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Table 2: Forms of “Institutional Support” & Kinds of Institutional Agents1 Forms of Institutional Support Institutional Agent: Roles DIRECT SUPPORT The Provision of Personal and Positional Resource Agent Resources Institutional agents possess or have access to two major categories of institutional resources. Positional resources are those that are linked to an advantageous position within a hierarchically-arranged organization, network, institution, or social system. Unlike positional resources, personal resources are in the possession of individual actors who can use or transmit these resources “without needing to receive specific authorization or be accountable to other actors” or to the rules inherent in certain positions within an organization (Lin, 2001, p. 42). Transmission of Key Funds of Knowledge Knowledge Agent Emphasis is on those funds of knowledge (as resources) most associated with navigating through, and ascension within, the educational system; such support includes the process of implicit and explicit socialization into institutional discourses—those which regulate communication, interaction, and resource access in the educational system and other middle-class and high-status institutional spheres (Gee, 1989; Stanton-Salazar, 1997; Stanton-Salazar, Vásquez, & Mehan, 2000). Such support includes a critical interrogation that such discourses are not culturally universalistic, but rather arbitrary—i.e., pertaining to the culture of the dominant classes (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977). Such interrogation conveys that although the ways of institutional life (within mainstream society) are encoded in the discourse and ethos of the dominant group, through collective empowerment, such discourses have been historically contested and altered. A “knowledge agent” fulfills the role of ‘institutional agent’ through the provision and critical interrogation of various funds of knowledge associated with ascension within an exclusionary educational system and other key institutional domains controlled by the dominant classes (e.g., immigration rights and procedures). With regard to the educational system, I place emphasis on non-subject matter knowledge essential to educational mobility and academic success, given the current power structure and stratification system (examples include knowledge about course requirements for admission eligibility to different universities, financial aid and scholarships).

1Stanton-Salazar, R. D. (2011) A social capital framework for the study of institutional agents and of

the empowerment of low-status youth. Youth & Society 43 (3), 1066-1109.

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Evaluation, Advice & Guidance Advisor This type of support involves the agent in the process of gathering information, co-assessing problems and helping the individual [student] make appropriate and effective decisions related to ascension within the education system. Advocacy Advocate This form of support entails intervening on behalf of the individual (or group of individuals), for the purpose of protecting or promoting their interests and rights within the organization or institution. An “advocate” fulfills the role of ‘institutional agent’ by actively advocating on behalf of a student or young person, sometimes helping them navigate school procedures leading to achievement-oriented resources and opportunities. The advocate acts to intercede or defend the right of the student to have access to such resources; they can also intercede when students commit minor infractions, and where sanctions or penalties may interfere with academic progress.

Network Development Networking Coach This form of support entails knowledge and training leading to skillful networking and help-seeking behavior; e.g., knowledge of how to negotiate with, and access resources from, various gatekeepers and agents within and outside of the school environment (Baker, 2000); knowledge of how to develop supportive/cooperative ties with peers who are well integrated in the school’s high-status academic and extracurricular circles (Stanton-Salazar, 2004). INTEGRATIVE SUPPORT Integrating Actions Integrative Agent This form of support entails the process of coordinating a student or young person’s social integration in certain high-status networks and professional venues (e.g., professional association, science fair). Here the student is able to participate in the association’s activities and engage those individuals who are at the top of their field. Such integrative experiences serve to expose the student [young individual] to knowledge funds and career opportunities that may not be available elsewhere. An “integrative agent” is not only aware of the empowering socialization experiences derived from participating in high-status networks and associations, but also that such networks and associations are key sites where networking, help seeking, and reciprocal exchanges of institutional support are the norm, and where “bridging” and “brokering” are typical organizational activities. Such sites also provide excellent opportunities for network development, and for providing cultural exposure, as articulated above. An “integrative agent” also fulfills the role of institutional agent when incorporating student[s] into their very own

