitments
(see Figure 1).
In a time of increasingly high fuel prices,energy efficiency and the integration ofrenewable energy will become progressivelymore important, both in terms of af fordabilityand security. Many countries have becomemore import reliant (see Figure 2), andgradually more affected by the problemsassociated with fuel poverty. Geopoliticalevents continue to increase fuel prices,as well as drive volatility, and fuel pricesglobally are expected to increase by 60% by2020.
By 2050, global temperatures areanticipated to continue to rise andgreenhouse gas emissions are expectedto more than double if we carry on with'business as usual'. To minimise future
ZERO CARBON HOUSING WORLDWIDE
Figure 1
Kyoto Protocol Commitments: Who's on Target?
Data source: UNFCCC (2009). 'Total CO2
Equivalent Emissions without Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry' data tables
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climate change, mitigation is a crucial goal,but adaptation will also be essential innumerous sectors, not least in building andhousing. Designing for a future climate isimportant, as this will not only help to avoidfuel poverty, but also minimise risk of homesoverheating and alleviate flood risk.
This means that future-proofing housesis essential, to meet both today's andtomorrow's needs.
How Does Housing Fit In?
Reducing energy use in homes has becomea significant issue with the rise of climatechange concerns. CO
2emissions arising
from energy use account for more than 30billion tonnes each year (nearly half of whichare the result of energy use in homes). Thisis an area of concern, given that the numberof households is expected to grow by 67%globally by 2050.
For most of the countries in thisCompendium The most significant use ofenergy in housing is for space heating andcooling, as well as hot water (see Figure 3).A growing understanding of the factorsthat affect energy use in these areas (andparticularly owner/occupier behaviour)offers significant opportunities for reducing
ImportedEnergy
ExportedEnergy
CountryBoundary
CountryFlag
LEGEND
Denm
ark40%
France
-49%
Germany-60%
India -25%
Irelan
d-90
%
Japa
n-82%
Nethe
rland
s-16%
NewZ
eala
nd
-12%
Russia83%
Singapo
re-100
%
China-6%
Canada53%
Brazil-8%
Australia 132%
USA-25%
Unite
dKing
dom
-20%
Switz
erla
nd-
52%
Sweden-33%
SouthA
frica-21
%
Austria
-67%
EnergyImports
& Exports
Australia 132%
CountryName
Net EnergyImports/Exports
Figure 2
Energy Imports and Exports (% of Energy Use)
Data source: World Bank, 2008
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Figure 3
Summary of Energy End Uses, Different Countries
energy consumption. It is already clearthat through a combination o appropriatetechnology and consumer engagement, lowand zero-carbon housing can play a crucialrole in reaching global targets, ensuringlong-term energy security and reducing theimpacts o climate change worldwide.
Energy Efficiency Standards
Most o the countries in our study have wellestablished energy eiciency standards built
into their building regulations and buildingcodes, some dating back to the 1970's,which were developed as a response tothe 1973 oil crisis. Over the years theseminimum standards have progressivelyimproved and developed, along with a seto aspirational standards that set the sceneor innovative solutions to low-energy homesand consequently inorm the evolutiono regulatory standards (see Figure 4 oran illustration o average U-values in thecountries eatured in this Compendium).
The 2011 Compendium also includescountries which are in the early stageso their low energy/low carbon buildingprogrammes. As these programmesare still in their inancy, the targets arenot as stringent as their more developedcounterparts but represent a signiicant irststep in the dissemination and promotion othe low carbon agenda.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Brazil
India
Japan
New
Zea
land
SouthA
frica
Singa
pore
C
hina
Aus
tralia
USA
R
ussia
Canada
Sw
eden
Den
mark
UK
Netherlands
Ireland
France
Austria
Switze
rland
Germany
Appliances and LightingCookingWater HeatingSpace Heating and CoolingLEGEND
Various data sources: World Energy Council, 2010 (Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Sweden); SFOE, 2008 (Switzerland); Austrian Energy Agency, 2009 (Austria); ADEME France, 2001 (France); CanadianOfce o Energy Efciency, 2008 (Canada); IEA, 2004 (Denmark); UK Department o Business, Innovation and Skills, 2004 (UK); Russian Centre or Energy Efciency (CENE), 2005 (Russia); US Departmento Energy (USA); Australian Government, 2008 (Australia); IPCC, 2000 (China); University o Cape Town, 2002 (South Arica); E2 Singapore, Government o Singapore, 2008 (Singapore); EECA, 2007 (NewZealand); World Business Council or Sustainable Development, 2009 (Japan, India) and SINPHA Brazilian Program or Electricity Conservation, 2005 and IEA, 2008 (Brazil).
