Yu ALiteratureStudyofCross CulturalAdaptationinNorthAmerica

7/29/2019 Yu ALiteratureStudyofCross CulturalAdaptationinNorthAmerica

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A Literature Study of Cross-cultural Adaptation in North America: Chinese Students

Difficulties and Strategies

Abstract

Chinese students, due to their special characteristics of Eastern

culture and communist ideology, face great challenges of studying

and living in Western countries. To date, the purpose of this article is

to examine the literature as it relates to Chinese students difficulties,

causes for difficulties, and strategies. Findings indicate that studentsdifficulties, cultural differences, cultural adaptation are widely

discussed. However, most researchers regard Chinese students as a

group, neglecting the existence of various subgroups based on

students ages, visa status, study levels, and so on. Since these factors

decide students specific difficulties and needs, more efforts are

suggested to explore practical and specialized strategies suited to

various sub-groups of Chinese students.


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Cross-cultural Adaptation 2

A Literature Study of Cross-cultural Adaptation in North America:

Chinese Students Difficulties and Strategies

International students frequently encounter problems in adjusting to their new social

environment (Al-Sharideh & Goe, 1998; Sun & Chen, 1997). These problems can form

formidable barriers to their success in academic performance and social adaptation. With no

exception, Chinese students, due to their special characteristics of Eastern culture and

communist ideology, face great challenges in North America. To date, the purpose of this

article is to examine the literature as it relates to these questions:

1. What are the difficulties encountered by Chinese students studying in North America?

2. What are the causes for these difficulties?

3. What are the strategies for these difficulties?

Difficulties

Knowing a new culture is difficult. Wagner and Magistrale (1997) described this process

as one step forward, two steps back (p. 4). For Chinese students, the most common

difficulties are associated with language ability, academic performance, and social adjustment

(Hanassab & Tidwel, 2002; Huntley, 1993; Ku, Lee, Richard, Pan, Wang, Tao, 2001; Sun,

2005; Sun & Chen, 1997; Sun & Zou, 2000; Wan, 1999; Zimmermann, 1995), while

financial difficulty (Nicholson, 2001) and discrimination (Wan, 1999) are also mentioned.

Language Ability

Language ability plays a vital role in the process of transformation. Language

inefficiency could trigger a series of inconvenience, as described in the following case.

When I came to the United States, I felt totally lost, incompetent, and dysfunctional. I

lost my voice (because I could not speak English), my ideas, and even my thinking skills.I could not communicate with people, and I could not even order my food at


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McDonalds. People saw me as different, somebody unable to do anything. I was

depressed and isolated myself from the outside world. I was afraid to meet people. (Zou,

2000, pp.191-192)

In mainland China and Taiwan, English language education emphasizes reading and

writing, rather than listening and speaking (Lee, 2001; Wan, 1999). However, TOEFL, a

popular English language test especially designed for foreign students who want to study in

North America, also lays stress on reading and writing. Thus, most Chinese students came to

the North America with high scores in TOEFL (Sun & Chen, 1997). Ironically, Wan (1999)

found that such a good score does not guarantee sufficient English for living and studying in

America. Indeed, Chinese people ranked language as their most serious problem in

cross-cultural adaptation (Huntely, 1993).

Academic Performance

Due to the different teaching and learning styles between China and America, and also

because of the language inability, Chinese students have a tough time in academic adaptation.

Take the APA style for example, Sun and Chen (1997) found Chinese students were confused

when first heard APA style in class. Since language inefficiency is the greatest barrier to

classroom participation (Yum, 1998), Chinese students in Suns interview (2002) never felt

full- fledged participation in class. One of them said that she felt dumb in classroom because

of the inability to communicate in English. Huntely (1993) pointed out that in American

classroom Asian students feel especially difficult and culturally alien, which can also

generate great stress when they give oral presentations, participate in group activities, or

simply ask a question. Zou (2000), a professor in an American university, mentioned that

when she studied in America, she felt impossible either to finish homework or to be as


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eloquent as her American classmates.

