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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2014, 5(3)

Copyright © 2010 - THE TURKISH ONLINE JOURNAL OF QUALITATIVE INQUIRY

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Published in TURKEY

Contact Address:Assoc.Prof.Dr. Abdullah KUZUTOJQI, Editor in ChiefEskişehir-Turkey


ISSN 1309-6591

Editor-in-Chief

Abdullah Kuzu, Anadolu University, Turkey

Associate Editors

Işıl KabakçıAnadolu University, Turkey

Yavuz AkbulutAnadolu University, Turkey

Editorial Board

Adile Aşkım KurtAnadolu University, Turkey

Cindy G. JardineUniversity of Alberta, Canada

Franz BreuerWestfälische Wilhems-Universität Münster, Germany

Jean McNiffYork St John University, United Kingdom

Ken ZeichnerUniversity of Washington, USA

Lynne SchrumGeorge Mason University, USA

Wolff-Michael RothUniversity of Victoria, Canada


Advisory Board

Abdullah Kuzu, Anadolu University, TurkeyAdile Aşkım Kurt, Anadolu University, TurkeyAhmet Saban, Necmettin Erbakan University, TurkeyAli Rıza Akdeniz, Rize University, TurkeyAli Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, TurkeyAngela Creese, University of Birmingham, United KingdomAngela K. Salmon, Florida International University, USAAntoinette McCallin, Auckland University of Technology, New ZealandArif Altun, Hacettepe University, TurkeyAsker Kartarı, Kadir Has University, TurkeyAytekin İşman, Sakarya University, TurkeyBenedicte Brøgger, The Norwegian School of Management BI, NorwayBronwyn Davies, University of Melbourne, AustraliaBuket Akkoyunlu, Hacettepe University, TurkeyCem Çuhadar, Trakya University, TurkeyCemalettin İpek, Rize University, TurkeyCesar Antonio Cisneros Puebla, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, MexicoCindy G. Jardine, University of Alberta, CanadaClaudia Figueiredo, Institute for Learning Innovation, USADurmuş Ekiz, Karadeniz Technical University, TurkeyElif Kuş Saillard, Ankara University, TurkeyFahriye Altınay Aksal, Near East University, TRNCFawn Winterwood, The Ohio State University, USAFerhan Odabaşı, Anadolu University, TurkeyFranz Breuer, Westfälische Wilhems-Universität Münster, GermanyGina Higginbottom, University of Alberta, CanadaGönül Kırcaali İftar, Professor Emerita, TurkeyGülsün Eby, Anadolu University, Turkey Hafize Keser, Ankara University, TurkeyHalil İbrahim Yalın, Gazi University, TurkeyHasan Şimşek, Bahçeşehir University, TurkeyIşıl Kabakçı, Anadolu University, Turkeyİlknur Kelçeoğlu, Indiana University & Purdue University, USAJacinta Agbarachi Opara, Federal College of Education, NigeriaJean McNiff, York St John University, United KingdomJosé Fernando Galindo, Universidad Mayor de San Simón, BoliviaKen Zeichner, University of Washington, USALynne Schrum, West Virginia University, USAMustafa Caner, Akdeniz University, TurkeyMustafa Yunus Eryaman, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, TurkeyNedim Alev, Karadeniz Technical University, TurkeyNigel Fielding, University of Surrey, United KingdomNihat Gürel Kahveci, Istanbul University, TurkeyPetek Aşkar, TED University, TurkeyPranee Liamputtong, La Trobe University, AustraliaRichard Kretschmer, University of Cincinnati, USARoberta Truax, Professor Emerita, USASelma Vonderwell, Cleveland State University, USA


Serap Cavkaytar, Anadolu University, TurkeyServet Bayram, Marmara University, TurkeySevgi Küçüker, Pamukkale University, TurkeyShalva Weil, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, IsraelSoner Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, TurkeySuzan Duygu Erişti, Anadolu University, TurkeyUdo Kelle, Philipps-Universität Marburg, GermanyÜmit Girgin, Anadolu University, TurkeyWolff-Michael Roth, University of Victoria, CanadaYang Changyong, Sauthwest China Normal University, ChinaYavuz Akbulut, Anadolu University, TurkeyYavuz Akpınar, Boğaziçi University, TurkeyZehra Altınay Gazi, Near East University, TRNC