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11
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
U-Values (W/m2K)
Germany Passivhaus
Switzerland MINERGIE-P
Denmark 2010 Building Regulations
Sweden 2010 Building Regulations
UK 2016 Part L Building Regulations based on Zero Carbon Hub FEES (detached home)
2008 Code for Sustainable Homes Level 6UK
2016 Part L Building Regulations based on Zero Carbon Hub FEES (semi detached home)UK
2010 Part L Building RegulationsUK
Ireland 2010 Building Regulations
USA Energy Star Zone 2
Switzerland MINERGIE
2006 IECC Zone 8USA
2006 IECC Zone 5USA
Germany 2012 Building Regulations
France 2007 Building Regulations
2009 Building RegulationsGermany
Energy Star Zone 1USA
Aspirational Standard
LEGEND
Target Future Standard
*Average U-values are calculated based on minimum U-value requirementsfor walls, floors and roofs and are in W/m2K.
Country Flag
CountryName Germany Passivhaus
Name of StandardAverage U-value*
Canada 1997 Model National Energy Code
Russia 2003 Thermal Performance of Buildings
Austria 2007 Building Regulations
China 2007 Building Energy Standard for Residential Buildings (Severe Cold)
2006 IECC Zone 1USA
The Netherlands 2006 Building Regulations
Design and Construction Guidelines Region 6Japan
Energy Star Zones 5 - 8USA
Australia 2010 Building Code of Australia
Japan Design and Construction Guidelines Region 2
Design and Construction Guidelines Region 1Japan
India 2005 National Building Code of India
New Zealand 2004 New Zealand Building Act
China 2007 Building Energy Standard for Residential Buildings (Cold)
Energy Star Zones 3-4USA
Design and Construction Guidelines Regions 3-5Japan
South Africa 2009 National Housing Code
2007 Building Energy Standard for Residential Buildings (Hot Summer Cold Winter)China
2007 Building Energy Standard for Residential Buildings (Temperate)China
2007 Building Energy Standard for Residential Buildings (Hot Summer Warm Winter)China
Singapore 2008 Code on Envelope Thermal Performance for Buildings
Figure 4
U-values for Walls, Roofs and Floors (W/m2K)
What is Low and Zero Carbon?
The countries included in the Compendiumadopt different approaches to defininglow and zero carbon buildings. This hasled to a variety of terms to describe suchbuildings, including low energy, lowcarbon, zero carbon, Passivhaus, high-performance, energy positive, eco-homes,sustainable homes and green homes. Therecommended standards, as well as theway they are expressed and measured, aredifferent from country to country.
This diversity of terminology and definitionis not surprising, given the range of climaticand regulatory conditions across countries,as well as differences in housing stock,energy sources and cultural influencesOne of the main factors influencing carbonemissions is the carbon intensity of the grid,which is dependent on the mix of fuelseach country uses to generate energy (seeFigure 5).
Until recently the UK zero carbon definition,to be introduced in 2016, was possibly the
most stringent in the world, requiring allcarbon emissions (including those fromunregulated energy use such as cookingand plug-in appliances) to be addressed.However, in the March 2011 Budget the UKGovernment announced that zero carbonwould be redefined to only require zeroemissions from regulated energy use (i.e. theenergy required to heat and cool a home,and provide hot water and lighting). This is
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0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
India
Australia
South Africa
China
USA
Singapore
UK
Ireland
Germany
Japan
Netherlands
Russia
Denmark
New Zealand
Austria
Canada
Brazil
France
Sweden
Switzerland
kgCO2/kWh
Figure 5
Carbon Emissions per Unit of Energy, Different Countries (kgCO2/kWh)
still a very challenging target for mainstreamdelivery, requiring considerable innovationover and above current practice, and,typically, the need for measures (AllowableSolutions) which mitigate the emissions thatcannot normally be achieved by the designof the home. The new UK definition is nowmuch closer to the requirements set outby the European Energy Performance ofBuildings Directive.