Except for language deficiency and unfamiliarity with rules and concepts of American

school system, the different class-style also greatly affects Chinese students academic

performances. In China, teachers are regarded as respectable authorities, and students are

taught to be quiet listeners; while in the United States, classes are interactive and informal

(Wan, 1999). Lee (2001) also found that in China, students are encouraged to follow and

obey their teachers. Consequently, students seldom ask questions in class and keep being

quiet even if they sit in western classrooms, where they dare not to challenge their teacher for

the fear of embarrassment and a negative impression. Therefore, Chinese students are often

considered as a silent group in the American classroom. Likewise, Wang (2001) pointed out

that it is the lack of communication and a restrictive cultural notion of propriety that causes

the major obstacles to professor-student interactions for Chinese students.

However, the more Chinese students improved language ability, the more they are

familiar with the school context, the more they will enjoy their classes in an open and

interactive way (Sun, 2005, Wan, 1999).

Social Adjustment

Social adjustment is determined by the cognitive process of perceiving a new culture, by

the psychological adjustment of being confident and comfortable, and by the behavioral

transition of being interactive and communicative. Ward and Kennedy (1992) indicated that

the quality of host nation contact influences the psychological adjustment, while the quantity

of host nation contact affects sociocultural adaptation.

Problems in Sociocultural adaptation


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Zimmermann (1995) regarded communication as the center of adaptation process, but he

also noticed that international students often lack the opportunities to communicate with local

students, academicians, or even other international students from different countries and

cultures. Due to poor language skills, little time spend on social activities, and the great

distance between the original and host cultures, Huntley (1993) found that Chinese students

tend to live with Chinese, and thus retreat socially to Chinese community.

Problems in Psychological Adjustment

Due to the lack of social involvement, Chinese students find it difficult to fit in to the

host society. Moreover, separated from family and friends, depression and loneliness bring

overwhelming negative impacts to Chinese students (Hanassab & Tidwel, 2002; Sun & Chen,

1997; Zimmermann, 1995). Ditommaso, Brannen, and Burgess (2005) found that Chinese

students scored higher in family and social loneliness, and lower in attachment security for

both peer and romantic relationships. Similarly, Hsu, Hailey, and Range (2001) found that

Chinese students studying in America suffer significantly greater social loneliness and

loneliness depression than do their counterparts in Taiwan. Furthermore, some researchers

noted that Asians are reserved about expressing their personal problems and that they tend to

deny symptoms of depression (Cheng, 2001; Futa, Hsu, & Hansen, 2001). Carver, Scheier

and Weintraub (1989) indicated that denial is related to greater psychological distress.

However, denial is destined to be maladaptive because students are unable to withdraw

completely from the dominant culture.

Nevertheless, Cross (1995) found that East Asian students tend to be interdependent and

to use indirect coping strategies. However, when they study in an individualistic culture that


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rewards direct coping strategies, indirect coping strategies are ineffective. As a result, they

suffer higher levels of stress.

Generally speaking, sociocultural and psychological adjustments are interrelated (Ward

& Kennedy, 1994). From this perspective, language ability, communication skills,

self-construal, and direct coping strategies all play vital roles in Chinese students

cross-cultural adaptation.

Causes for Difficulties

Van Gennep (1960, p. 2, cited by Shere, 1993) stated the life of an individual in any

society is a series of passages from one age to another and from one occupation to another.

The passage may cover three steps: separation, transition, and incorporation. When the

environment of this passage changes greatly, cultural characteristics could be the starting

point from which people re-adjust them to the new environment. Hodge (2000) argued that

culture to humans is like water to fish. Living at home, we never think about culture. But if

you take the fish and throw it on a patch of sand, water takes on a whole new meaning

(Hodge, 2000, p.164). Culture shock, cultural differences, and cultural communication could

all shed lights on the causes for cross-cultural difficulties.

Culture Shock & Cultural Adaptation

Living together and influencing each other, people have developed culture, a sum of

total ways of living, including values, beliefs, aesthetic standards, linguistic expression,

patterns of thinking, behavioral norms, and styles of communication. On the other hand, it is

the sum of total ways that assures peoples survival in a particular physical and human

environment (Pusch, 1979, cited by Wan, 1999). Consequently, people are so used to their


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own culture that they take it for granted. However, it takes time to be familiar with culture.

