Youth Science Journal- Issue No. 1

Image: exoteric.roach.org

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The Power of Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 The Science Behind Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Our Earthly Neighbour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Higgs Boson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Cloud Formation on Earth & Mars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 3D Printing: The Human Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 FEATURE: Niall Briggs Studies the Human Whipworm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 New Discovery in the War with Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Bottled Water vs. Tap Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Made By:

Hamza Sardar

Zak Andrabi Zain Anwar

Moiz Ali Ali Tariq

Science and its various offshoots can be considered to be

the building blocks of civilization. From Medical advances leading to longer, richer lives to ground-

breaking feats of engineering allowing us to live with more freedom and in more comfort, there is a certain je ne sais quoi about science; an almost universal need to

know about the wonders of the world and, on a grander scale, the Universe around us. It is to this end that we, as

a group of young people, have decided to publish this “Youth Science Journal” as a means of enlightening those who wish to be enlightened, to teach those who wish to be

taught and through the collaborative efforts of us as a generation. We present to you the first issue of the Youth

Science Journal.

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[5] The Power of Language

The Power of Language

An American professor has published a research paper in which he claims the language we speak

directly affects our ability to save for the future. Professor Keith Chen of Yale University says his

research shows native speakers of languages such as English are less likely to save more than people

who have a different native tongue.

Professor Chen analysed people in nine countries with identical incomes, education, family structure

and countries of birth, but whose first language differed.

His theory centres on what linguists call future-time reference (FTR) in language. Languages such as

English have a strong FTR, in that we specify between the present and future when we speak. He

cites the example “I (will go, am going, have to go) to a seminar” in English, whereas someone who

speaks Mandarin, which has a weak FTR, would say “I go

listen seminar”.

He concludes that global savings rates by country show that

people who speak languages with strong FTR don’t save as

much because the languages separate the present from the

future. Professor Chen believes this causes people “to

devalue future rewards”.

He said: “If you speak a language that doesn’t distinguish

strongly between the present and the future, you save a lot

more because the future feels closer. If you speak a language

that separates present and future events, the future feels more distant, which makes it harder to do

things to care for your future self like save money, exercise, and eat better.”

His conclusions appear to ring true in the case of the UK, as statistics from the Organisation for

Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) show that we have a total annual savings rate

(Government and individual) of 16%. Only the US and Greece, also both strong FTR speakers, save

less.

However, both economists and linguists have criticised Professor Chen’s findings, saying language

only has a tiny influence on a person's future, with cultural behaviour a far more influential factor.

Credited Source: MSN

Art

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An Investigation By: Mutaher Ali, Areeb Rauf and Saif Anwar

The Surprising Science Behind Motivation


Why we undertook this project

Our team consists of three 13 year olds who are very

talented hard-thinkers, and want to learn more from this

competition and thrive to achieve knowledge for the better

of science. We are from Stretford Grammar School, which is

a specialist in science. We have been blessed with such a

wonderful opportunity to have known about this event that

gives a positive approach on science and specialty. We

chose the project of Motivation that comes under sociology

and psychology, because we were impressed by such a topic

that stood out to us and was unique to this type of

competition. We also chose this due to our understanding

and our appreciation of how this works, and what we can do

to develop the topic further. This topic, even though it is very basic, has the potential to build a firm

foundation which can branch off into many different subtopics that will support businesses and help

education gain another leap forward. All of this will be brought across to you in the foreseeable

future. This has teased the mind of numerous people, and is something- we are curious to adhere

to; that is what made us so eager to find out.

Aim

The aim of this project is to understand the relationship between creativity and rewards - and to elucidate how it is best to motivate yourself in your life. We believe there is a mismatch between what science knows and what business does, and we aim to investigate this.

Introduction

While there are thousands, millions, maybe billions of answers to the question of what motivates

you; a growing body of research, some of it dating back 50 years shows two things that don’t

motivate us-the promise of reward and the threat of punishment. Motivation is literally the desire to

do things. It's the difference between waking up before dawn to do whatever excruciating work you

have plugged yourself into; well we’re here to unplug you. It's the crucial element in setting and

attaining goals—and research shows you can influence your own levels of motivation and self-

control. So figure out what you want, power through the pain period, and start being who you want

to be. Control yourself. We believe rewards force us to consider our work in a limited way, even

work that we might gain great satisfaction from doing without the promise of reward. In fact,

offering incentives (rewards) can limit not only one’s perception but one’s ability to even attempt

the work. Everything is self satisfactory, which requires motivation. Motivation is the source to

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everything. Everything we say and do is just for self satisfaction. For example, if you were to take up

a new job, you would approach the better job to earn more money and entertain yourself with

greater satisfaction.

The Candle Problem and Our Method

The psychologist Carl Dunker created the candle problem in 1945. This experiment is used to

demonstrate the concepts of behavioural science. Here is how it works- you are brought into a room

and given some drawing pins, a candle and matches. Your task is to attach the candle to the wall so

that the wax does not drip on the table. Now, to you this seems like an easy task, however your

possibilities are most likely not the answer to this riddle. Most people begin to try to pin the candle

to the wall but that does not work. The key is to overcome what is called ‘functional fixedness; you

look at that box and you see it only as a receptacle for the drawing pins, however it can also have

this other function as a platform to the candle, and that ladies and gentlemen is the solution to the

candle problem. We tested 14 Sixth Form students and we timed them on how quickly they could

solve the candle problem. To one group we said, “We’re going to time you on how quickly you can

solve this” and to the other we gave them money as an incentive (reward) and timed them. This

gave us our independent variable, which is offering the money (reward) and the dependent variable

which is the time taken to complete the "Candle Problem." The control variable is the "Candle

Problem" that will be the same task each participant has to complete furthermore all participants

will be given the same general instructions and introduction to the candle problem, bearing in mind

that only one group shall be given the incentive of money as a reward.

Hypothesis

Our theory was that in the end, our set of results would show how the group, which we offered to

give money to, would end up with slower times than the group who were not going to receive a

reward. We thought this because when the group would be working for the money, they would not

be concentrating on solving the actual problem therefore, the normal group, who would be doing it

for self-satisfaction would complete the task at a quicker speed. We tested 14 Sixth Form students (7

in each group) and we timed them on how quickly they could solve the candle problem. We hired

volunteers to help time.

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Results

Conclusion

Our results show that the group that was rewarded with money did worse than the group that was

not rewarded. Now this makes no sense, right? That is not how it is conceived to work; if you want

people to perform better you reward them, do you not? Bonuses, commissions, promotions that’s

how business works. However, that’s not happening here! You’ve got an incentive (money as

reward) designed to sharpen thinking and accelerate creativity. Instead, it does just the opposite! It

dulls thinking and blocks creativity. We wanted to prove how there is a mismatch about what

science (sociology) knows and what business does and our results prove it. As seen in the bar chart

above the group with money spent much longer on average.

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation

This is part of the growing body of research:

Extrinsic motivation- Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain

an outcome, which then contradicts intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation

comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are

rewards like money and grades, and threat of punishment. Competition is a

general extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat

others, not simply to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A crowd

cheering on the individual and trophies are also extrinsic incentives.