The UK remains a leader in the development
of aspirational codes, which have provideda stimulus for the design of homes to themost exacting sustainability standards.These homes, and in particular those built toLevels 4, 5 and 6 of the Code for SustainableHomes, provide valuable insight to informthe development of national standards in theUK and other countries.
The overarching ambition is that all energyrequirements of homes can be met in futuredecades by low-cost, non-polluting sources.Research and development, and experience
thus far, is showing this as a realistic, ratherthan impractical, possibility. However,over the next few years, the rate of growthand diversification of the non-fossil fuelenergy technologies, and their contributionto the decarbonisation of each countryselectricity grid will be critical to success (seeFigure 6). Much can be learned and sharedinternationally from those countries whichhave pioneered different technologies, to
Data source: IEA (2010) 'Emissions per kWh of electricity and heat output', IEA CO2
Emissions from Fuel Combustion Statistics.
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Predominantly Biomass
Predominantly Hydro 50-50
Mostly Nuclear Mostly Wind LEGEND
CountryFlag
CountryName
% of total energy fromnon-fossil fuels
Biomass
China 57% Germany 20%Netherlands 4%
Brazil 78% Canada 41% New Zealand 63% Russia 4%
Switzerland 33%USA 9% France 19% UK 2% Japan 7% Ireland 7%
India 78% South Africa 48% Australia 19% Denmark 28%
Solar Thermal
Solar PV
Wind
Hydro
Nuclear
Geothermal
Waste to Energy
Austria 53% Switzerland 33% Sweden 60%
Mixed Sources
Figure 6
Non-Fossil Fuel Sources in the Residential Sector, Different Countries
Data source: OECD/IEA (2011).Renewables and Waste and Energy Balances 2008 data, various countries
ensure that sound investment strategies aremade by others. The contribution of windand waste sources, which are both relativelynew, are notable in these charts.
Certification Systemsand Aspirational Targets
All the countries in this Compendium haveestablished or emerging Green BuildingCouncils, as well as aspirational certificationschemes such as LEED, BREEAM, Green
Star or independently developed nationalsystems. The development of thesestandards is important in promoting morestringent building efficiency standardsand encouraging consumer demand forsustainable housing.
This Compendium shows how prototypeshave been encouraged through researchprogrammes and special developmentprojects on a larger scale over many years inthe period leading up to market acceptance.However, the majority of these schemes
remain voluntary and a number lackresidential rating systems, so there remainssubstantial room for improvement.
Today the German Passivhaus standardsets probably the most stringent energyefficiency requirements in the world. Swedenhas made this standard mandatory forall buildings in Germany there are over2,000 PassivHaus buildings and a number
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of German cities have now adopted it as amandatory standard for building on publicly-
owned land. The number of completionsof Passivhaus dwellings in Austria andSwitzerland also number in the thousands.
Many of the Passivhaus and low energyschemes have been monitored, and there isa substantial body of data made available,originally through the CEPHEUS Project andfrom many of the certifying agencies such asMinergie and Passivhaus. Some standardsincorporate post-occupancy evaluation forup to 3 years as part of the certification. Withrespect to costs, some national standards,
such as Minergie in Switzerland, have arequirement to show cost effectiveness.Buildings must lie within 10% of base coststo qualify for the Minergie certification.This has helped dispel the misconceptionthat delivering enhanced standards is noteconomically feasible.
Emerging Economies
The five new countries to the Compendiumare of particular interest, as a result of the
mixture of challenges and opportunities theypresent in terms of low carbon housing.
Three of the five, Brazil, Russia and India,are part of the Big Four (or BRICs), a groupof countries at a similar stage of newlyadvanced economic development. Thefourth is China, which was included inthe first edition of the Compendium. TheBRICs are expected to continue to becomelarger forces in the global economy, andto provide opportunities for countrieswith advanced low-carbon technologies
to share their knowledge and expertisethrough collaboration and mentoringactivities. Success in this kind of internationalexchange would mean an accelerated takeup of non-fossil fuel energy sources and,
crucially, less reliance on fossil fuels as theBRICs countries strive to meet their energy
needs.
South Africa is neither part of the Big Four,nor the Next-11 (other countries who areconsidered to have the potential to becomemajor economies in the 21st century).However, the country's goals to achieveuniversal electrification, as well as improvedhousing standards, means it faces similarconcerns for energy and sustainablebuilding as Brazil, Russia and India.
