Yilmaz, I & B. Burak - TJP 2011 - Instrumentalist Use of Journalism in Imposing the Kemalist...
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Instrumentalist Use of Journalism in Imposing the Kemalist Hegemonic
Worldview and Educating the Masses in the Early Republican Period
Ihsan Yilmaz1
and Begum Burak2
Abstract
This paper analyses hegemonic use of the press in the process of top-down Kemalist
modernization in the early periods of the Turkish Republic that is characterized by one
party rule between early 1920s and 1950. In addition to helping Westernization attempts
of the Kemalists, the press in this period also was hegemonically engaged in vilification
of the past. Moreover, intolerant attitude towards pluralism and plurality of views was thediscursive norm of the Turkish press at that time. The journalism and the press in the
early years of the Republic had consistently supported the new regime which was
committed to social engineering. This issue could unfortunately find little space in
political science literature on Turkey. First of all, a theoretical framework concerning
Gramscian theory of hegemony vis--vis media will be presented in this paper. Then,Turkish modernization history will be covered shortly, and lastly, in a more detailed way,
the role of journalism and the press as an instrument in hegemonic modernization
process in the early Republican period will be quested.
Keywords: Gramsci, Hegemony, Turkey, Media, Press, Journalism, Islam,
Modernization
Introduction: The Medias Role in Maintaining Hegemony
The biggest strength of hegemony theory is its sensitivity to how history, culture
and ideology can give rise to forces that stabilize and legitimize authoritarian regimes
(Sim 2004, 19). Gramsci (1971) recognized that the stability and cohesion of Western
societies could not depend on only fear (Femia 1983, 347). The basic premise of the
theory of hegemony is that man is not ruled by force alone, but also by ideas (Bates 1975,
351). Physical domination is not enough; there is a need for spiritual supremacy as well
(Femia 1983, 346). The concept of hegemony means political leadership based on the
consent of the led, a consent which is secured by the diffusion and popularization of the
world view of the ruling class (Bates 1975, 352).
1Fatih University, [email protected]
2Fatih University, [email protected]
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Hegemony refers to the consensual basis of any given political regime within civil
society, i.e., roughly what Weber meant by legitimation, though with a greater sensitivity
to the interweaving of consent and culture (Adamson 1980, 627). Those who obey must,
to some degree, share the values and standards of their 'superiors', and consent to their
own subordination. Hegemony therefore signifies the control of social life (by a group or
a class) through cultural, as opposed to physical, means (Femia 1983, 346). Elites attempt
to secure consensus so that their rule would appear just and natural. The hegemonic group
represents a theoretical self- perception, a philosophy (Buckel and Fischer-Lescano
2009, 441). The state is no longer simple coercion, no longer the organized force of the
ruling class used to maintain its supremacy over subordinate groups (Fontana 2002, 168).
In media studies, hegemony refers to the ways in which the media influences
individuals minds to consent to status quo power structures. Gramsci believed the media
had a vital role in inculcating individuals to do things in their everyday lives that would
support the establishment. Even though there are some disagreements over the precise
nature of hegemony, it is widely perceived that emphasis is on the cultural and
ideological modes produced by the institutions dominated by ruling elites (Altheide
1984, 477). Media helps perpetuating an economically, culturally and ideologically
biased consciousness and all of society is thus effectively dominated by the false logic
and consciousness through the instrumentalist use of media (Altheide 1984, 477).
The Gramscian sense of hegemony refers to moral and intellectualdirection alone,
and hegemonic rule should not be confused with rule by coercion (Femia 1979, 482).
Hegemony is related to the mechanisms and processes by which knowledge and beliefs
are first, produced, and second, disseminated in order to maintain the rule of the elite by
gaining the consent of the masses (Fontana 2005, 98).
Hegemony is a permanent practice that concentrates on ideological struggles for
recognition, through which moral, political, and intellectual leadership is established
(Buckel and Fischer-Lescano 2009, 442). The ruling elite is able to clutter the minds of
the masses with mystifications and distortions (i.e., establish its hegemony) because it
controls this apparatus of transmission (Femia 1983, 348). From the hegemony theorys
perspective, culture is a site of continuous struggles that result in no final, once-and-for-
all victories and that cannot be reduced to economic determinations (Cupples et al 2007,
787).