Intrinsic motivation- Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or

enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than

relying on any external pressure. Intrinsic motivation is based on taking

pleasure in an activity rather than working towards an external reward.

Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s. Students who

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

TIME(MINS): AVERAGE:

GROUP 1 (WITH MONEY)

GROUP 2 (WITHOUT MONEY)

GROUP 1

(WITH

MONEY)

GROUP 2

(WITHOUT

MONEY)

TIME(MINS): 4.50 3.32

4.35 3.47

5.23 4.08

5.45 2.56

3.21 3.19

4.02 4.58

AVERAGE: 4.46 3.53

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are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as

well as work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities. Our

project is evidence to support this and stresses the importance of such an

environment in school as well as other work places.

A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e. behaviour) with

the intent to cause the behaviour to occur again. This is done by associating positive meaning to the

behaviour. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect is greater,

and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to

become habit. Motivation comes from two sources: oneself, and other people. These two sources

are called intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation, respectively.

What have we learnt from this?

This is one of the most robust findings in social science. We have spent time looking at the

science of human motivation particularly the dynamics of extrinsic motivators and intrinsic

motivators such as the following…… We humans work business entirely on extrinsic

motivators (motivation through rewards and punishment), that’s actually fine for

mechanical tasks that involve less concentration and more physical activity because less of

the brain’s dynamics are needed for this. Nevertheless, for creative tasks requiring more

dynamics of the brain, that “reward and punishment” approach doesn’t work.

Rewards work really well for simple tasks with a clear destination, but not well for

complicated ones. Therefore rewards by their nature narrow our focus and zoom in our

mind blocking. We have found out how to broaden your focus and how to zoom out to find

the objective by our results that are suggesting a new method to be used instead of

offering incentives, but to use extrinsic motivating methods. We have figured that rewards

restrict possibility and everybody in this world is dealing with their own candle problem by

either zooming in or out of possibility. This shows that businesses around us using rewards

to motivate don’t work to full ability! This is not a feeling or a philosophy. This is a fact! We

aren’t saying giving people money for creative tasks is bad we are simply making a

statement by observing our results that implies the fact that people should give money as

reward bearing in mind the reduced performance because of it. We are trying to use

intrinsic motivation over extrinsic motivation.

Our statement also has a disadvantage; if businesses don’t reward money for good work

then people won’t be satisfied and might work less harder so what we are trying to state is

that people should give rewards accordingly and balance motivation like we have learnt to

do. Life is lived with balance! Moreover, when that balance is reached you will have full

self-control and will live a better life, and maybe learn to have control over someone else.

What motivates us then? We know that psychology is a strong, serious and powerful topic

that brings new methods to guide people to how life should be lived and this power and

control is the drive of self-satisfaction that motivates our team to learn about it.

Acknowledgements:

Special thanks to the 14 Sixth Formers that

gave up some of their time (especially those

7 that had the offer of a reward and ended

up giving a bit more!)

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Money Picture: http://blog.intohigher.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/money.jpeg

Our Earthly Neighbour

Our Earthly Neighbour

For decades, astronomers have been training telescopes all over the sky, looking for alien worlds. In

October, they reported finding an Earth-sized planet near a small, next-door star. The discovery

naturally raises the question: When can we visit?

“A rocky planet around … our nearest neighbour — this is

incredible,” the planet-hunting astronomer Debra Fischer

stated. The Yale University scientist did not work on the new

study. “If you were going to send a spacecraft anywhere, or a

probe anywhere, that’s where you’d go first.”

The planet’s star, Alpha Centauri B, is a little smaller and cooler

than the sun. It and a larger star called Alpha Centauri A sit about 4.4 light-years away, roughly the

distance of 150,000 round trips from Earth to the sun. That may seem far away, but the Alpha

Centauri system is our nearest stellar neighbour.

A year on the newfound rocky exoplanet — or planet outside the solar system — lasts a little over

three days. Moreover, while its size may seem familiar, its climate leaves a lot to be desired. It orbits

its star so closely that the temperature on the exoplanet’s surface is around 1,200 degrees Celsius

(about 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit), notes astronomer Greg Laughlin of the University of California,

Santa Cruz. That’s hotter than the melting point of gold — and means life probably doesn’t stand a

chance there.

“It’s utterly uninhabitable, utterly scorched, utterly un-Earthlike in every respect,” he said.

It is possible that the same side of the planet always faces the star, which means the side of the

planet farthest from the star would be cooler.

The planet’s existence suggests there may be more planets orbiting the same star. Previous studies

have shown that Alpha Centauri B doesn’t have gas giants, like Jupiter or Saturn, orbiting it. But it

may have more of those small rocky worlds — even some that are farther from the star, and

therefore likely cooler.

Astronomer Stéphane Udry of the University of Geneva in Switzerland helped discover the new

planet. His team used an instrument on a 3.6-meter (nearly 12-foot) telescope atop a mountain in

Chile. The instrument, called HARPS, scans the skies to find stars that wobble from the gravitational

pull of a nearby planet. They reported their new discovery October 18 in the journal Nature.

Udry stated that his group wasn’t surprised to find the planet.

“We know now that these planets are everywhere,” Udry said. “The question is, how big, how far

from the star? That’s what we are trying to characterize.”

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Credited Source: Science News Image: http://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/alpha_centauri_B_STILL-640x400.jpg

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Higgs Boson

Higgs Boson

What exactly is the Higgs Boson?

Particle physics usually has a hard time

competing with politics and celebrity

gossip for headlines, but the Higgs boson

has garnered some serious attention.

That's exactly what happened on July 4,

2012, though, when scientists at CERN

announced that they'd found a particle

that behaved the way they expect the

Higgs boson to behave. Maybe the famed

boson's grand and controversial

nickname, the "God Particle," has kept

media outlets buzzing. Then again, the

intriguing possibility that the Higgs boson is responsible for all the mass in the universe rather

captures the imagination, too. Or perhaps we're simply excited to learn more about our world, and

we know that if the Higgs boson does exist, we'll unravel the mystery a little more.

In order to truly understand what the Higgs boson is, however, we need to examine one of the most

prominent theories describing the way the cosmos works: the standard model. The model comes to

us by way of particle physics, a field filled with physicists dedicated to reducing our complicated

universe to its most basic building blocks. It's a challenge we've been tackling for centuries, and

we've made a lot of progress. First we discovered atoms, then protons, neutrons and electrons, and

finally quarks and leptons (more on those later). But the universe doesn't only contain matter; it also

contains forces that act upon that matter. The standard model has given us more insight into the

types of matter and forces than perhaps any other theory we have.

Here's the gist of the standard model, which was developed in the early 1970s: Our entire universe is

made of 12 different matter particles and four forces [source: European Organization for Nuclear

Research]. Among those 12 particles, you'll encounter six quarks and six leptons. Quarks make up

protons and neutrons, while members of the lepton family include the electron and the

electron neutrino, its neutrally charged counterpart. Scientists think that leptons and quarks are

indivisible; that you can't break them apart into smaller particles. Along with all those particles, the

standard model also acknowledges four forces: gravity, electromagnetic, strong and weak.