Singapore is not an emerging economy,
as a result of its strong financial centreand internationally significant port. Thereare however interesting challenges for thecountry, as a result of its high populationdensity, position as a major oil-refiningcentre and circumstances that require 100%of its energy to come from imports.
The Case Studies
The following case studies illustrate recentdevelopments in zero carbon housing
worldwide. The aim was to give a taste ofhow the issues are being tackled in thesetwenty countries, to highlight differences inapproach and to present a range of factorsthat could affect each country's carbonperformance.
The following page presents an overview ofeach case study page, which covers a rangeof issues that relate to zero carbon housingworldwide.
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47S O U T H A F R I C A
Existing Frameworks
South Arica's Green Building Council was launched in2007 and has subsequently adopted Australia's GreenStar rating program. The rating system currently appliesto oices and retail developments, while a multi-unit
residential rating scheme is being tested in a numbero pilot projects.
Much o the building in both urban and rural settingsremains inormal and unregulated. Programs such asBreaking New Ground, initiated by the Department oHuman Settlement in 2004, will address these problemsas it aims to supply urgently-needed housing, which ishigh quality and sensitive to the surrounding environment.4
The updated National Housing Code was released in2009, and sets ormal requirements or energy eicientmaterials and technology. The updated version alsooutlines passive thermal design recommendations andminimum standards or housing products that aim toimprove sustainability.
Support, Incentives and Grants
With guidance rom Eskom, South Arica's state-ownedenergy utility, the government launched the Solar WaterHeating Programme in 2008. The scheme is driven by thegovernment's target or renewable energy to contribute10,000 GWh o inal energy consumption by 2013. Theprogramme provides direct rebates to purchasers, theamount o which depends on the type o system installed.
South Arica's irst Renewable Energy Feed-In Tari(REFIT) was introduced in 2009, which requires Eskom topurchase output rom qualiying generators. A numbero types o energy are covered under the scheme andthe cost o the tari is passed through to Eskom electricitycustomers.
In March 2011, the '49M' energy eiciency campaignwas launched by Eskom. The campaign encouragessmall steps such as the use o compact luorescentlamps instead o incandescent globes, keeping unusedappliances switched o and reducing overall electricitywastage.
Reerences
1 Inrastructure:South Arica'sEnergy Supply.http://www.southarica.ino/business/economy/inrastructure/energy.htm#sources.
2 InternationalEnergy Agency.(2010). Comparative Study onRuralElectrifcationPoliciesin Emerging Economies.
3 DepartmentoHumanSettlements.StrategicStatementotheDepartment.http://www.dhs.gov.za/Content/The%20Department/Strategic%20Statement.htm.
4 SouthAricanGovernmentInormation.(1994).ANewHousingPolicy and Strategy orSouth Arica.http://www.ino.gov.za/whitepapers/1994/housing.htm.
5 City oCape Town.(2010).SA's 'greenest' RDP housesarebeing builtinAtlantis.h ttp://www.capetown.gov.za/en/Pages/SAsgreenestRDPhousesarebuiltAtlantis.aspx.
Energy & Environment
RelativeHumidity(%)
Rainfall(mm)
100
0
0
150
SolarRadiation(kWh/m2)
DIRECT
DIFFUSE
200
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Climate Data for Johannesburg
Temperature(C)
40
-10
0
R es id en ti al e ne rg y co ns um pt io n H ow i s th is e ne rg y us ed ? W he re do es t hi s en er gy c om e f ro m?
Cooking
Appliancesand Lighting
WaterHeating
Space Heating and Cooling
allother sectors
Residential
Wind
Hydro
SolarPV
Biomass
Oil
Coal& Peat
Nuclear
10 millionhomes
15.6Caverage temperature
724mm of rainfall peryear
64%average humidity
3,135hours of sunlight peryear
4,030kWh per household
1.31 tonnes per household
5persons per household
48%energy from renewables
46
SOUTHAFRICA
Exemplar Project
Community Energy and Environmentally FriendlyHuman Settlement Project5Witsand, Cape Town
The Witsand Project was initiated by the City oCape Town, and by the end o 2003, the projecthad already built 400 new homes. The second phaseaims to construct an additional 1,600 homes by 2013on the site o a ormer inormal settlement on theoutskirts o Cape Town.