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The processes of discursive contestation whereby particular ideological
formations dominate the public sphere that allows no room for alternative and competing
discourses and visions for society (Cupples et al 2007, 787). This domination is secured
by the ideological apparatuses of the state like schools, churches, or media that make
hegemony more acceptable (Mattei 2003, 5). The media also plays crucial roles in
bringing the overwhelming majority of citizenry into line and to marginalize the
dissenters through a campaign of vilification (Buttigieg 2005, 46)
Media has an important role in justifying the establishment rule by supporting its
claims to superiority, and in persuading the ruled to consent to the status quo. People who
formulate and disseminate ideas (such as journalists, priests, public relations companies,
politicians, advisers, and academics) are constantly engaged in interpreting current
events and debates so as to fit dominant conceptions and categories (not always
conspiratorially) (Harris 2007, 2101). Journalists can also unwittingly promote
hegemony by using hegemonys cultural categories and symbols as they do their work,
even though in most cases as part of the ruling elite, journalists employ these codes
consciously and strategically to promote dominant ideological interests (Chaney,
1981,117, cited in Altheide 1984, 478).
Turkish Modernization
The Ottoman Empire was a bureaucratic empire. The ruling class was strictly
controlled by the center. In parallel to that, while the empire was dissolving, the elites
who started to build a nation-state and modernize it were not of the bourgeoisie but of the
bureaucrats (Keyder 1993, 3). The modernization of the Ottoman Empire emerged with
the Westernization of the bureaucrats (Mardin 1973, 179). Thus, in Turkish political
culture an elitist aspect has always existed (Frey 1965, 43). As a natural result of this,
Turkish modernization has been mentioned together with Turkish intellectuals or elites.
After Tanzimat, with the replacement of the Ulema by the modernizing elites, the
reforms changed in form and quality, and a series of changes in a top -down process
affected the whole society. The Wests political, military and economic successes were
not recognized until the Ottoman Empire started to decline. Along with the military
defeats, the idea of implementing some reforms in the context of technology came into
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being. While discussing over the issue of Can the technology be imported without
importing the culture of the Western world?
The reforms carried out also revealed Ottoman Empires envy for the West in its
attempts to get modernized. The point that must be emphasized here is that,
modernization was carried out in a top-down fashion in Kautskys (1972) words by a
group of modernizers. The intellectuals and artists who in fact must have been analysts
owned a collective identity with a view to transform the society and they became
ideologues (Gle 2000). The Western powers could indirectly and to some extent
directly affect the Ottoman modernization through these people. Also, the debts of the
Empire were used as a tool in manipulating modernization movements.
The Noble Edict of the Rose Garden (Glhane Hatt- Hmayunu) in 1839 can be
seen as one of the most radical aspects of the modernization movements. Despite the fact
that its rhetoric is totally Islamic, the text has a completely secular character announced
by Mustafa Reit Pasha. Moreover, some Ottoman intellectuals in their novels at that
time, conserved the Islamic epistemology while also putting a passive role on modernity.
Another edict (Islahat Ferman) declared in 1859 brought the idea of nation -state into
the Empire despite the risk of Empires collapse.
Meanwhile, the new Ottomans with their publications released from Europe,
eclectically defended the ideas of democracy, parliamentarism, constitutionalism,
secularism and liberalism. New Ottomans who used Islam as a source of legitimacy
struggled to bring new themes and concepts to the Empire. For instance, Namk Kemal
tried to reach a consensus between Islam and parliamentarism by showing that
consultation (Meveret) in Islam is harmonious with parliamentarism. The Islamism
which was adopted by the new Ottomans had emerged in an ideological form as a resultof the interaction between the ideological thinking of the West and traditional values
(Trkne 1994, 25). Briefly, the new Ottomans aimed to reach a more modern, secular
and Western type of political system (Kara 1994, 62). In this context, it can be asserted
that even positivism had been introduced with the new Ottomans (Kker 1994, 222).