When people experience a new culture with different value and beliefs, a dilemma that the

old way interpreting the world is questioned and the new way is still under construction

makes people feel confused and lost. Thus, culture shock happens.

The symptoms of culture shock can be a sense of loss and importance, confusion,

anxiety, depression, a feeling of stressful, and so on (Furnham & Bochner, 1986; Huntley,

1993). Culture shock is a form of alienation due to a lack of knowledge, limited prior

experience, and personal rigidity (Redden, 1979, cited by Sun & Chen, 1997). As for

cross-cultural students, culture shock leads to language shock, role shock, and education

shock (Cushner & Karim, 2004).However, according to different person and different

situation, culture shock can vary dramatically (Hodge, 2000). Besides, people encounter

cultural shock at different stages of their adaptation (Ting-Toomey & Chung, 2005). Sun and

Chen (1997) regarded culture shock as a negative aspect of cultural adjustment because it

causes emotional, behavioral, and cognitive confusion and disorientation. Nevertheless,

culture shock has been treated as a normal reaction, as part of the routine process of

adaptation to cultural stress (Furnham & Bochner, 1986).

Young (2004) defined cross-cultural adaptation is as the entirety of the phenomenon of

individuals who, on relocation to an unfamiliar sociocultural environment, strive to establish

and maintain a relatively stable, reciprocal, and functional relationship with the environment

(p.339). However, the experience and the duration of staying abroad can not guarantee

improved understanding of another culture (Hodge, 2000). A successful intercultural

adaptation requires sensitivity to cultural differences, openness, and positive attitudes, other


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than excessive dependence on ethnic support systems (Young, 2004). Wagner & Magistrale

(1997) insisted that peoples own experience of trial and error will be the most effective way

of adjusting to a new culture.

Guan and Dodder (2001) found that Chinese students with cross-cultural contact in the

U.S. scored significantly higher on group integration, and self protection, while lower in

cultural conservation. On one hand, Chinese students choose to adapt some values as needed

to function more effectively in the new host environment. On the other hand, they tend to

hold on original values so as to maintain cultural identity and psychological stability.

Moreover, Guan and Dodder (2001) pointed out that Chinese students who have been in the

United States longer concern more about adjustment problems associated with visa,

immigration and career issues, and those who have been in the States for less time reported

more cultural difficulties.

Cultural Differences

In the process of cultural adaptation, the more different the two cultures are, the more

difficult for people to go through (Furnham & Bochner, 1986). For Chinese students, the

cultural differences as well as the conflicts between collectivism and individualism are the

major difficulty in adjusting to American culture (Sun & Chen, 1997).

Chinese Traditional Culture

Chinese traditional culture is built upon a value system crystallized in Confucianism,

whose values and morals are much different from Western philosophy (Wan, 1999). Hodge

(2000) pointed out that virtues in Confucianism consists of working hard, not spending more

than necessary, being patient, and persevering (p.61). Besides, Confucianism valued rigid


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hierarchy and filial nationalism.

Rigid hierarchy

In Confucianism, hierarchy is seen to be natural and there is a sense of the

complementarity of relationships (Bond, 1986, cited by Marx, 2001).In this hierarchical

system, individual treats the self as an integral part of the in-group (Neuliep, 2003). The rigid

hierarchy in Confucianism has been recognized and implemented throughout the history of

ancient China.It has a dominant influence on many aspects of Chinese peoples life.

Although equality has been promoted since the foundation of Peoples Republic of China in

1949, rigid hierarchy has never faded out from peoples subconsciousness.For example,

Chinese education still keeps the trails of rigid hierarchy. In China, teachers take this

hierarchical relationship for granted.As a result, obedience to authority made Chinese

students suffer low self-esteem.Unfortunately, the predominance of the hierarchy has

eclipsed the importance of self-expression and self-respect for Chinese students.

Filial nationalism

Filial nationalism is derived from the traditional Chinese nationalism. Since Chinese

tradition appreciates the harmony of society, Chinese people tend to keep a close relationship

with each other, especially the relationship among family members (Kong, Hau, & Marsh,

2003). In modern China, traditional Confucian discourses about ritual attitudes and ancestor

worship has been simplified as the love and loyalty to parents. As proposed by Confucianism,

filial devotion to family and parents can be fulfilled by either material or spiritual repayment.