The project includes a range o housing models,ranging rom singles to multi-amily duplexes andwill ultimately house 2,400 amilies. On average,each home will save 0.24 tonnes o CO
2per year
when compared to standard low-income homes.
National Carbon Overview
As o 2006, coal accounted or 67% oSouth Arica's primary energy supply,the majority o which is convertedor electricity. The cost o electricity inSouth Arica is one o the lowest in theworld. Rapid industrialisation and masselectrifcation programs in South Aricahave meant demand has regularlyoutstripped supply. As such, there areplans to double generating capacity inthe next two decades, o which nuclearpower is expected to contribute to halo the total supply. The government aimsto achieve universal access to electricityin the country by 2012.1 By 2009, thecountry achieved 75% electrifcation, with88% in urban and 55% in rural areas.Renewables could help in extendingelectrifcation across the country.2
The country is currently the 14th highestemitter o greenhouse gases. This is theresult o the high carbon intensity o coaland other liquid uels, as well as the
considerable amount o energy requiredor the country's large-scale intensivemining and primary mineral extractionindustries. However, large scale solarand wind arms are currently underconstruction.
As a result o the shortage o aordablehousing or millions o residents, eortshave centred on creating sustainabledevelopments through home ownershipand providing technical and fnancialsupport. Despite these eorts andthe building o 1.83 million subsidisedhouses, the backlog in housing hascontinued to grow between 1996and 2005.3
The initiative also earns carbon o-set credits, with thecarbon income earmarked or the additional costs orthe installation o ceiling insulation in the homes.
The site layout is designed to maximise passivemeasures, including passive solar and wind beneits.The houses are designed with careul placement oshadow lines and windows to avoid overheating,while roo overhangs and site plan maximise solarbeneits.
The development also includes two prototypedouble storey units that are itted with solar geysers,PV modules or lighting and cell phone charging, anda roowater/storm water recovery system.
Policy and Targets
Under the UNFCCC and the subsequentKyoto Protocol, South Arica is classiiedas a developing country and is notrequired to commit to quantiiable
targets in the irst phase o the programbetween 2008 and 2012. However,the government released the Vision,Strategic Direction and Framework orClimate Policy in 2008, which aims tostop GHG emissions rom growing by2020-2025, stabilise or up to 10 years,and then inally decline in absoluteterms.
The Department o Energy is theprimary government actor involvedin encouraging household eiciency.One initiative to assist households inbecoming more energy eicient isthe Appliance Labelling campaignwhich was launched in 2003 to inormconsumers about the energy eiciencyo appliances.
'Rapid industrialisation andmass electrifcation programs
in South Arica have meantdemand has regularlyoutstripped supply'
Key Facts
Country Population 49 million
Capital Pretoria
Capital Population 1.4 million
Area 1.2 million km2
Density 41 people/km2
Urbanisation 62%
BethBesset,GreenCommunities.
Existing Frameworksdescribesestablished mandatory and aspirationalbuilding standards that may be appliedto domestic buildings.
Support, Incentives and Grantscontainsinformation about financial incentives,grants and funding for energy efficiencyand carbon emissions reduction in thedomestic sector.
Housing Energystatistics, includingpercentage of residential energyuse, residential end-uses and themix of sources for residential energygeneration.
The National Carbon Overviewsetsthe scene by providing a backgroundfor the country's domestic energy andhousing situation, and information aboutits recent history that may have shaped
government policy and strategy today.
Policy and Targetsdescribes thecountry's global carbon reductioncommitments, and gives an overviewof current strategies and governmentprogrammes that drive and informthe promotion of low- andzero-carbon housing.
Climate Graphsfor the most populatedcity, illustrating the annual variationsin temperature, humidity, rainfall,daylight hours, and solar radiation.Three temperature lines are shown
corresponding to maximum, averageand minimum monthly values. Two setsof bars are shown for solar radiation,an orange series representing directsolar radiation and a yellow seriesrepresenting diffuse solar radiation.Humidity is shown as a series of greenbars in the background of the graph.
Referencesfor the country texts. Datasources for the graphs and charts areconsolidated in a separate section at theend of this Compendium.
Housing Statistics Icons includinghousing stock figures, persons perhousehold and data pertaining to carbonemissions and energy consumption perhousehold.