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professional network, which often include connecting the student[s] with the agent’s own cadre of students and mentees. Guided Cultural Exposure Cultural Guide This form of support entails guided exposure and introduction to institutional domains and sociocultural worlds, their key functions, identification of key agents, sanctioned conventions of communication, etc. Guided cultural exposure is an essential part of an empowered socialization process, a set of experiences by which youth people learn to negotiate, and participate in, multiple, simultaneously existing, and often conflicting sociocultural worlds (Boykin, 1986). Each world is characterized by particular “values and beliefs, expectations, actions, and emotional responses familiar to insiders” (Phelan, et al., 1993). SYSTEM DEVELOPER Program Development Program Developer This kind of activity entails developing a program that embeds students/youth in a system of agents, resources, and opportunities. Lobbying Lobbyist This kind of activity entails lobbying an administrative or organizational entity for resources to be directed toward recruiting and supporting a targeted group of students/youth. Political Action/Advocacy Political Advocate Just as an institutional agent may advocate for an individual student or youth, they may also join an organized group of institutional agents in advocating for social policies “aimed at providing needed resources and enhancing social justice” (Hepworth, et al., p. 31). SYSTEM LINKAGE & NETWORKING SUPPORT Recruiting Recruiter This form of support entails actively recruiting students/youth into program, department, etc. Often involves interfacing with community organizations or educational institutions. Bridging Bridging Agent This form of support entails the process of acting as a bridge to gate-keepers, to key institutional agents, and to exclusive social networks and high-status organizations and institutions—e.g., university campuses. A “bridging agent “ acts as a human ‘bridge’ to gate-keepers, to other actors committed to serving as institutional agents, and to key social networks; the focus here is on person to person introductions and connections. In order to make sound connections, such ‘bridging’ agents must

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have a well amplified social network, active connections with various key alters, and a good knowledge of the resources that these alters possess (see Hepworth, et al., 1997, p. 27) Institutional Brokering Institutional Broker (as an amplification of bridging) This form of support entails assuming an activist role as an intermediary between two or more parties in negotiating agreements, and in accessing valued institutional resources on behalf of individual/client. It also entails steering the individual toward existing services and academic programs. An ”institutional broker” assumes an intermediary role between two or more parties in negotiating agreements, and in accessing valued institutional resources on behalf of the individual/client/student. This agent also steers people toward existing social services and academic programs that may be of service to them, usually through referrals or through direct introductions to organizational personnel (see Heffernan, et al., 1997, pp. 27-28). Ideally, the agent must have active ties to people working in these organizations and programs; equally important, agents must have a thorough knowledge of the resources within the relevant contexts—be it the school district, university campus, the school system, and/or the community. The depth and quality of the support also entails knowledge regarding the quality of resources, services and opportunities provided by the organizations and programs within the relevant context. Coordinating (as an extension of brokering) Coordinator: This form of institutional support entails assessing the needs of the individual [student, beneficiary], coordinating the provision of needed support and services, and working directly with the beneficiary and service provider to ensure that the support or resources are tailored to his or her needs. Often times, a young person or student lacks the ability, help-seeking orientation, knowledge, or resources to follow through on a referral to systems of support (social services, academic programs, etc.). In these cases, the institutional agent takes on the role of “coordinator”—somewhat similar to the role of case manager in the social work field (Hepworth, et al., p. 27). The agent as ‘coordinator’ assumes responsibility for assessing the needs of the beneficiary, coordinating the provision of needed support, and working directly with the beneficiary to ensure that the support or resources are tailored to his or her needs. In assessing the needs of the beneficiary (i.e., informal client), the coordinator may seek expert knowledge from professionals or colleagues who “possess high levels of expertise relative to certain types of problems” (e.g., substance abuse, child maltreatment, admission to an elite college, financial aid) (Hepworth, et al., p. 30). From the perspective of social capital theory (Lin, 2001), the quality of social capital—when it emerges from the direct support of the agent--sometimes depends on the agent consulting with experts and other knowledgeable agents before providing the support to ego. Effectively seeking and receiving good consultation—indeed, fulfilling the role of agent as ‘coordinator’--depends upon the social networks, social capital, and networking skills of the agent.