What the new Ottomans desired, happened in 1876 and a constitution (Kanun-i
Esasi) entered into force. However, this step was not seen sufficient and the elites in the
Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) got the control of political power through a
military coup in 1908. Thus, the political power of the bureaucracy and the elites had
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been established. The Young Turks and the CUP evidently declared that they had been
the inheritors of the new Ottomans in terms of modernization (Haniolu, 1985, 36).
The nationalist discourse as one of the effects of modernization was firstly
pronounced by the elites, Turkish nationalism was used against the nationalist attitudes of
minorities. The publications such as Turkish Association (Trk Dernei), Young Pens
(Gen Kalemler), Turkish Homeland (Trk Yurdu), Islam Magazine (slam Mecmuas)
tried to prove that nationalism had been the most rational one in Three Types of Policy
( Tarz- Siyaset) (Mardin 1992a, 275). Besides, the language was simplified, through
these simplification attempts with the help of social communication channels, the masses
were tried to make mobilized for modernization (Mardin 1992b, 143).
Consequently, the elites had strengthened their hands while drifting apart from
the society. For example, The Young Turks started to have feelings of hatred towards
the idea of populism and got engaged in elitist attitudes(Haniolu 1985, 613). It is
possible to assert that, most of the revolutions carried out in the early years of the
Republic including that of adopting the Latin alphabet and abolishing the Caliphate were
planned in this era. From this perspective, it can be understood that most of the
revolutions seen with the introduction of the Republican Regime do not constitute a
radical change. These reforms differ from the previous ones in the context of their ability
to exercise sanctions. Unlike the previous decades, in the Republican era the revolutions
were imposed to the masses in a top-down fashion. In Webers words the
bureaucratization of the political authority had started in as early as in 1908. From then
on, the impact of Islam on state was minimized and even folk Islam was controlled. The
Kemalist Republican elites passion for modernization, seen as an escape from
backwardness, translated itself into a total dislike and distrust of all things associated with
the ancient regime and the old way of life. Topping the long list of suspect establishments
were religion and religious institutions (Yilmaz 2005, 387).
The reform movements concerning the language were radicalized in the early
years of the new regime and with the introduction of the Latin alphabet, a total break
from the past was witnessed. In addition, with a new conception of history, a new secular
Turkish history was rewritten.
After the War of Independence, Westernization was seen as the second goal. The
positivist understanding inherited from the Young Turks was kept alive through the
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revolutions carried out by Kemalist elites. Apart from that solidarism paved the way for
the legitimization of the single-party rule (Kker 1994, 234, 235). Also, the people
appointed for the bureaucratic cadres were chosen from the enthusiastic people towards
modernity, because bureaucracy was seen as an important agent for change (Heper 1977,
70).
Kemalists did not want to rule Turkish society by means of traditions, and social
convictions and symbols and they preferred to create a new ideology and symbols which
would permit Turkey to progress rapidly into the twentieth century (Ahmad 1993, 56).
They were very clear in their minds about the pace of modernization: to reach the level
of contemporary European civilization, the Western way of life had to be espoused and
imported with all kind of its institutions including laws (Yilmaz 2002, 114). In parallel
with this, it was also obvious that the opposing elements for the new regime were treated
very harshly. The nationalist discourse which Kemalism has tried to establish opposed
liberalism and pluralism as well as neglecting the idea of civil society (Gle 1994, 130).
Even today, as Yilmaz (2009, 109) puts is succinctly,
There are both de jure and de facto constraints in the name of Kemalism
limiting a fully functioning democracy in Turkey. The 1982 constitution,
which was prepared after the Sept. 12, 1980 military coup, severely limits the
democratic power of parliament and elected government compared to
Western democracies. Until very recently, through the National Security
Council the military had direct influence on the government. A parallel
military court structure with even a Supreme Court of Appeals which has no
equivalent in the West makes even a black-letter civilian control of themilitary impossible It is also a fact that there have always been civilian
supporters of such a Kemalist autocracy among elite circles such as the
media, politics, business and even judiciary.