Executive Review Board

Abdullah Adıgüzel, Harran University, Turkey Abdullah Kuzu, Anadolu University, TurkeyAdeviye Tuba Tuncer, Gazi University, Turkey Adile Aşkım Kurt, Anadolu University, TurkeyAhmet Naci Çoklar, Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey Ahmet Saban, Necmettin Erbakan University, TurkeyAli Rıza Akdeniz, Rize University, TurkeyAli Ersoy, Anadolu University, TurkeyAli Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, TurkeyAngela Creese, University of Birmingham, United KingdomAngela K. Salmon, Florida International University, USAAntoinette McCallin, Auckland University of Technology, New ZealandArif Altun, Hacettepe University, TurkeyArda Arıkan, Antalya University, TurkeyAsker Kartarı, Kadir Has University, TurkeyAytekin İşman, Sakarya University, TurkeyAytaç Kurtuluş, Osmangazi University, TurkeyBahadır Erişti, Anadolu University, TurkeyBahar Gün, İzmir Ekonomi University, TurkeyBelgin Aydın, Anadolu University, TurkeyBenedicte Brøgger, The Norwegian School of Management BI, NorwayBronwyn Davies, University of Melbourne, AustraliaBuket Akkoyunlu, Hacettepe University, TurkeyCem Çuhadar, Trakya University, TurkeyCemalettin İpek, Rize University, TurkeyCesar Antonio Cisneros Puebla, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, MexicoCindy G. Jardine, University of Alberta, CanadaClaudia Figueiredo, Institute for Learning Innovation, USADilek Tanışlı, Anadolu University, TurkeyDurmuş Ekiz, Karadeniz Technical University, TurkeyElif Kuş Saillard, Ankara University, TurkeyEmine Sema Batu, Anadolu University, Turkey


Eren Kesim, Anadolu University, TurkeyEsra Şişman, Osmangazi University, TurkeyFahriye Altınay Aksal, Near East University, TRNCFawn Winterwood, The Ohio State University, USAFerhan Odabaşı, Anadolu University, TurkeyFigen Ünal, Anadolu University, TurkeyFigen Uysal, Bilecik University, Turkey Franz Breuer, Westfälische Wilhems-Universität Münster, GermanyGina Higginbottom, University of Alberta, CanadaGonca Subaşı, Anadolu University, Turkey Gönül Kırcaali İftar, Professor Emerita, TurkeyGülsün Eby, Anadolu University, TurkeyHafize Keser, Ankara University, TurkeyHalil İbrahim Yalın, Gazi University, TurkeyHandan Deveci, Anadolu University, Turkey Hasan Şimşek, Bahçeşehir University, TurkeyHüseyin Kafes, Antalya University, TurkeyIşıl Kabakçı, Anadolu University, Turkeyİlknur Kelçeoğlu, Indiana University & Purdue University, USAJacinta Agbarachi Opara, Federal College of Education, NigeriaJale Balaban, Anadolu University, TurkeyJean McNiff, York St John University, United KingdomJosé Fernando Galindo, Universidad Mayor de San Simón, BoliviaKen Zeichner, University of Washington, USAKerem Kılıçer, Gaziosmanpaşa University, Turkey Lynne Schrum, West Virginia University, USAMehmet Can Şahin, Çukurova University, TurkeyMehmet Kahraman, Afyon Kocatepe University, TurkeyMeltem Huri Baturay, Gazi University, Turkey Mehmet Fırat, Anadolu University, Turkey Meral Ören Çevikalp, Anadolu University, Turkey Meral Güven, Anadolu University, Turkey Mine Dikdere, Anadolu University, TurkeyMustafa Caner, Akdeniz University, TurkeyMustafa Nuri Ural, Gümüşhane University, TurkeyMustafa Yunus Eryaman, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, TurkeyMüyesser Ceylan, Anadolu University, TurkeyNedim Alev, Karadeniz Technical University, TurkeyNigel Fielding, University of Surrey, United KingdomNihat Gürel Kahveci, Istanbul University, TurkeyNilgün Özdamar Keskin, Anadolu University, TurkeyNilüfer Köse, Anadolu University, TurkeyOsman Dülger, Bingöl University, Turkey Ömer Uysal, Anadolu University, TurkeyÖzcan Özgür Dursun, Anadolu University, TurkeyPelin Yalçınoğlu, Anadolu University, TurkeyPetek Aşkar, TED University, TurkeyPranee Liamputtong, La Trobe University, AustraliaRichard Kretschmer, University of Cincinnati, USARoberta Truax, Professor Emerita, USA