Furthermore, under the influence of collectivism, Chinese people regard China as mother of

all the Chinese people, and regard the whole society as a big family, within which all people


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are family members. Consequently, the loyalty to family strengthens filial nationalism. The

analogy between filial duty and filial nationalism has made Chinese students to be diligent

and hard-working with the expectation to benefit their families and their motherland. Liem

(1997) argued that culturally based parental values and expectations encourage Chinese

students to give the most importance to their academic success at the cost of little

involvement in the host society (cited by Ku et al., 2001).

Ideology

Ideology plays an important role in shaping peoples mind and behavior. Individualism

and collectivism, two major forms of ideology in the world, are distinct from each other.

Individualistic cultures center on individual goals and interests, which guide the social

behavior and encourage the personalities of creative, self-reliant, competitive, and assertive

(Neuliep, 2003). The self is promoted and individuals are encouraged to pursue and develop

their abilities and aptitudes.Harry Triandis argues that an important ingredient of

individualistic cultures is that the individual is emotionally disconnected from in-groups, such

as the family (cited by Neuliep, 2003, p.38).

In contrast, collectivistic cultures worship group goals, which are the primary

consideration of every in-group member. Groups, such as family and occupational groups,

are the distinct and basic units of Collectivistic societies (Neuliep, 2003). People tend to see

themselves as interdependent with others so that loyalty to group, humbleness, tolerance of

others, and sincerity are highly valued. Wilhelm (1998) argued that group interests

dominate (p.168).

However, Neuliep (2003) claimed that the goal of comparing and contrasting the two


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ideologies is to recognize and understand the differences rather than to judge the superiority

or inferiority. He argued that no culture is purely and absolutely individualistic or

collectivistic, and they might gravitate towards each other.

In China, the main-stream ideology is collectivism, which has been honored by both the

Confucianism for thousands of years and the communism belief in recent history. Collectivist,

always associated with self-sacrifice, has rooted in Chinese peoples mind deeply and firmly.

Wilhelm (1998) noticed that collectivist societies emphasize loyalty to the clan, and place

importance on keeping face,which means dignity and respect of the group. The concern of

saving face reflects the collectivist ideology. Since saving personal face is used to protect the

groups dignity, it is important to Chinese people (La Belle & Ward, 1990; Marx, 2001).

Guan and Dodder (2005) found that Chinese students always bared the concern that if they do

anything wrong, Americans would quickly generalize their individual actions to existing

stereotypes and thus make all Chinese loss face.

Intercultural Communication

Hofstede, Pedersen and Hofstede (2002) argued that culture is rather like the color of

your eyes; you cannot change it or hide it, and although you cannot see it yourself, it is

always visible to other people when you interact with them (p.196). They also argued that

when behaviors are interpreted in the cultural context of outside people, the behaviors are

usually inaccurately interpreted, resulting in misunderstanding and inappropriate intervention.

Cultural differences can hinder people from understanding each other well. As a bridge

between these different cultures, intercultural communication plays an important role to

facilitate effective communication.


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Neuliep (2003) claimed that in order to communicate effectively, people should be

motivated to communicate, knowledgeable about how to communicate, and skilled in

communicating (p.25). Besides, he emphasized the necessity of being ready and familiar

with the knowledge in terms of value of the culture, beliefs, behavior, as well as the

environmental situation.

However, the most difficult part of intercultural communication is how to deal with

values. Marx (2001) demonstrated values as standards or principles considered valuable or

important in life (p.45). G. Hofstede (1994, cited by Marx, 2001) pointed out that culture has

many layers, but value locates in the core, which motivate peoples behavior.Hodge (2000)

argued thatdeep cultural values, which we learn as very young children, are more resistantto change than superficial cultural expressions are (p.33). He argued that deep cultural

values have emotions attached to them (p. 33). When values are violated by

misunderstanding or disagreement, it is often difficult even to recognize what the problem is,

let alone deal with it rationally (p.33). Ekachai, Hinchcliff-Pelias, and Creer (1998) did a

research on multicultural communication in an American university. They found that 54

percent of the narratives contained emotional states during intercultural encounter. There

were four themes: positive emotion, anxiety, uncertainty, and negative emotion.