The institutions which produced this socio-political climate tried to transmit the messages
of the new regime to the public via education. To serve this aim, the press was used in an
effective way.
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Journalism in Imposing the Hegemonic Worldview and Educating the Masses
The mass communication as well as press and publishing have a firm relationship
with modernization and Westernization project in Turkey. Publishing, above all, is one of
the reform movements following the West; it is known that, publishing has been
employed in order to motivate other reforms. However, what is more important is that,
while the Republican elites were trying to carry out the social-engineering projects
through revolutions in the early years of modernization, they did not just enact laws, but
also used mass communication instruments as an efficient tool to make the modernization
project get a wide support among the masses.
In another sense, the Republican regime like any other regimes, from the verybeginning, got engaged in the legitimization of itself and adopting itself to the public.
Like any other regimes, it used the press as a tool to serve this aim (Kabacal 1987, 78).
The supreme interests of the State pulled the journalists to getting engaged in shortcuts,
and because of the notion of interest, the journalists turned into an identity of a civil
servant (Kongar 1986, 46). Besides, modernity had been defended, and a consensus had
been made about reaching the level of modern civilizations. Under the name of
Ottoman, the traditional had been discredited, and the Western culture had been put in
the foreground. The revolutions had been defended and the cultural metamorphosis of the
masses had been tried to be effectuated via the press. On the other hand, the antagonists
had been accused of being ignoble (Kabacal 1994, 151). Moreover, the antagonists
rights to have a voice in politics were quite limited until 1946.
The journalist-deputies had tried to legitimate the new regime and the political
power with their publications, while seeing the demand for a second political party as a
divisive behavior. (Gvenir 1991, 70, 74). In addition to that, it was evidently declaredthat a second political party would pave the way for reactionary trends. The period of
the Republican era until 1946 witnessed the steering of the press including that of
magazines too within the boundaries of the new regime. The starting point of this steering
came into being with the trials of the journalist referring to the Caliphate. With the
introduction of the Law of Maintenance ofOrder in 1925, the press in Istanbul was put
under strict control; the newspapers representing the Islamic stand or extreme left were
closed down. Some journalists were sent to exile, and all newspapers adopting liberal or
socialist positions were closed down.
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The magazines published between the years of 1923 and 1950 had the following sub-
titles:
- Praise to the regime and political authority
-Passion for modernity and technology
-Empowerment of women
-Popularization of upper culture (Oktay 1995, 58-62).
Those magazines tried to loosen the ties with the past by emphasizing the
superiority of the Western technology and by pushing the masses towards a radical
modernization. The issues such as the mandatory Greek classes, skating, employment lifeand factories, urbanism, nationalist ideology, gymnastics and television were all
undertaken by the members of the press (Topuz 1973, 137).
During the time of War of Independence, the press had played a major role too.
For example, Mustafa Kemal paved the way for the publication of National Will
(rade-i Milliye). This journal published in 1919 was used to make the decisions taken in
Sivas Congress gain a widespread audience. Moreover, the journal called New Day
(Yeni Gn) which was published by Yunus Nadi was one of the most important
publications that supported the War of Independence.
Besides, in most of the Anatolian provinces, national struggle was supported by
the press. In 1920, in order to inform the Turkish public and foreign public about the
process of national struggle, a news agency called Anatolian Agency was founded.
Even though Ankara became the capital city after 1923, Istanbul remained as the center
of the press. Mustafa Kemal in order to underline the key role of the press in the
modernization and Westernization process gave a speech to the journalists in 1924:
Turkish press should build an iron wall around the Turkish Republic as a
reflection of the nations real voice and will. A wall of ideas, a wall of mind
Our nation has a right to demand this from the members of the press. It is a
must for the whole nation to be in a sincere union and solidarism (Topuz
1973, 142).
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It was obvious that the modernization project was not welcomed by a majority of
the masses. Hence, one of the influential journalists of the time-beingHseyin Cahit
Yaln who was judged in the Independence Tribunals (stiklal Mahkemeleri), while
defending himself said that Am I not republican? Am I not secular? Am I not
progressive? Do I not favor democracy? How can you complain about me? (Kktener
2004, 68).