Data sources: World Bank 2005 'World DevelopmentIndicators (housing stock and persons per householddata); ENERDATA 2008 (carbon emissions and energyconsumption per household data)
Climate Summary Icons for averageannual temperature, humidity,sunlight hours and rainfall for themost populated city.
5
7
9 11Flag and Name of Country
Key Facts including demographic dataon population, area, density and level ofurbanisation (percentage of population
living in cities).Data source: United Nations 2009 'World UrbanisationProspects (population density), United NationsDepartment of Economic and Social Affairs 2008Demographic Yearbook (population data)
Exemplar Projectcontains a descriptionand image of a low- or zero-carbonhouse or housing development builtor developed in that country, chosenprimarily for its low-carbon performance,but also for its overall combinationof sustainability measures and suitabilityfor larger scale production.
1
2
3
6
8
10
12
4
1
2
3
4 5 6 8
9
10
11
127
GUIDE TO THE COUNTRY CASE STUDIES
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20 COUNTRIES, 7 THEMES: LESSONS LEARNED
Driven by ChangeEach country is experiencing signiicant change,economically, socially and politically, which willimpact on the direction and extent o low carbonmeasures. There has been a positive impact onrecognising the problems associated with poorlybuilt housing and the importance o renewableenergy by policy makers. Earlier initiators such
as Germany are orging orward in terms o lowenergy building and conservation:
'The 2009 revision o Germany's EnEV (EnergyConservation Regulations) is one o the most stringentcodes in the world and includes a commitment to meet15% heating, hot water or cooling energy demand rom
renewables'
Other countries, such as Singapore, are in theearly stages o recognising the importance oenergy eiciency in housing and energy supply:
'As a result o its place as a net energy importer,Singapore has been progressive in reducing itsdependency on oreign energy through improved
energy eiciency, especially in building and households'
Many countries have been motivated by globalconcerns over energy security, while othershave been driven by national issues. As climatechange and reduced dependence on ossil uelsbecome increasingly important among the public,both governments and private bodies havereacted accordingly, though to varying degrees.
AspirationsNearly all the countries in the compendiumhave plans to reduce energy consumptionand improve energy efciency in the housingand building sector. China has set admirableaspirations or the uture with regular reviews,which in other countries are oten overlookedonce national targets have been set. Also
important is the clear commitment o unding toachieve these goals, such as in the United States.Aspirations are only as strong as the plan toachieve them:
'As part o the 11 th Five Year Plan on EnergyDevelopment, China plans to reduce the energyconsumption o residential and public buildings by 65%
by 2020'
'The New Energy or America plan has committed $150
billion over the next ten years to catalyse private eorts
or building a clean energy uture, ensure that 10%
energy generation comes rom renewable energy by
2012, and reduce GHG emissions 80% by 2050'
While many o the countries have similar targetsor carbon emissions, renewable energy, andbuilding efciency, ew have developed novelgoals. A change in thinking in the constructionindustry may be required i current targets proveinsufcient. However, France has proven to beinnovative with its national goals or 2020:
'O particular signifcance is France's agenda ortechnological change to ensure that new buildingsshould be energy positive, producing more energy than
they consume by 2020'
Future GrowthWhile low carbon renovation and retroit havebecome the norm in many countries, a shortageo adequate housing and growing populationshave raised concerns regarding new constructionand energy use. This is particularly an issue indeveloping countries, though all the compendiumcountries are tackling the energy concerns
associated with the provision o new housing.'Rapid industrialisation and mass electrifcationprograms in South Arica have caused de mand to
regularly outstrip supply'
Ensuring new homes are built to a very highstandard will help us achieve our targetsand drive innovation and industry to maketechnologies more readily available or existingstock. Russia provides a good example o theimportance o promoting quality in addition toquantity, while large scale developments orpreabricated homes oer major opportunities orthe implementation o low carbon measures:
'Established in 2009, Russia's Green Building Councilhas been instrumental in promoting energy eiciencyand low carbon building, as the country continues toexperience a boom in construction'
'Roughly one out o seven newly built houses in Japan isa preabricated house'
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Acceptance and DiusionThere is a high degree o acceptance and driveor improved housing standards, particularlyat the policy level. This has coincided with theprolieration o green building councils worldwideand the spread o certiication systems such asLEED, BREEAM and Green Star, as well as thedevelopment o bespoke national programs:
'Based on the BREEAM rating scheme, Australia's GreenStar is a perectly adapted national standard that issuited to the Australian climate, and has since been
adopted by New Zealand and South Arica'
With improved overall public awareness, manycountries could aord to implement morestringent, binding goals. Both the UK and Swedencan act as leaders in this regard:
'The UK's renewable energy goals are directed by theRenewable Energy Strategy 2009. The strategy has seta legally-binding target o increasing renewable energycontribution to 15% by 2020'
'The proportion o renewable energy used in Sweden
has increased rom 34% in 1990 to 44.4% in 2010, andtoday has the highest proportion o renewable energy
in the EU, with a goal to reach 49% by 2020'
TechnologyWhile present programmes should ensure theuptake o proven technology, others should begeared towards new technology as it develops.An eective balance must be advanced sothat renewable technology becomes morewidespread and reliable or consumers andindustry alike. This can only be achieved through
government investment in advancing low carbontechnologies:
'Rapid expansion in India is expected to outpace currentossil uel capacity and as a result, t he need or thedevelopment o alternative sources such as nuclear,wind and solar power has become increasingly
apparent'
While the role o innovation and research isessential to the decarbonisation o the nationalgrid and improving renewable technologies,there are less complex steps to be taken thatare oten overlooked. This is especially true inhousing, where many houses can be improved
through improved insulation, more eicientservices and passive design measures, asevidenced in a number o case studies. Brazil is astrong example o small opportunities that havethe potential or big beneits:
'Brazil's Green Building Council initiated the 'OneDegree Less' project in 2009 in an attempt to reduce theplanet's temperature by one degree to combat climatechange and reduce the urban heat island eect'
Energy SupplyEnsuring energy security and meeting utureenergy demands remain the key issues on themajority o global national agendas. This is thecase in both developed and developing countries,where a range o infuences including liestyle,available natural resources, industrialisation andthe drive or universal electrication:
'Canada has the world's third-largest installedhydroelectricity capacity as o early 2011'
'Until recently, Switzerland has been sel sucient andable to export energy in the summer months, with oneo the lowest energy per capita gures in the developedworld. More recently it has become a net annual
importer, as demand has outpaced generation'
Ensuring a sustainable long-term energy supplyhas potentially major positive impacts onnational economies and the strong developmento national residential sectors, and in manycountries the growth o renewable energyinstallations is accelerating.
'As o 2010, renewables contributed to 38% o NewZealand's total primary energy supply and recent yearshave witnessed increased interest in the developmento solar, wind and bioenergy systems'
'With regard to energy imports and exports, the
Netherlands is the second largest natural gas producer
in Europe and the ninth overall worldwide.'
Clear StrategiesWith issues as large and complex as globalenergy security and climate change, nationalplans will need to be tailored to nationalcircumstances and be eective in incentivisinga low carbon economy. Strategies must beintegrated and applicable in speciic nationalcircumstances, hence the quite dierent
strategies displayed or example by theNetherlands and Ireland:
'More than 60% o all dwellings are connected to adistrict heating network in which the heat is producedrom decentralised CHP, running mainly on a mix o oil,natural gas and renewables.
'Ireland's Microgeneration Support Programme wasestablished in 2008 with an allocation o 2 millionto identiy the potential and establish the necessaryinrastructure or small and micro-scale wind, solar andhydro in the domestic and commercial sectors'
Clear and ocused strategies or improvedhousing standards can help consolidate
eorts and engage the public. Incentives orboth individuals and the private sector havean important role to play in promoting energyeiciency policies. Countries with well establishedlow carbon strategies can also provide importantguidance or others who are just beginning toimprove their housing stock and reduce theirreliance on ossil uels:
'In terms o researching eicient building solutions andenergy eiciency across all sectors, Austria has provedan early pioneer and model or many environmental
initiatives'
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ContactsThe Compendium is based on inormation gathered rom a range o sources and contacts.
While every eort has been made to ensure accuracy, we welcome any eedback and comments.
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Credits
Report Authors and Information Graphics
Marylis Ramos PRP
Kirsten Burrows PRP
Project Advisors
Neil Jeerson Zero Carbon Hub
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Robert Macdonald NHBC Foundation
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Layout and Design
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