Besides, communication style of different cultures is another concern in intercultural

communication. For example, in Confucianism, interpersonal relationship pursues the goal of

harmony, which is built on the rule of self-control, humility, and respect for others. In

contrast, Americans are direct in communication (Hofstede, Pderrsen, & Hofstede, 2002).

Strategies


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Faced with the difficulties in the cross-cultural adaptation process, researchers have

proposed various strategies for students, schools, as well as training institutions.

Strategies for Students

Models

A learning continuum model

Pusch (1979) has put forward a model to treat the whole process of intercultural

adaptation as a learning continuum (cited by Wan, 1999), as depicted in Table 1.

Table 1

The Learning Continuum Model

Note. From by M. D. Pusch, 1979, Multicultural Education, p. 3. Copyright 1979 by Intercultural Press, Inc.

From this model, people can not only get a direct recognition of the whole process of

adaptation, but also be inspired to consider the result of the process. However, in my opinion,

the distinctions among the four categories of the results are vague. On the contrary, Berrys

conceptual analysis of acculturation attitudes (Berry et al., 1989) indicated a clearer

classification of adaptation results. He pointed out that according to the degree of the native

culture maintenance and the degree of contact with host culture, the acculturation includes


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four statuses: separation, marginalization, integration, and assimilation (cited by Ward &

Kennedy, 1994). In Berrys theory, separation means the separation from the host culture;

marginalization means that neither the native cultural identity has been kept, nor does the

host culture has been adopted; integration means a high degree acceptation in both native and

host culture; and assimilation means high degree absorption in host culture, while low degree

maintenance in native culture.

Problem-solving phases

Marx (2001) argued that a problem-solving model helps to improve the problem-solving

skills. She stressed emphasis on the attitude, which is called as general problem orientation in

her problem solving model. She argued that if you have a positive, optimistic attitude, you

will reach better solutions (p.36). That is to say, attitude has a significant influence on the

entire problem-solving process. Table 2 illustrates Marxs problem-solving model.Table 2

Problem-solving Phases

Note. From by E. Marx, 2001, Breaking through culture shock, p. 37. Copyright 1999, 2001 by Elisabeth Marx.

In terms of problem definition, Furnham (1986) called for peoples attention on it. He

argued that it is necessary to clarify the problems because some of them may be caused by

culture differences, but some of them may result from other causes. In other words,


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cross-cultural adaptation is a complex process, and the causes for the problems are also

complex. If causes were neglected or misplaced, problems can not be solved.

Suggestions

Except for the models, there are some suggestions that can help Chinese students deal

with culture shock and cultural adaptation.

Neuliep (2003) raised some suggestions for dealing with culture shock, such as

knowledge preparation, which includes host culture, the local environment, and the verbal

and nonverbal language skills, and behavioral preparation, which refers to develop

intercultural relationships, and to maintain an intimate social network. Moreover, he

suggested that people should anticipate failure events regardless of how well they have

prepared for the journey.

Marx (2001) had a similar view towards minimizing culture shock. Besides, she claimed

that as with any stressful situation, fight it, dont give in to it (p.19). She also suggested that

people should keep a positive attitude, a sense of humor, and a willingness to seek

professional help.

However, Furnham (1986) argued that the migrants expectations of the chosen country

and the fulfillment of those expectations are crucial factors in determining adjustment. Since

failure to fulfillment of high expectations is related to poor adjustment and increased mental

illness, he suggested that people should avoid high expectation.

Framed in Berrys conceptual analysis of acculturation attitudes, Ward and Kennedy

(1994) found that the four acculturation strategies: separation, marginalization, integration,

and assimilation, bring about different degrees of sociocultural and psychological adjustment


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difficulties. Integration, which stands for a good balance between co-culture and host culture,

predicts less sociocultural and psychological adjustment difficulties; in contrast,

marginalization, which represents the confusion and uncertainty between co-culture and host

culture, brings about great difficulties in both sociocultural and psychological adjustment;

whereas, assimilation, due to its weak bond with co-culture, may generates psychological

difficulties; while separation, by avoiding and alienating host culture, results in enormous

sociocultural adjustment difficulties. In this regard, sojourners, such as international students

or international employees, had better adopt the integration strategies. More specifically,

strong ties with both people in the host country as well as with a small size of a students

personal network of co-nationals are recommended (Al-Sharideh & Goe, 1998). However,

neither separation nor marginalization is recommended.