The new regime had wanted all the new publications to work with the aim to help
the modernization project. Also the opposing publications were repressed. After the
Sheikh Said Rebellion with the enactment of the law of Maintenance of Order, all theopposing press was hushed. A newspaper called Tomorrow which was favoring the
Free Republican Party was closed down.
The experience of the opposing press lasted as long as the life of the opposing
political parties at that time. With the press out of the way, on the advice of the
Independence Tribunal the government closed down the Progressive Republican Party on
3 June. According to the tribunal, members of the party had supported the rebellion and
tried to exploit religion for political purposes (Zurcher 2004, 172). All newspapers andperiodicals leaning towards the liberal or socialist opposition had been closed down in
1925 and from then on only the government-controlled newspapers appeared since the
adoption of a new press law that gave the government to close down any paper that
published anything contradicting the general policies of the country (Zurcher
2004,180).
Even though the press had acted in a monolithic way in supporting the
modernization project, some journalists revealed a heavier effort compared to others. For
instance, despite the existence of almost the whole press support for Mustafa Kemal, the
role of the newspaper called Republic (Cumhuriyet) had been a distinguished one.
(Kktener 2004, 70). That newspaper tried to support each single new law and social
change ((Kktener 2004, 69). For instance, when the reform of the alphabet was
experienced, the newspaper published an article called The New Writing on the very
first page and it was emphasized that the adoption of the Latin Alphabet had been the
main step towards Westernization ((Kktener 2004, 70). It must be known that with thisreform Turkey will completely resemble to Europe holding the key of civilization.
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(Kavakl 2005, 65)Another newspaper called The Evening which was first published
in 1918, in its first volume with the new alphabet declared that with this the reform of the
alphabet; the country would get rid of ignorance (Kavakl 2005, 51).
It was easily seen that the newspaper called The Evening played a key role in
making the masees adopt the revolutions and Kemalist principles (Kavakl 2005, 51). The
publishing policy of the newspaper was to educate the masses in the light of Western
values and to help the new regime transform the masses in line with Kemalist principles.
The radical reform movements carried out in the fields of art, education and economics
were placed in the first pages of the newspaper (Kavakl 2005, 51). As noted, this
newspaper had adopted a publishing policy that served the interests of modernization
project enthusiastically (Kavakl 2005, 68). The newspaper that supported the social
change had revealed progressive attitudes by gently focusing on cultural and artistic
issues(avdar 1995, 302).
In the 1930s, radio broadcasting started as a state-run enterprise and was
mandated to define and promote a common and collective agenda for modernization
(Oncu 1995, 55). The radio was used as an instrument of indoctrination (Alanku-Kural
1995, 105-106). It acted to reinforce unified understandings and experiences across the
nation that could easily be formed and manipulated by those transmitting the messages
(Wuthrich 2010, 221).
In 1931, the journal called The Cadre was published to legitimize the new
regime. The Cadre explained the purpose of itself in the following words: In this
mysterious process that the world is going through, to keep the revolutions alive and
strong is our first duty. The Cadre is alive for this reason (Er 2003, 91).
The first press law enacted in 1931 put a heavy pressure on the press. The legal
amendments made in 1938, besides censorship brought limitations for the people working
in the press. According to the press law, the publications could be abolished any time the
council of ministers wanted (Topuz 1973, 152). In this new environment, the state
declared what it wanted the press to do in many times: It wanted the press to serve the
modernization project (Er 2003, 75). (See also Topuz 2003, 113). With a circular sent to
all of the members of the press, the press was declared as the vehicle of the social
engineering process:
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The press constitutes the main pillar of the cultural revolutions. The president
called the whole Turkish people for a cultural campaign. He declared that
they could make the national culture stand in the same level with Western
civilizations. The press of Turkey would play a major role in this process
(skit 1939, 224).