As theories go, the standard model has been very effective, aside from its failure to fit in gravity.

Armed with it, physicists have predicted the existence of certain particles years before they were

verified empirically. Unfortunately, the model still has another missing piece -- the Higgs boson.

What is it, and why is it necessary for the universe the standard model describes to work? Let's find

out.

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http://user.web.cern.ch/public/en/Science/StandardModel-en.html

http://user.web.cern.ch/public/en/Science/StandardModel-en.html

Higgs Boson

Higgs Boson: The Final Piece of the Puzzle

As it turns out, scientists think each one of those four fundamental forces has a corresponding

carrier particle, or boson, that acts upon matter. That's a hard concept to grasp. We tend to think of

forces as mysterious, ethereal things that straddle the line between existence and nothingness, but

in reality, they're as real as matter itself.

Some physicists have described bosons as

weights anchored by mysterious rubber

bands to the matter particles that

generate them. Using this analogy, we can

think of the particles constantly snapping

back out of existence in an instant and yet

equally capable of getting entangled with

other rubber bands attached to other

bosons (and imparting force in the

process).

Scientists think each of the four

fundamental ones has its own specific

bosons. Electromagnetic fields, for

instance, depend on the photon to transit electromagnetic force to matter. Physicists think the Higgs

boson might have a similar function -- but transferring mass itself.

Can't matter just inherently have mass without the Higgs boson confusing things? Not according to

the standard model. But physicists have found a solution. What if all particles have no inherent

mass, but instead gain mass by passing through a field? This field, known as a Higgs field, could

affect different particles in different ways. Photons could slide through unaffected, while W and Z

bosons would get bogged down with mass. In fact, assuming the Higgs boson exists, everything that

has mass gets it by interacting with the all-powerful Higgs field, which occupies the entire universe.

Like the other fields covered by the standard model, the Higgs one would need a carrier particle to

affect other particles, and that particle is known as the Higgs boson.

On July 4, 2012, scientists working with the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) announced their discovery

of a particle that behaves the way the Higgs boson should behave. The results, while published with

a high degree of certainty, are still somewhat preliminary. Some researchers are calling the particle

"Higgslike" until the findings and the data stand up to more scrutiny. Regardless, this finding could

usher in a period of rapid discovery about our universe.

Sources

-The Collider Detector at Fermilab. "Search for the Standard Model Higgs Boson at CDF." (Jan. 13, 2012) http://www-cdf.fnal.gov/PES/higgs_pes/higgs_plain_english.html -European Organization for Nuclear Research. "Missing Higgs." 2008. http://user.web.cern.ch/public/en/Science/Higgs-en.html -European Organization for Nuclear Research. "Recipe for a Universe." 2008. (Jan. 13, 2012) http://user.web.cern.ch/public/en/Science/Recipe-en.html -European Organization for Nuclear Research. "The standard package." 2008. (Jan. 13, 2012) http://user.web.cern.ch/public/en/Science/StandardModel-en.html -Exploratorium.edu. "Origins: CERN: The Higgs Boson Particle." 2000. (Jan. 13, 2012) http://www.exploratorium.edu/origins/cern/ideas/higgs.html -Gardner, Laura. "Physicists say they are near epic Higgs boson discovery." Brandeis University. Dec. 13, 2011. (Jan. 13, 2012) http://www.brandeis.edu/now/2011/december/particle.html -Grossman, Lisa. "LHC sees hint of lightweight Higgs boson." Dec. 13, 2011. (Jan. 13, 2012) http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn21279-lhc-sees-hint-of-lightweight-higgs-boson.html -Krauss, Lawrence. "What is Higgs boson and why does it matter?" Dec. 13, 2011. (Jan. 13, 2012) http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn21277-what-is-the-higgs-boson-and-why-does-it-matter.html?full=true -Nave, R. "The Higgs Boson." Georgia State University. (Jan. 13, 2012) http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/forces/higgs.html -Quigg, Chris. "Particle physics: What exactly is the Higgs boson? Why are physicists so sure that it really exists?" Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. (Jan. 13, 2012) http://lutece.fnal.gov/Drafts/Higgs.html -Rincon, Paul. "'Big Bang' experiment starts well.'" BBC. Sept. 10, 2008. (Jan. 13, 2012) http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7604293.stm -Rincon, Paul. "LHC: Higgs boson 'may have been glimpsed'." BBC. Dec. 13, 2011. (Jan. 13, 2012) http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-16158374 -Sample, Ian and James Randerson. "What is the Higgs boson?" The Guardian. Dec. 13, 2011. (Jan. 13, 2012) http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2011/dec/13/higgs-boson-lhc-explained

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http://science.howstuffworks.com/rubber.htm

http://science.howstuffworks.com/rubber.htm

http://science.howstuffworks.com/science-vs-myth/everyday-myths/large-hadron-collider.htm

An Investigation By: Moiz Ali, Zak Andrabi, Zain Anwar and Hamza Sardar

A Study and Analysis of Cloud Formation on the Earth and Mars

A Study and Analysis of Cloud Formation on the Earth

and Mars

Abstract

In this report, we explore the different variables affecting cloud creation whilst determining the best possible conditions for a cloud to form in; looking at the effects of: the percentage volume of liquid, the pressure and the type of liquid used to form the cloud. We will conclude by relating our findings to evaluate the possibility of clouds on Mars and working out their properties.

Key Words: Clouds, Adiabatic Expansion, Nucleation, Condensation Nuclei, Molar Mass, Atmosphere, Gases, Liquids, Pressure, Volume, Density, Light Intensity.

1. Why We Undertook this Project

An article published earlier this year in the Daily Mail newspaper referred to a phenomenon observed by Wayne Jaeschke, an amateur astronomer from West Chester, Pennsylvania who noticed formations that seemed to rise up from the edge of the Martian disk. Some observers have suggested they are clouds at least 150 miles away from the surface while others have suggested it could be debris, which was disturbed after the Red Planet was hit by a meteor.

The subject of cloud creation as a whole is a very interesting one and many may not be aware of the great physics behind it. As budding astronomers ourselves, we have set out to dispel the confusion encircling this Martian incident whilst contributing to scientific research on ways to make the densest clouds.

2. Introduction

2.1 Adiabatic Expansion:

Adiabatic Expansion is the key to understanding how clouds form and the laws of physics that govern them. An adiabatic process is one where no heat is lost or gained in a closed system so the total work done is zero.

The diagram on the right shows the Carnot heat engine demonstrating how a normal heat transfer occurs. TH is the absolute temperature of a hot reservoir which contains a fluid (usually a gas which is capable of expansion and contraction, for example water vapour) and QH is the heat being put into the system and being transferred via the fluid so it can produce work (W) coming out from the circle which represents a system e.g. a piston used to turn a crank-arm. QC is the cold fluid which has now had its heat transferred and is returning the cold reservoir where it reaches its absolute cold temperature (TC). Since an adiabatic process is when there is no input or output of heat into or out of the system, Q=0.