Selma Vonderwell, Cleveland State University, USASema Ünlüer, Anadolu University, Turkey Semahat Işıl Açıkalın, Anadolu University, TurkeySerap Cavkaytar, Anadolu University, TurkeySerkan Çankaya, Balıkesir University, TurkeySerkan İzmirli, Çanakkale 18 Mart University, TurkeyServet Bayram, Marmara University, TurkeyServet Çelik, Karadeniz Technical University, TurkeySevgi Küçüker, Pamukkale University, TurkeySezgi Saraç, Antalya University, TurkeySezgin Vuran, Anadolu University, TurkeyShalva Weil, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, IsraelSoner Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, TurkeySuzan Duygu Erişti, Anadolu University, TurkeyŞemseddin Gündüz, Necmettin Erbakan University, TurkeyTuba Yüzügüllü Ada, Anadolu University, TurkeyUdo Kelle, Philipps-Universität Marburg, GermanyÜmit Girgin, Anadolu University, TurkeyWolff-Michael Roth, University of Victoria, CanadaYang Changyong, Sauthwest China Normal University, ChinaYavuz Akbulut, Anadolu University, TurkeyYavuz Akpınar, Boğaziçi University, TurkeyYusuf Levent Şahin, Anadolu University, TurkeyZehra Altınay Gazi, Near East University, TRNC Zülal Balpınar, Anadolu University, Turkey

Language Reviewers

Mehmet Duranlıoğlu, Anadolu University, TurkeyMustafa Caner, Akdeniz University, Turkey

Administrative & Technical Staff

Elif Buğra Kuzu, Anadolu University, TurkeySerkan Çankaya, Balıkesir University, Turkey

The Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry (TOJQI) (ISSN 1309-6591) is published quarterly (January, April, July and October) a year at the www.tojqi.net.

For all enquiries regarding the TOJQI, please contact Assoc.Prof. Abdullah KUZU, Editor-In-Chief, TOJQI, Anadolu University, Faculty of Education, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology, Yunus Emre Campus, 26470, Eskisehir, TURKEY, Phone #:+90-222-3350580/3519, Fax # :+90-222-3350573, E-mail : [email protected]; [email protected].

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]


Table of Contents

Undergraduate Students' Experiences in Programming: Difficulties and ObstaclesBüşra Özmen Arif Altun

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The Effects of Study Abroad on Second Language Identities and Language LearningTomoka Sato

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Pre-Service Language Teachers’ Reflections on the Implementation of a Blended-Learning EnvironmentHatice Müge Satar Sumru Akcan

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Mason’un Bilişim Etiği Boyutları Altında Vikipedi’nin İncelenmesiŞenay Ozan Adile Aşkım Kurt Hatice Ferhan Odabaşı

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Undergraduate Students' Experiences in Programming: Difficulties and Obstacles

Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Programlama Deneyimleri: Güçlükler ve Engeller

Büşra ÖzmenHacettepe University, Turkey

[email protected]

Arif AltunHacettepe University,

[email protected]

AbstractProgramming courses become prominent as one of the courses in which undergraduate students are unsuccessful especially in departments which offer computer education. Students often state that these courses are quite difficult compared to other courses. Therefore, a qualitative phenomenological approach was used to reveal the reasons of the failures of the undergraduate students in programming courses and to examine the difficulties they confronted with programming. In this scope, the laboratory practices of the Internet Programming course were observed in fall term of the 2013-2014 academic year in a university at central Anatolia. Interviews were made with 12 undergraduate students taking this course. Finally, the difficulties students experienced in the programming were determined as programming knowledge, programming skills, understanding semantics of the program, and debugging. Students emphasized that the biggest causes of failure in programming languages are lack of practice, not using algorithms and lack of knowledge. In addition, it was seen that the students who had high programming experience possess higher programming success and self-efficacy related to programming.