When the Turkish Press Congress was held in 1935, 116 newspapers and 127
magazines were being published. However, all of these publications were to defend the
discourse of the top-down modernization process. The opposing elements in the press
were not given any right to survive despite being modern and Western oriented.
According to the press congress, the newspapers were defined as follows:
a. The most powerful tool of propaganda in making the revolutions to gain a widespreadsupport among the public.
b. A tool of defense against reactionary attitudes.c. A servant for the incumbent governments.d. The most effective school in the political, economic and cultural education of the
masses (nuur 1992, 108).
During the Second World War, some kind of front line similar to that seen in the
national struggle was witnessed. Some newspapers were defending democracy whereas
some others were on the side of Germany. In 1945, some newspapers that had a leftist
tendency were abolished. Contemporary scholars argue that this had been an operation of
the deep state.
Conclusion
The question of hegemony is also a question of new cultural order (Hall 1988,
145). It also focuses on the question ofwhoseversion of reality is being universalized
and which alternatives are rendered unthinkable (Sim 2004, 7). In this sense, in the
Kemalist westernization project, which is a top-down hegemonic socio-cultural
transformation process, the Kemalist bureaucratic elite that gained the upper hand after
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1923 espoused the view that modernization and progress consisted mainly of the
cultural transformation of society. They firmly believed that European-style civilization
was the pinnacle of progress, and they hurried to adopt the symbols of the European
civilization (Karpat 2004, 228).
Kemalists, as the main successors of Jacobinist and positivist Young Turks, firmly
believed that socio-cultural change must be imposed from the top and should be directed
towards altering the traditional institutions, organizations, and, especially, culture, as
these were regarded as the chief hindrance to progress (Karpat 2004, 217). Kemalists
aimed at creating a nationalist Turkish culture to replace the Islamic culture which the
reformers sought to sweep away (Karpat 2004, 219).
The Kemalists viewed themselves as the educator of the masses and established a
political tutelage regime designated to educate the masses in the rudiments of modern
politics (Karpat 2004, 227). This was some kind of a vulgar process of intellectual
civilizing (Landy 2008, 129). The realization of this social engineering process was
considered possible only through intellectual conversion (Karpat 2004, 229). Kemalists
wanted radical change first, and democracy only after Turks had come to realize, through
Kemalist leadership and education, their true role as patriotic citizens (Dodd 1992: 18).
Both the press and the educational institutions were mobilized to implement this project
(Zurcher 2004, 181).
The press in the early Republican period was used as a socio-political
manipulation tool of mass communication. The press had consistently supported the new
regime and Western-oriented policies. The journalists reflected the Jacobin and elitist
spirit of modernization in their articles and columns. They acted in a monolithic way and
gave no permission and column to the opposition. Plurality and freedom of press werethe two missing links that characterize this era.
Another dimension of the media hegemony is that the media frames a negative
image of other countries, civilizations, cultures, traditions and religions (cf. Schlesinger,
1978; Beharrell et al., 1976, Gitlin, 1980; Dahlgren, 1982). In the early Republican
Turkish case, this was done with regard to the Middle Eastern societies, Muslim cultures,
practicing Muslims, Muslim religious functionaries, Sufi brotherhoods, and several
public manifestations of Islam which were considered anathema to the Kemalist
modernization project. Put it differently, they were made the constitutive other of the
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Kemalist modernization project. In most cases, rather than challenging these directly, the
Kemalists made use of an empty signifier: the notion of reactionarism (irtica). Kemalist
discourse takes the meaning of reactionism as opposition to the existing secular system,
but it refers to a social order built on Islamic values, norms and principles (Dursun 2006,
174). What is more, it has become a signifier for the irrational dimensions of Islam
(Dursun 2006, 174).
On the other hand, with the victory of United States after the Second World War,
the wave of democratization came to Turkey and made it adopt a multi-party system.
With the introduction of the democratic political life, the Turkish press and press elites
had to transform themselves (for this pseudo-transformation see now Ozden and Yilmaz
2010). Yet, it is hard to say that this transformation process has ended and the Kemalist
hegemony as far as the Turkish media is concerned evaporated.
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