In adiabatic processes heat transfer still occurs but the heat in the system is produced from the compression of the fluid within it and temperature decreases when the fluid expands. Clouds form in just this way. When water is heated and evaporates, it rises up into the atmosphere where the air is thinner. Because the atmosphere is thinner, the pressure is lower and therefore causes the expansion of the water vapour. Since this is an adiabatic process, it causes the water vapour to cool as it expands which causes the water to condense around tiny dust particles in the air called condensation nuclei. As the cloud rises further up into the atmosphere, usually as it is passing over hills or mountains, it expands more therefore cooling even more till the point it precipitates back down to Earth.

2.2 Liquids Used to Form Clouds:

Natural clouds on Earth are formed from water but there are other substances you can form clouds. The liquids we used were:

Substance and Formula Melting Point (°C) Boiling Point (°C) Molar Mass (g/mole)

Water - H2O 0 100 18

Ethanol - C2H6O -114 78.37 46

Acetic Acid - C2H4O2 17 119 30

Acetone - C3H6O -95 57 58

Figure 1: Carnot Heat Engine

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2.3 Atmosphere of Earth

The atmosphere of the Earth is the most important variable in the formation of clouds as it provides the condensation nuclei and the gases. The atmosphere is approximately: 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 0.9% Argon, 0.04% Carbon Dioxide, and 0.002% Neon with an average of 0.4% water vapour (which is approximately 1%-2% at the surface of the Earth). Most clouds are located in the upper regions of the troposphere, which is the lowest layer of the Earth’s atmosphere containing about 80% of its total mass and 99% of the total amount of Water Vapour.

2.4 Atmosphere of Mars

It had long been known that Mars had an atmosphere, albeit a very thin one, and is mostly composed of Carbon Dioxide. The gases that compose the majority of the Martian atmosphere are: 95.3% Carbon Dioxide, 2.7% Nitrogen, 1.6% Argon, 0.13% Oxygen, 0.07% Carbon Monoxide and 0.03% Water Vapour. The atmospheric pressure on the surface of Mars averages 0.087 Psi, and ranges from a low of 0.0044 Psi on Olympus Mons's peak to over 0.1675 psi in the depths of Hellas Planitia (a huge, roughly circular impact basin located in the southern hemisphere).

2.5 LUX

The LUX (symbol: lx) is the unit of luminance and light intensity, measuring luminous per unit area. It is used in photometry as a measure of the intensity, as perceived by the human eye, of light that hits or passes through a surface. We used this unit to measure the difference in light intensity between the amount of light reaching a sensor from a distance of 20 cm and the light intensity after we had placed the bottle (without a cloud formed within) and the light intensity after our ‘cloud in a bottle’ had been formed thus giving us an indication of the density and ‘quality’ of the cloud that had been formed.

Independent Variables: the percentage volume of liquid used, the pressure inside the container and the type of liquid used to form the cloud.

Dependent Variable: the density of the cloud: measured by the light intensity (lx) - the strength of light being allowed through the cloud.

Equipment: Air pump with pressure gauge, 2L bottle (unless changing size of the container), liquid (water, unless changing type of liquid), smoke (from a burning splint), matches, lid for the bottle (modified) with a fixed tyre valve, colour changeable light bulb and lux (light intensity) sensor and logger.

1. Percentage Volume Control Variables: 2L bottle; 20 psi Pressure; liquid water used; bulb and lux sensor used; distance between light source and bottle and lux sensor; air pump and level of smoke put inside bottle (in for 30 seconds after blowing out splint).

2. Pressure inside container Control Variables: 2L bottle; 30ml liquid water; bulb and lux sensor used; distance between light source and bottle and lux sensor; air pump and level of smoke put inside bottle (in for 30 seconds after blowing out splint).

3. Type of liquid used to form the cloud: 2L bottle; 20 psi Pressure; 30ml of liquid used; bulb and lux sensor used; distance between light source and bottle and lux sensor; air pump and level of smoke put inside bottle (in for 30 seconds after blowing out splint).

All experiments were done in a dark room so no extraneous variables could affect the lux reading.

To select the appropriate wavelength of light required to carry out our experiments, we changed the light colour on our bulb so we could investigate that as well as measure any differences in lux when cloud is formed using various wavelengths of light. Control variables for this were: 2L bottle; 20 psi Pressure; 30ml of liquid water used; bulb and lux sensor used; distance between light source, bottle and lux sensor; air pump and level of smoke put inside bottle (in for 30 seconds after blowing out splint).

The wavelengths of light we investigated this for, were Red, Green, Blue and White.

The following is a systematic account of how we carried out all experiments:

3. Methodology

i. Place the volume of liquid (30ml and water when not doing the independent variables 1. and 4.) using a measuring cylinder into the bottle (2L when not doing the independent variable 3.).

[14]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pounds_per_square_inch

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympus_Mons

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellas_Planitia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_basin

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere



i. Place the volume of liquid (30ml and water when not doing the independent variables 1. and 4.) using a measuring cylinder into the bottle (2L when not doing the independent variable 3.).

ii. Light a wooden splint 1cm in, blow out and immediately place inside the bottle tilting the bottle so as no smoke can escape and no liquid can fall out.

iii. Using a timer, count 30 seconds, then take out the splint and instantaneously fasten on the modified bottle lid to ensure no smoke (condensation nuclei particles) escape.

iv. Using the air pump, increase the pressure inside the bottle to 20 psi (unless doing independent variable 2. where a variety of pressures will be used).

v. Place bottle in between lux sensor and light bulb (the light source) - there is a 20cm distance between light source and lux sensor.

vi. Remember to record measurement before placing the bottle in between the light and sensor. Then record once placed in between.

vii. Rapidly unscrew the bottle cap and record the lowest lux reading.

Liquid Used To Form Cloud

LUX Reading Before Bottle is Placed in front of Lamp (lx)

LUX Reading After Bottle is Placed in front of Lamp (lx)

LUX Reading After Cloud forms inside Bottle (lx)

Change in LUX Reading When Cloud is Formed (lx)

Water (H2O)

205 135 105 20

Ethanoic Acid (CH3CO2H)

205 135 73.5 61.5

Ethanol (C2H6O)

205 135 63.5 71.5

Acetone [(CH3)2CO]

205 135 58.5 76.5

0

50

100

150

200

4. Results

Colour of Light (different wavelengths)





White 205 135 90 45

Red 60 43 30.5 12.5

Blue 100 63 50.5 12.5

Green 84 53 36.5 16.5

0

50

100

150

200

White Red Blue Green





Pressures Used To Form Cloud (Psi)





5 205 135 120 15

10 205 135 105 25

15 205 135 96 39

20 205 135 90 45

0

50

100

150

200

5 10 15 20

Figure 2.1 and 2.2: Colours of l ight results table and bar chart

Figure 3.1 and 3.2: Liquids used to form cloud results table and bar chart

Figure 4.1 and 4.2 : pressures used results table and bar chart

ii. Light a wooden splint 1cm in, blow out and immediately place inside the bottle tilting the bottle so as no smoke can escape and no liquid can fall out.

iii. Using a timer, count 30 seconds, then take out the splint and instantaneously fasten on the modified bottle lid to ensure no smoke (condensation nuclei particles) escape.

iv. Using the air pump, increase the pressure inside the bottle to 20 psi (unless doing independent variable 2. where a variety of pressures will be used).

v. Place bottle in between lux sensor and light bulb (the light source) - there is a 20cm distance between light source and lux sensor.

vi. Remember to record measurement before placing the bottle in between the light and sensor. Then record once placed in between.

vii. Rapidly unscrew the bottle cap and record the lowest lux reading.