Keywords: Programming; programming language; programming experience.

ÖzProgramlama dersleri, özellikle bilgisayar eğitimi veren bölümlerde üniversite öğrencilerinin en başarısız olduğu derslerden biri olarak öne çıkmaktadır. Öğrenciler bu dersleri diğer derslere oranla oldukça zor bulduklarını ifade etmektedirler. Bu doğrultuda, üniversite öğrencilerinin programlama derslerindeki başarısızlıklarının nedenlerini ortaya koymak ve programlama sürecinde yaşadıkları zorlukları incelemek amacıyla nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden biri olan fenomenoloji yaklaşımı kullanılmıştır. Bu kapsamda, 2013-2014 yılı güz döneminde Türkiye’de bir devlet üniversitesinde İnternet Tabanlı Programlama dersinin laboratuvar etkinlikleri gözlemlenmiş ve bu derse devam eden 12 öğrenci ile görüşme yapılmıştır. Sonuç olarak, öğrencilerin programlama sürecinde yaşadıkları zorluklar programlama bilgisi, programlama becerisi, programın mantığını kavrama ve hata ayıklama olarak belirlenmiştir. Öğrenciler, programlamadaki başarısızlıklarının en büyük nedenlerini pratik eksikliği, algoritma oluşturmama ve bilgi eksikliği olduğunu vurgulamışlardır. Ek olarak,

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programlama deneyimi yüksek olan öğrencilerin programlama başarılarının ve programlamaya ilişkin öz yeterlilik algılarının yüksek olduğu görülmüştür.

Anahtar Sözcükler: Programlama; programlama dili; programlama deneyimi.

Inroduction

In the age of information rapid changes in technology and knowledge-based economy increase the demand for people graduated from computer-related departments such as computer science, engineering and communication technology. This situation requires creation of effective learning opportunities to prepare the students who study in above-mentioned departments for the ever-changing technological environment. It was required that educators face the challenges in this process in order to train students well in terms of advanced technology and twenty-first century competencies (Law, Lee & Yu, 2010). In these popular departments, programming is one of the basic skills which are necessary to be given to the students.

Programming is one of the basic competencies that students should have in many departments such as in engineering, in computer education and instructional technologies, and in computer science. According to Lau and Yuen (2011), although programming has lost its popularity with the emergence of social networking tools, it is one of the important dimensions of the technology literacy, which is underestimated in formal schooling just as reading skill is emphasized mostly whereas writing skill is ignored in most of these institutions (Akpınar & Altun, 2014).

Programming skill has been described as an important instrument in developing higher-order thinking skills of the individual (Papert, 1991 as cited in Fessakis, Gouli & Mavrodi, 2013). It has an important role especially in developing problem solving skills (see, Ambrosio et al., 2011; Bergersen & Gustafsson, 2011) at all education levels and therefore attracting the attention of the researchers (Fessakis, Gouli & Mavrodi, 2013). In addition, programming tools are considered as powerful tools with which students can solve problems by editing, analyzing, evaluating and explaining their thoughts clearly (diSessa & Abelson, 1986). In the literature, it has been a quite established agreement that computer programming makes positive effects on students’ cognitive development (Crescenzi et al., 2012; Utting et al., 2010; Clements & Sarama, 2003).