On the other hand, since the selection and definition of adjustment strategies affect the

consequences of the adjustment process, a positive and appropriate strategy should be

adopted as early as possible in the cross-cultural adjustment process. Based on the research in

2001, Ward and Kennedy suggested direct, task-oriented strategies (e.g., planning and active

coping) and the use of humor for better psychological adjustment.

Besides, Zimmermann (1995) noticed that several researchers had reported that

international students are hesitant to seek help from university counseling office. In this

instance, students should be more open and active utilizing schools counseling services to

seek for more solutions to their problems.

In terms of Chinese student, Sun & Chen (1997) suggested them using appropriate

self-disclosure as a coping strategy to deal with social difficulties in the United States. Wang


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(2001) believed that if Chinese students take a hybrid stand and merge self-discipline from

the East with assertiveness from the West, they will have a promising future in the foreign

environment. They should not get too self-conscious about themselves speaking English with

an accent. Instead, they should practice English more to overcome the initial fear of speaking

English in public. As to professor-student interactions, both professors and Chinese students

should take time to improve mutual understanding. Al-Sharideh & Goe (1998) suggested that

Chinese students should establish social relationships among small groups of students

consisting of a combination of both international students from a similar background and

Americans. Wu (1999) praised the success of Chinese students cyber-community, which

provides Chinese students with effective communication and support. Nicholson (2001)

mentioned that Asian students must try to be sympathetic and non-judgmental about another

culture and its people, and try to become immersed in the new culture.

Suggestions for Schools

In order to enhance students understanding in the problems, English classes, cultural

orientations, and peer support programs, adjustment support services, counseling services,

cross-cultural workshops are the possible solutions (Cushner & Karim, 2004; Hanassab &

Tidwel, 2002; Huntley, 1993; Nicholson, 2001; Wan, 1999; Zimmermann, 1995). However,

as for peer support programs, students from the host country should be recruited and

carefully trained to help their peers [international students] through what is often a maze of

initial adjustments (Heikinheimo & Shute, 1986, p.405) (Zimmermann, 1995, p.331).

Advices for Training Programs

Based on the researches conducted by Lathrop (1999) and Koester (1985), Cushner and


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Karim (2004) argued that long-term study-abroad and fully integrated programs have the

greatest potential for impact. Koester (1985) suggested that optimal time for intercultural

experience should be 3 to 12 months. Cushner and Karim (2004) suggested trainers and

educators facilitate the development of overseas sites for internships, practical field

experiences, educational travel, service learning, and other educational options.

Neuliep (2003) suggested cross-cultural training programs should accomplish four goals:

assisting people in overcoming cultural obstacles; teaching people how to initiate and develop

relationships with people from other cultures; help people accomplish job-oriented tasks;

assist people in how to deal with the stressing in intercultural communication. The content

could be various, including lecture or discussion, self-assessment instruments, case studies,

simulation role-plays, videos, and a variety of homework assignments.

Furnham (1986) suggested the main training techniques should include information

giving, cultural sensitization, attribution training, learning by doing, and culture-based

social-skills training. He argued that the more practical and less abstract the techniques are,

the more effective they will be.

Nevertheless, since both host and co-national identification are significant, Ward and

Kennedy (1994) argued that programs for sojourners should be designed to foster good

intergroup relations with host nationals while simultaneously working to maintain a sense of

identity with culture of origin (p. 341).

Conclusion

In retrospect, I found that Chinese students difficulties, cultural differences,

cross-cultural adaptation, and strategies are most frequently mentioned in the existing


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literature. However, most researchers focused on the differences between Chinese students

and their counterparts in Western countries. In this instance, regarded as a unique group,

Chinese students characteristics of Confucianism and Collectivism have been over

emphasized. Few researchers have noticed that within this very group, there exist different

subgroups based on students ages, visa status, study levels, and so on. Since these factors

decide students specific difficulties, needs, and goals, more efforts are suggested to explore

practical and specialized strategies suited to various sub-groups of Chinese students.

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