[15]



Both aspects of figure 2 show clearly that white light, a mixture of the other wavelengths of light, seems to have a greater overall intensity than the other wavelengths (in this instance red, blue and green). Blue light has the second highest light intensity, with green in third and red light having the lowest intensity. This suggests that light intensity is intrinsically linked to the wavelength of light, a phenomenon which can be attributed to the fact that different wavelengths of light have different amounts of energy; blue light has the most energy (and hence the shortest wavelength- out of red, green and blue), and red light has the least energy (and longest wavelength). Consequently, white light was used as a control variable in subsequent experiments, as it was discovered to be the optimum wavelength of light due to its high energy.

Figure 3 displays the results we obtained from an investigation into the best liquid to use in the production of the cloud. As one can see, the cloud formed from acetone produced the greatest decrease in light intensity when it formed, or in layman’s terms, more “fogginess”- indicating that this cloud was the densest/heaviest. These results can be simply explained with the molecular masses of the various compounds- acetone had the greatest molecular mass; demonstrating that the greater the molecular mass of a compound, the greater the density of the cloud (or as it was referred to by us, cloud quality/thickness). Although the acetone produced the “best” cloud, we decided to use water as a control variable for the other experiments, as not only is this relatable to earth’s atmosphere, but it is the most practical. Acetone, Ethanol, and Ethanoic acid are all flammable (especially Acetone) hence were unsafe to use all the time due to the smoke from the splint.

The subsequent experiment (figure 4) was an investigation into the effect of pressure on cloud formation. We found that the higher the pressure, the greater the change in LUX reading when the cloud is formed. This means that the greater the pressure used to form the cloud, the denser the cloud (which is evident as less light is getting though the cloud). Theoretically, we could have experimented with higher pressures, but the limitations of a conventional 2 litre plastic bottle prevented us from doing so. We found that (with the aforementioned kind of bottle) 20 psi is the optimum pressure for cloud formation and was thus used as a control variable for the other experiments.

Finally, the investigation into the effects of the %volume of liquid used to create the cloud on the density of the cloud (figure 5) itself also yielded some interesting results. We found that the density of cloud increases as the volume of liquid used to create the cloud increases, but tops out at 0.020 % volume water, as all results after this are the same. This shows clearly that 0.020 % volume of liquid is the perfect amount of water to create a cloud, with respect to the size and shape of container that we were using.

6. Wider Impact

Percentage Volume (%) of Liquid Used To Form Cloud





0.005 205 140 110 30 0.010 205 140 94 46 0.015 205 140 91.5 48.5 0.020 205 140 90 50

0.025 205 140 90 50

0

50

100

150

200

0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025





5. Conclusions

Figure 5.1 and 5.2: (%) volume of l iquid used results table and bar chart

This is related to there being clouds on Mars. We have found that although there is very little

water vapour on Mars, it is sufficient to produce clouds that would resemble cirrus clouds on

Earth, out of water ice (due to Mars’ very cold temperature). Whether these clouds were able to

precipitate in any form is still hard to say using this research alone. Mars’ atmosphere has a

troposphere, mesosphere and exosphere and, just like Earth, the clouds could form in the

troposphere that has a relatively warm (by Martian Standards) average temperature.

Our research is evidence to support that the Martian clouds are of water ice as they have a

relatively see through (incredibly less dense) composition and the pressures at such a level in its

atmosphere would be extremely small to create an absolutely dense cloud resembling those on

the Earth. The percentage volume of water vapour is small too which would also create less

dense clouds.

Acknowledgements:

We would like to thank Ms. Farmer and

all other Physics Department staff at

Stretford Grammar School for their

unwavering support and effort.

[16]

Ear’s One For You

Ear’s One For You

Engineers at Cornell University used 3D printing techniques to build a new external human ear. The

outer ear, also called the auricle, or pinna, was constructed using an extrudable gel made of living

cells. Over a 3 month period the ears grew cartilage to replace the collagen base that was used to

mould them. Cartilage is an ideal tissue for 3D printed bio structures since it can persist in the

absence of vascularisation. Formerly, artificial replacement ears had been built from a more

Styrofoam-like material or sometimes from pieces harvested from a patients rib — a difficult and

typically painful procedure, particularly

for children.

3D printing has come

to prominence only recently and has

quickly emerged as a powerful new tool

for all kinds of biomedical applications.

Earlier this month, a group from

Scotland, land of Dolly, the first cloned

sheep, was able to 3D print structures

using human stem cells. Furthermore,

they were able to show that the

cells continued to express particular

biomarkers that were indicative of

pluripotence — the ability to turn into

nearly any type of tissue.

The Cornell researchers estimate that the best time to implant a child with the ear would be around

age six. At that age the normal ear has already grown to about 80 percent of the adult size, yet the

auditory system is still sufficiently plastic to readily adapt itself to its new front end. While the long-

term viability of the new ears is obviously still under evaluation, these new printing methods have

tremendous potential to transform the field of tissue engineering so that one day we may see

entirely printed organs.

Credited Source: MedGadget Image: MedGadget

Art

icle

[17]

FEATURE An Investigation By: Niall Briggs

Human Whipworm

An investigation into goblet cell biology during Trichuris muris

infection and the role of nuclear hormone receptors.

Introduction

Trichuris trichiura (Human Whipworm) is a nematode parasite that inhabits the large intestine. Over 1

billion people are currently suffering from significant morbidity due to nematode parasites.

Trichuris muris (a mouse model of T. trichiura) causes intestinal inflammation in mice, reflecting that seen

in the human infection

It is well established that a Th2 immune response is essential for worm expulsion, whereas a Th1 immune

response will lead to chronic infection of T. muris.

Different strains of mouse respond to parasite infection in various ways, for example BALB/c mice are

resistant to T. muris infection as they develop a Th2 response and expel the worms. However the AKR

strain produces an inappropriate Th1 response leading to chronic infection.

Goblet cells are a constituent of the epithelial tissue in the large intestine. An important function of the

goblet cell is to secrete mucins, which dissolve in water to form mucus.

Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors (PPARs) are a group of nuclear receptor proteins that function

as transcription factors regulating the expression of genes.

Resistin-like molecule (RELM) is a protein expressed by goblet cells, which has been implicated as a

direct effector mechanism against parasitic helminths (Artis et al.).