There are many factors affecting the programming success. Recently, there has been a trend related to the discovery of the predictors of programming skills and the cause of the failure in programming courses (Ferrer-Mico, Fernandez & Sanchez, 2012; Hwang et al., 2012; Shaw, 2012; Lau & Yuen, 2011; Lau & Yuen, 2009; Sivasakthi & Rajendran, 2011; Hawi, 2010; Jegede, 2009). Studies on this issue show that programming success is affected by factors such as gender (Yurdugül & Aşkar, 2013; Sullivan & Bers, 2012; Lau & Yuen, 2011), programming experience (Bergersen & Gustafsson, 2011; Lau & Yuen, 2011; Jegede, 2009), academic achievement and mathematic performance (Lau & Yuen, 2009; Ambrosio et al., 2011), self-efficacy (Jegede, 2009; Altun & Mazman, 2012) and problem solving skills (Yurdugül & Aşkar, 2013; Fessakis, Gouli & Mavroudi, 2013). Therefore, investigation of factors affecting success in programming courses can increase in student success in these courses which is mandatory and is mostly perceived as difficult.

Learning a programming language is a difficult process that requires quite a long time. Especially undergraduate programming courses are perceived as difficult by students who have basic programming knowledge because it often requires higher-order thinking

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skills (Tan, Ting & Ling, 2009). Studies indicate that the majority of students have difficulties in learning programming languages (Ambrosio et al., 2011; Hawi, 2010; Aşkar & Davenport, 2009). This situation has resulted in failure in programming courses (Robins, Rountree & Rountree, 2003). Students’ repeated failure experience has led to a loss of excitement and interest especially towards learning programming language (Law, Lee & Yu, 2010). This situation has led researchers to study on increasing the programming success and to develop different methods in this regard. Jiau, Chen and Su (2009) have developed materials related to concretization of programming education. Rajala et al. (2008) have prepared a program visualization tool (VILLE) by using Java. Arabacıoğlu, Bülbül and Filiz (2007) have designed an application language for teaching and turning programming logic into concrete display. Similarly, Mannila et al. (2006) have focused on the teaching of programming languages with Python.

Programming language course is still one of the most difficult courses that students fail. Although there are various demands revealed in the literature for learners to master in programming, most of the studies were conducted with computer science students in mind. In cases where computer teachers are trained for lower grades, there is a need to explore the challenges teacher trainees experience during this process. Therefore, in this study, it was aimed to reveal the reasons of the failures of the undergraduate students in programming courses at the college of education and to investigate the views about problems that they confronted with in programming.

Method

This study was designed as a phenomenological research, which aims to reveal individuals’ perceptions of experiences about a phenomenon. In phenomenological research, researchers focus on a topic which they are actually aware of but about which they do not have deep knowledge (Creswell, 2007; Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011). Hence, in this study it has been attempted to determine the reasons of failure of undergraduate students in programming courses and the difficulties they encounter.

Study group

In determining the study group, criterion-based sampling was selected from the purposeful sampling methods. According to Patton (1990), criterion-based sampling gives the possibility to obtain a wealth of information by examining the topics studied deeply. In this way, it provides great benefits to reveal lots of events and phenomenon, and their explanations. In criterion-based sampling, the study group is formed by choosing the ones that meet the determined criteria by researchers (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011). Study group consisted of undergraduate students taking the Internet Programming course at the department of Computer Education and Instructional Technologies (CEIT) program in a university at central Anatolia in 2013-2014 fall term. High-level expression skills and the desire to participate voluntarily were taken to into consideration while selecting the study group. Interviews were conducted with 12 students. Demographic information regarding the participants was given in Table 1.

Seven students who participated in the working group are women and five of them are men. A large proportion of these students (N=9) has graduated from vocational high schools. Achievements scores in Programming I and Programming II courses which students took in their prior terms and Internet Programming course were taken for

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granted in describing their programming success. Information on programming experience of the students was taken from the answers given to the question “What was your previous programming experience?”

Table 1Participant Information

Student Gender

Type of graduated high school

Programmingexperience

Programmingsuccess

S1 Female Vocational Low HighS2 Female Vocational High HighS3 Female Vocational Low LowS4 Female General Low MediumS5 Female Vocational Low MediumS6 Male Vocational High HighS7 Female Vocational Low LowS8 Male Vocational Low MediumS9 Male Technical High HighS10 Male Technical High LowS11 Female Vocational Low MediumS12 Male Vocational High Medium

Data Collection Tools

The laboratory meetings during the Internet Programming course were observed for two weeks by one of the authors. In the first week, two observations were made for two and a half hours. Similarly the second week, two observations were made for three hours. The activities conducted in this course, the level of students’ engagement in these activities and students' willingness to write a program were examined. Non-structured observation was used in this study. Observations were carried out in a laboratory. In the observation process the researcher made non-participant observation. The observer does not interfere with the process of observation in this type of observation (Glesne, 2013). Field notes from each observation were made by the researcher and were used to supplement the information collected in the interviews. All of the observations were recorded in video format. The data, collected in the observation, may be used as the data source that provides contribution and additional information to forming the study in detail (Glesne, 2013; Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011). With the observations made in the study, it was decided on sub-objectives of the study, the study group and the place of the study. In this direction it has been decided to interview with the students regarding to their difficulties in programming.

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The interviews were conducted as semi-structured and were individual interviews, based on an interview guide and comprising a series of open-ended questions. Each interview lastedapproximately 15-20 min and all of them were made in the study room of the CEIT department by first author. There were eight questions in the form. The questions asked in the interview included guiding questions that students have followed in the programming, the practices they have made in the programming course and the difficulties they had confronted in this process, the effect of previous programming experience, the perception of self-efficacy related to their programming skill and wish of spending additional time for programming. The questions were designed to encourage students to give detailed information in order to ensure an effective interview. It was paid a special attention not to give a directive guidance during the interviews. All interviews were recorded on a tape recorder to be transcribed afterwards.

Data Analysis

The data attained in the study were analyzed through content analysis, which aims at bringing similar data together under certain concepts and themes. In this direction, the data are conceptualized initially, and then the concepts are arranged systematically and finally the data analyzing process is terminated with the themes formed (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011).

Before data analysis, all recorded data were transcribed by the researcher. The analysis was processed through qualitative data analysis software (NVivo8), which allowed coding the data obtained as a whole and taking fertile visual output at the end of the analysis. The students' statements were transcribed without any changes. Within the scope of data analysis, transcripts were initially read carefully. Then, the coding process was started and various free node lists were created. After these lists were investigated in a detail, the tree nodes were systematically grouped and categorized in a manner that is consistent within itself. At the next step, they were collected in a common tree node. In this process, it was given importance to making the most appropriate meaningful loadings to the main codes and the sub-codes relating to each main code formed. Finally, data analysis was completed once the themes had been created. Obtained codes and their frequencies were presented in tables. In addition, it is also included that the models which including the links to with a top theme of the loadings have made.

Triangulation of data collection tools increases validity by reducing bias in qualitative research (Creswell, 2008). In this study, triangulation of data is maintained by both taking students' views about the difficulties in programming process, interview data and making observations during laboratory practices. To ensure inter-rater reliability, the data was first coded and the themes created by the first author. Then, these themes and randomly selected sample statements related to themes were given two experts who have taken a course in qualitative research methods. Later, they were asked to code the documents according to the themes. A percentage agreement between two experts’ reports was calculated as 81%.

Findings

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The findings will be presented under the themes emerged from the analysis: difficulties encountered in programming, the reasons of failures in programming, self-efficacy for programming, and steps followed in programming. These themes will first be explained as how they showed patterns, and then, will be provided samples from the data. Table 2 shows the corresponding qualifications across the themes.

Difficulties encountered in programming

Students’ views regarding the difficulties they faced in programming were gathered under four sub-themes which were named as “understanding semantics of the program”, “debugging”, “programming skills”, and “programming knowledge”. Model of current theme and its subthemes were given in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Difficulties Encountered in Programming

Table 2 shows the corresponding qualifications across the difficulties encountered in programming theme.