Nuclear hormone receptors are crucial in regulating an immune response. The activation of nuclear

hormone receptors, such as retinoic acid receptor (RAR), has been shown to favour Th2 responses and

promote Th2 cytokines, such as IL-4, IL-5, IL-9 and IL-13. In turn, Th2 responses have been shown to be

important in goblet cell hyperplasia and the production of mucins.

Nuclear hormone receptors can be activated by agonists and blocked by antagonists.

Background Information, Ethical Issues and Impact of the Project.

As aforementioned, over one sixth of the world’s population suffers from significant morbidity caused by

nematode parasites. These parasites have mostly been eradicated in the western world, but are a major health

issue in developing countries. An extensive amount of research is taking place at the University of Manchester

(where I carried out my research) into different effector mechanisms for expelling worms. The final goal would

be to produce a vaccine or drug to help those infected to permanently rid themselves of parasites, yet as the

majority of hosts to these sorts of infection live in poverty, there are obvious economic problems as to the

sales and distribution of any future drugs. The livestock industry also suffers from parasitic infections leading

to reduced productivity and the need for repeated drug treatment, which impose a great economic burden.

Highly relevant to this topic is the recent concept that harbouring a worm burden can “cure” autoimmune

diseases such as asthma and crohn's disease as the infection suppresses the immune system. Evidence for this

comes from the hygiene hypothesis but research is still on going into helminthic treatment. However if the

treatment is proven successful and safe the hygiene hypothesis has potentially large implications for the

practice of medicine in the future.

My project required animal testing using mice. Many people are against using animals for scientific research,

as some of the animals will suffer. However without animal testing we would be without a wide variety of

drugs and vaccines, as well as lacking a great amount of knowledge on the biology of many different

organisms. Therefore as over 1 billion people suffer from these parasites and the research will ultimately help

them, I feel that the benefits outweigh the ethical issues behind it.

Inve

stig

atio

n

[18]


Human Whipworm

Aims

I had a number of aims to investigate in my research. Firstly I set out to discover the role of the nuclear

receptor proteins PPARδ and PPARγ in macrophages on goblet cell biology post infection. Secondly I wanted to

study how increased RELMβ expression by goblet cells may correlate to the resistance of mice against

helminth infection and to investigate if activation of the RAR by Am80 and the blocking of RAR by Le540 leads

to increased RELMβ expression by goblet cells.

Experimental Methods

Transgenic mice lacking the PPARγ and PPARδ receptors in macrophages were used to study how the deletion

of these receptors altered the production of different mucin types in goblet cells. Mice that received a high

dose were infected with ~200 embryonated T. muris eggs, whereas mice that received a low dose were

infected with ~30 eggs. Samples of proximal colon were taken and set in wax. Periodic Acid Shift Staining was

carried out on the gut sections. Neutral mucins would stain a pink colour, mixtures of mucins a purple colour

and acid mucins a blue colour. The numbers of goblet cells producing each mucin type were quantified, blindly,

by counting the number of stained goblet cells per 20 crypts.

Resistant (BALB/c) and susceptible (AKR) strains of mouse were infected with a high dose of T. muris eggs. The

AKR mice in figure 7 were treated with the RAR agonist daily from day 21. Samples of proximal colon were set

in wax. Immunohistochemistry was performed on this tissue using standard immunoperoxidase techniques.

This was quantified, blindly, by counting the number of stained cells per 20 crypts.

Results

Figure 4. Analysis of goblet cell mucins following a low dose infection using periodic acid shift staining. It was found that a low dose infection leads to a significant increase in the number of goblet cells containing acid mucins. There was a trend towards fewer acid mucin-containing goblet cells in mice where the macrophages lacked PPARγδ.

Figure 1. Periodic Acid

Shift Staining of gut

tissues Figure 3. Quantification of

different mucin-producing

goblet cells.

Wild

Type

PPARγδ KO

Naïve d42 Post Infection Neutral Mucins

WT KO WT KO0

5

10

15

20

25

Mean N

um

ber

of G

oble

t

Cells

Per

20 C

rypts

Mixture of Mucins

WT KO WT KO0

50

100

150

Mean N

um

ber

of G

oble

t

Cells

Per

20 C

rypts

Acid Mucins

WT KO WT KO0

100

200

300**

**

Mean N

um

ber

of G

oble

t

Cells

Per

20 C

rypts

Total Goblet Cells

WT KO WT KO0

100

200

300

400

Tota

l M

ean N

um

ber

of G

oble

t

Cells

Per

20 C

rypts

Naïve d42 p.i. Naïve d42 p.i.

Naive d42 p.i. Naive d42 p.i.

Figure 2. Performing

immunohistochemistry

on gut tissues

[19]


Human Whipworm

Figure 5. Analysis of goblet cell mucins following a high dose infection using periodic acid shift staining.

It was found that a high dose infection leads to a significant increase in the number of goblet cells containing

acid mucins.

However at day 35 post infection, this increase was abolished by knocking PPARγδ out of macrophages.

Figure 6. Immunohistochemistry for RELMβ producing goblet cells following a high dose infection in

resistant (BALB/c) and susceptible (AKR) strains of mouse.

A high dose infection leads to a significant increase in the number of goblet cells containing RELMβ.

There is a visible difference that BALB/c mice possess more RELMβ-containing goblet cells than AKR mice,

although this is not significantly different.

Figure 7. Immunohistochemistry for RELMβ producing goblet cells following a high dose infection in

susceptible AKR mice with activated RAR.

A high dose infection leads to a significant increase in the number of goblet cells containing RELMβ.

However the number of RELMβ producing goblet cells does not alter significantly when the RAR is activated or

blocked.

Acid Mucins

WT KO WT KO WT KO0

50

100

150

200 ** ***

Mean N

um

ber

of G

oble

t

Cells

Per

20 C

rypts

Naive d21 p.i. d35 p.i.

Neutral Mucins

WT KO WT KO WT KO0

50

100

150

Mean N

um

ber

of G

oble

t

Cells

Per

20 C

rypts

Naïve d21 p.i. d35 p.i.

Mixture of Mucins

WT KO WT KO WT KO0

50

100

150

**

Mean N

um

ber

of G

oble

t

Cells

Per

20 C

rypts

Naïve =

d21 p.i. d35 p.i.

Total Goblet Cells

WT KO WT KO WT KO0

100

200

300

400*

Tota

l M

ean N

um

ber

of G

oble

t

Cells

Per

20 C

rypts

Naïve d21 p.i. d35 p.i.

d

3

5

P

o

s

t

I

n

f

e

c

t

i

o

n

Wil

d

Ty

pe

PP

AR

γγ

KO

Naive

d21 Post Infection

d35 Post Infection

Wild Type

PPARγδ KO

Naïve

A

K

R

BALB

BALB AKR BALB AKR0

50

100

150

200***

****

*

Mean N

um

ber

of G

oble

t

Cells

Per

20 C

rypts

Naïve d21 p.i.

Naïve d21 Post Infection

[20]


Human Whipworm

Summary & Conclusions

Goblet cells containing acid mucins increase post infection.