Table 2Qualifications Across the Difficulties Encountered in Programming Theme

Difficulties encountered in programming

Expanded descriptions

Programming knowledge About difficulties related to lack of knowledge Functions and parameters

About difficulties confronted with in remembering the functions and their parameters in programming

Concepts, principles About difficulties confronted with in knowing concepts, principles or certain facts related to programming language

Assigning variable About difficulties confronted with in determining the

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variables to be used in the program and assigning them Decision structures and loops

About difficulties confronted with in making decisions related to that which decision structures and loops will be used

Syntax About difficulties confronted with in knowing and remembering the syntax while writing a program

Understanding semantics of the program

About difficulties confronted with understanding the semantics when writing a program code

Debugging About difficulties confronted with in debugging errors in writing program codes which have been written earlier and he/she wrote

Programming skills About difficulties confronted with in determining strategy to be followed while reviewing his/her programming knowledge and designing solutions to problem

It was observed that students put their emphasis the most on programming knowledge when describing the difficulties the experienced in programming. When the data within this theme were examined in a more detailed way, it was observed that “syntax” is the topic expressed mostly, and “concepts or principles”, “functions and parameters”, “assigning variables” and “decision structures and loops” are other topics. Frequencies of codes gotten from analysis of students’ responses related to the difficulties during programming were given in Table 3.

Table 3Codes Related to the Difficulties Confronted with and Frequencies

Codes fProgramming knowledge 12

Syntax 9Functions and parameters 7Concepts, principles 6Assigning variable 3Decision structures and loops 2

Understanding the semantics of the program

8

Debugging 8Programming skills 7

Almost all of the students experience problems in programming knowledge, and as a result of this, they have difficulty in syntax. In addition, it was found that most of the students have trouble in the topics of understanding semantics of the, debugging and programming skills. Understanding semantics of the program, on the other hand, is different from procedural knowledge. In the procedural knowledge, students can explain the necessary steps when transforming the programming knowledge. However, in this situation it is intended to describe their actual performance where they fail to accomplish this regardless of their existent procedural knowledge. Programming skills theme refers to students’ ability to designing solutions to problems in programming and to determining strategy to be followed while reviewing his/her programming knowledge. Concepts or

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principles theme refers to declarative knowledge of concepts, principles or certain facts related to the programming language. The following statements portray this issue well:

S7: “I cannot keep codes in my mind. I grasp the logic and I say to myself that I will do it here. I can make the sequence, but I cannot write codes after memorizing them. I have to perpetually look at somewhere to write.” (Programming knowledge- -concepts, principles)

S1: “I read the problem. If I think that there are functions I don’t know, I experience difficulties and I see it as a difficult problem” (Programming knowledge - functions and parameters)

S4: “I cannot remember string functions. I cannot memorize function of counting number of lines.” (Programming knowledge – functions and parameters)

S1: “I haven’t learnt defining array variables. I couldn’t understand how to do it. Because I don’t understand it alone although I searched the Internet, I have troubles in that topic now.” (Programming knowledge – assigning variable)

S3: “May be making loops. It is loop topic. It is boring to put an operation into a loop and to make it continuous. There are a start and an end but it is quite difficult to build something.” (Programming knowledge – decision structures and loops)

S5: “Problems are mostly related to syntax. … It becomes either when I don’t use a sign or when usage is incorrect. It becomes when I don’t use the word which imply it correctly.” (Programming knowledge - syntax)

S6: “Punctuation marks cause problems. I forget their place.” (Programming knowledge -syntax)

S4: “Even if I understand, I can’t transform algorithm to codes after forming algorithm. I can write algorithm, but then I cannot continue after that.” (Programming skills)

S5: “I experience confusion about that I will delete it after I read one line or after I read all lines. In other words, I don’t guess exactly which way I should follow.” (Programming skills)

S6: “I don’t realize immediately because error sometimes might not be at the current line. Sometimes, error might be at the first couple of lines. It makes following lines and current line wrong. I look at the current line to find the problem, but it is at other lines. It might be difficult to find it.” (Debugging)

S7: “I can find my mistakes, but I cannot find bugs when it doesn’t say ‘There is an error here’ at the lines where I am certain that they are correct.” (Debugging)

S4: “It takes a quite long time to try to understand the program as a first step.” (Understanding semantics of the program)

S1: “I don’t know the solution now and I can’t imagine what functions I could use”. (Understanding semantics of the program)

Reasons of students’ failures in programming

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Reasons of students’ failures in programming were gathered under three themes which are “problems in programming process”, “personal problems” and “problems in class activities”. Figure 2 displays the model of current theme and its subthemes.