This does not occur when PPARγδ is knocked out of macrophages.

Therefore regulation of macrophage biology by PPARγδ has a role in the increase of acid mucin-containing

goblet cells post infection.

Goblet cells containing RELMβ increase post infection.

Resistant BALB/c mice produce more RELMβ-containing goblet cells than susceptible AKR mice.

Thus the presence of RELMβ producing goblet cells correlates with resistance.

Whether RAR is activated or blocked, the number of goblet cells containing RELMβ post infection is similar

in both groups of mice.

Activation of the RAR by Am80 and the blocking of RAR by Le540 does not alter RELMβ expression by

goblet cells.

Acknowledgements

A great thanks to the Faculty of Life Sciences at the University of Manchester for letting me use the facilities to

carry out my research, but also the research team (Matthew Little, Rebecca Hurst and Kathryn Else) who were

always on hand to help.

I would also like to thank the Nuffield Foundation who helped organise my placement at the faculty over the

summer and also funded my work.

Naïve Infected: Vehicle

Infected: RAR Agonist (Am80) Infected: RAR Antagonist (Le540)

Naive

Infe

cted: V

ehicle

Infe

cted:R

AR Agonis

t (Am

80)

Infe

cted:R

AR Anta

gonist(L

e540)0

100

200

300

400 *

Mea

n N

umbe

r of

Gob

let

Cel

ls P

er 2

0 C

rypt

s

The AV Hill Building, Faculty of Life

Sciences, University of

Manchester where I carried out

my 6 week project.

An electron

micrograph of T.

muris.

[21]

Sickle Cells to Treat Cancerous Tumours

Sickle cells may be dangerous, but the genetic

mutation that causes them is a cancer killer

Sickle Cells to Treat Cancerous Tumours

The genetic mutation that causes sickle cell anaemia also turns red blood cells into potent tumour

killers and may offer a new way to treat some cancers that are resistant to existing treatments. This

is according to research published by David S. Terman of Jenomic Research Institute and colleagues

from Duke University and other institutions.

The mutation that causes sickle cell anaemia

changes the shape of red blood cells and makes

them less efficient at transporting oxygen

through the body. When there is little oxygen

available in the environment (hypoxia), these

sickle cells clump together and block blood

vessels, eventually rupturing and damaging the

blood vessel and surrounding cells. This is

traumatic for those that suffer from the disease,

but in this new research, scientists have

harnessed this phenomenon to target certain

tumours.

Hypoxia is also present in many solid tumours and causes resistance to chemotherapy and

radiotherapy. Here, the researchers combined sickle blood cells with a molecule that can release

large amounts of oxygen, and injected the cells into mice with severely hypoxic tumours. The sickle

cells clumped up within the tumour blood vessels within minutes of injection, blocking tumour blood

supply. As they ruptured, the oxygen-releasing molecule they carried also killed a significant

proportion of tumour cells and blood vessels. Normal red blood moved freely through the tumours

without clumping and did not kill the tumour cells.

Terman explains, "Sickle cells, unlike normal red blood cells, stick like Velcro to tumour blood vessels

where they cluster and shut down the blood supply of oxygen deprived tumours. Once clumped

within the tumour, the sickle cells rupture releasing toxic residues that promote tumour cell death."

This new approach differs from current treatment of such hypoxic solid tumours by targeting both

the cancer cell and surrounding blood vessels suggesting that sickle cells may be "a potent new tool

for treatment of hypoxic solid tumours."

Credited Source: Eurekalert

Art

icle

[22]

An Investigation By: Moiz Ali, Zak Andrabi and Zain Anwar

Bottled Water vs. Tap Water

Bottled Water vs. Tap Water: Project Summary

(Science/Maths Stream)

Why we undertook this project

This has teased the mind of numerous people and has been open to many opinions. We

too, have wondered about this phenomenon as there are people with different views on

what type of water (bottled or tap) is best. In a world where money is hard to come by and

the planet’s supply of fuels is short, why do households and people consume bottled water

instead of the clean tap water in MEDCs? That is what made us so eager to find out.

Aim

The aim of this project is to know what differentiation is there between tap water and marketed bottled water- and to elucidate whether it is truly worth spending more money on bottled water considering that non-renewable fuels are wasted in its production and distribution.

Introduction

According to a study by NRDC, UK customers pay between 240 to 10,000 times, more per unit volume for

bottled water than for tap water. This is a massive difference. Another research has proven tap water contains

more fluoride than bottled water, essential for preventing tooth decay and cavities; despite that it also states

that long-term fluoride consumption might lead to health hazards. ATSDR found fluoride to be an equivocal

carcinogen (a radionuclide substance which is a direct agent in causing cancer) since it reacts with trace

chemicals in tap water, making them more carcinogenic. However, Bottled water also contains reduced

amounts of copper, lead and other contaminants, unlike tap water which runs through plumbing pipes

(exposed to metal corrosion); this varies by the household. If excessive amounts of these minerals are taken,

then that could lead to stomach aches, furthermore (as of greater accumulation) it might cause kidney failure,

anaemia; due to size, children are at a greater risk than adults. Excessive intake of sodium can be harmful as it

contributes to high blood pressure and a risk of heart disease. However, low sodium intake can lead to

hyponatremia- severe metabolic condition; also sodium is used in oral rehydration therapy to cure

dehydration caused by diarrhoea (particularly gastroenteritis). The British Water conducted a study, in which

they concluded that as tap water gets harder, the greater the amount of sodium in that water.

Background Information

With the economic recession looming large in today's world, many still believe it is acceptable to spend money

on bottled water. The bottled water market in Britain alone is worth £2 billion. Buying bottled water also

contributes to the shortage of fossil fuels, also burning them (fossil fuels) releases CO₂ that adds to the

greenhouse effect. Bottling water also means that more plastic will be used which is a hard material to recycle.

Marketed bottled water is used because unlike a tap it is portable, this means people can consume it

anywhere (businesses can use it as well as sports centres, to charities and event organisers). This will/might

not change, but our project will prove whether it is truly beneficial for using bottled water as a

premium/luxury item.

The Experiments

Our experiment will examine the composition of different types of waters. The tests we plan to conduct are the following: hardness experiment, pH test and a blind test. The waters we plan to investigate are: Buxton Natural Mineral, Volvic Natural Mineral,

Inve

stig

atio

n

[23]

http://www.nrdc.org/water/

http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/phs/phs.asp?id=210&tid=38

http://www.britishwater.co.uk/



Tesco Value Water, Clearview Spring, Central Manchester Tap, Trafford Tap, Skye (Scotland) Tap and Buxton Tap. Hardness of Waters

Apparatus: Burette, 8 Conical Flasks, Glass Pipette (to increase precision in quantifying), Pipette filler, Clamp,

Clamp Stand, Funnel, Stopwatch, Cork, Black/White Card (to facilitate reading the burette), Soap Solution- 50

cm3, 8 Samples of Water - 25 cm

3 each, Beaker. Method: 1- Attach the clamp to clamp stand; append the

burette. 2- Fill the burette to 0 mark with soap solution. 3- Open burette tap to let any air particles out. 4-

Place 25.0 cm3 of water sample into conical flask using glass pipette and pipette filler. 5- Place conical flask

underneath burette. 6- Open burette tap until reading drops by 0.5 cm3

(use card to help with reading

burette). 7- Take the conical flask and add cork. 8- Start stopwatch; shake conical flask vigorously for 15

seconds. 9- Check to observe if any lather has formed (allow 10 seconds for this). If no lather formed; repeat

6-10. Repeat for all water samples. Independent Variable/s: Water Sample. Dependant Variable/s: Amount of

soap solution added each time.

pH Values

Apparatus: pH Data Logger, Clamp, Clamp Stand, Buffer solution (pH 7)- 50 cm3, De-ionised water (pH 7)- 50

cm3, 10 Beakers, 8 Samples of Water- 25 cm

3 each, Glass Pipette, Pipette filler. Method: 1- Place buffer

solution into a beaker and rinse the pH probe with it. 2- Place de-ionised water into beaker and rinse the probe

with it. 3- Set up clamp and clamp stand; add pH measuring probe on. 4- Use glass pipette and pipette filler to

measure and pour 25 cm3 water sample into beaker. 5- Place this beaker under pH probe; record pH of

sample. Repeat for all water samples. Independent Variable/s: Water Sample. Dependent Variable/s: pH

Blind Test

Apparatus: 24 Plastic Cups- A, 24 Plastic Cups- B, 24 Plastic Cups- C, 240 ml Buxton Natural Mineral, 240 ml

Tesco Value Water, 240 ml Manchester Tap, Glass Pipette, Pipette filler. Method: 1- Use glass pipette and

pipette filler to measure 10 ml of one type of water and pour into 24 cups; do same for other types of waters.

2- Give to respondents who will taste one of each A, B and C only once; make sure they do not communicate

as this could lead to unreliable results.

Results

Hardness of Waters Data: The more soap solution added, the greater the hardness of the water, meaning it

contains a larger number of calcium and magnesium ions. Our results are as following:

Water Sample Amount Added (cm3)

Buxton Natural Mineral Bottled Water 4.5

Volvic Natural Mineral Bottled Water 2.0

Tesco Value Bottled Water 1.0

Clearview Spring Bottled Water 2.0

Trafford Tap Water 1.0

Manchester Tap Water 1.0

[24]



Buxton Tap Water 4.5

Skye (Scotland) Tap Water 1.0

pH Values: We did this experiment to compare the pH of the water from source, observing whether the bottle

water company is lying or telling the truth. Also, we did not have any proven pH values of the Tap water

samples, meaning that it was fascinating to investigate this. Our results are as following:

Water Sample Stated pH on Bottle Actual pH

Buxton Natural Mineral Bottled

Water 7.64 7.84

Volvic Natural Mineral Bottled Water 7.5 7.7

Tesco Value Bottled Water 6.73 6.93

Clearview Spring Bottled Water 6.9 6.6

Trafford Tap Water N/A 6.67

Manchester Tap Water N/A 6.67

Buxton Tap Water N/A 7.7

Skye (Scotland) Tap Water N/A 7.98

Blind Test: This experiment's results are vital to show whether all these rumours about bottled and tap water

tasting different are true or not. They are integral in showing and very conclusive in mapping out the positions

of these waters (whether one of the water is better than the other). A was Buxton Natural Mineral Bottled

Water, B was Tesco Value Bottled Water, while C was Manchester Tap Water. Our results are as following:

Option Number of Respondents who

Chose this Option

Percentage (%) of Respondents

who Chose this Option

A 7 29.2

B 7 29.2

C 8 33

Can't Decide 2 8

[25]



Conclusion

These experiments suggested that overall it was the bottled water which contained the most amount of

calcium and magnesium ions. The patterns and trends are: Waters from the same location will have the same

hardness; no matter if they are bottled or tap (the two waters from Buxton had the relative same hardness-

4.5). Location plays a key factor in the hardness of waters as waters filtered from areas with rocks that have

less minerals will have less calcium and magnesium ions (supported by the Buxton Tap Water which has a

relative hardness of 4.5 as this water filters through limestone, compared to cities: Manchester, Trafford and

Skye (Scotland) Tap Waters all have less relative hardness (1) as a consequence of this. Bottled Waters

normally have a greater relative hardness, for tap waters it depends on the rock it filters through.

The pH of the tap waters from major cities is lower than acceptable (Manchester and Trafford- both have pH

6.67 compared to less major cities Skye (Scotland) and Buxton). The pH on all the bottles (which is pH from

their sources) is different to the actual pH of the waters (e.g. Clearview Natural Mineral Water has an actual

pH of 6.6, but on the bottle it said 6.9- so it is really more acidic.etc.). Mostly, water samples which are high in

hardness have a high pH (Buxton Tap Water has a relative hardness of 4.5 and has pH 7.7). It was pretty clear

to the respondents as to which water tasted nicest as only 8% of the respondents said they couldn't decide.

The majority (by a small margin) of the people liked bottled water best since 58.4% picked bottled water,

however they picked it regardless of the hardness of the waters since the Tesco Value Bottled Water was liked

by the same number of respondents as Buxton Natural Mineral Bottled Water which contains 4.5 times more

calcium and magnesium. This shows no strong trend and is a bit inconclusive. They stated “A tasted chalky”, B

“had no taste”, while C “had a taste”.

Wider Impact

Our data demonstrated the fact that the healthiest waters originate from rocks with more minerals (so

location is a factor), this can be explained using the geography of rocks and filtering; as the water runs through

these rocks, it dissolves more and more calcium and magnesium ions. So why is tap water filtered from rocks

with large mineral content still unhealthier than bottled water from the same source?

Tap water is mostly fluoridated as compounds of sodium, meaning tap waters often contain more sodium

particles than bottled water. This has negative outcomes, especially for babies who consume infant formula.

Furthermore, the results of the blind test supported bottled water as the majority of people chose that as their

option, illustrating that bottled water does, in fact, taste nice. So this shows that households like the taste of

bottled water, so it may considered as a luxury item. We also found that tap waters generally have

unacceptably low pH levels, this can be explained due to new plumbing systems (in some cities), meaning

reduced amount of metal contaminants in water, making it less alkaline. Our recommendations for the best

waters are:

1-Buxton Natural Mineral Bottled Water

2-Buxton Tap Water

3-Vovlic Natural Mineral Bottled Water

4-Clearview Natural Mineral Bottled Water

5-Skye (Scotland Tap Water)

6-Tesco Value Water––

7-Manchester Tap Water

8-Trafford Tap Water

Tap Image Source: http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Money/Pix/pictures/2007/10/31/TapC.jpg Bottles Image Source: http://images.mnn.com/sites/default/files/qa_bottledwater_0828.jpg Buxton Water Image: http://cdn.euroffice.com/eo/item/742900/0-Huge-0.jpg

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Youth Science Journal- Issue No. 1

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Transcript of Youth Science Journal- Issue No. 1