When the patterns within the theme of problems in the programming process were examined, the following sub-themes were observed: “not making repetition”, “code editor’s remark on errors”, “lack of knowledge”, “not writing algorithm” and “benefiting from available codes”; Similarly, “not liking programming or department”, “anxiety”, “prejudice” and “inattention” were the other observed themes. The problems in class activities included patterns in “studying many topics in a short time”, “insufficiency of time allocated for application” and “instruction of topics not with a step-by -step method”.

Figure 2. Reasons of Failures in Programming

Table 4 shows the corresponding qualifications across the reasons of failures in programming theme.

Table 4Qualifications Across the Failures in Programming Theme

Reasons of failures in programming


Problems in the programming process

About reasons of students’ failures in programming process

Code editor’s remark on errors

About code editor’s remark on errors

Not making repetition About lack of practice in programmingLack of knowledge About lack of knowledge about topics in

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Reasons of failures in programming


programming Not writing algorithm About not writing an algorithm before writing the

programBenefiting from available codes

About using codes written by another person in advance

Personal problems About reasons of failures related to individual experiences

Anxiety About anxiety of being unsuccessful in programming Not liking programming or the department

About not liking programming or attending (being a student at) the department in general

Prejudice against programming

About prejudicing against writing a working program

Inattention About being inattentive while writing a program.Problems in class activities About reasons of failures confronted with in class

activities Insufficiency of time allocated for application

About giving lots of information on theoretical knowledge in class activities

Studying many topics in a short time

About not giving enough time on each topic in class activities

Instruction of topics without following a step-by -step method

About not giving topics step by step in class activities

Frequencies of codes related to students’ failures in programming course and their frequencies were given in Table 5.

Table 5Codes Related to Students’ Failures in Programming Course and Frequencies

Codes fProblems in programming process 12

Code editor’s remark on errors 11Not making repetition 8Lack of knowledge 5Not writing algorithm 3Benefiting from available codes 1

Personal problems 8Anxiety 5Not liking programming or department 2Prejudice against programming 2Inattention 2

Problems in class activities 3Insufficiency of time allocated for application 3Studying many topics in a short time 1

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Instruction of topics without following a step-by-step method 1

It was obtained that all students attributed their failures to the problems in the programming process. Therefore, most of the students stated that code editor’s remark on errors prevents them from learning codes correctly and they do not repeat topics studied in the classrooms; as a result, they experience failures. Moreover, it was found that the majority of the students emphasized personal problems. Example student views related to this issue are as follows:

S9: “In my opinion, everybody should form process in his/her mind since everybody does in this way. It is necessary to divide it to certain steps. It is taught when you start to programming. Define problem, determine needs, and etc. I do not expect any problems in programming if everybody follows these steps and if they prepare necessary algorithms before programming.” (Problems in programming process-not writing algorithm)

S1: “I think it is about making repetition. When person makes repetition and practice, s/he gets used to programming. You pass cognitive level, and you attain to application level. You can write without thinking, but as a first steps you should develop your skills and you should repeat.” (Problems in programming process- not making repetition)

S9: “It is necessary to look at your codes frequently in order to see where error is and to control each step while writing your codes. We do not have such a chance on paper. You might skip some parts on paper; or if you have syntax error and you do not assign first values to variables, errors become.” (Problems in programming process - code editor’s remark on errors) S3: “Problems come out as a result of lack of knowledge. It is because I do not have enough knowledge.” (Problems in programming process-lack of knowledge)

S11: “Also, there are solutions of the problems in the Internet. This is bad.” (Problems in programming process- benefiting from available codes)S3: “I do not like spending time for programming so much. I am not interested in writing a program. …if somebody tells me or if it is graded, I will do it at that time. I do not so much willingness.” (Personal problems-not liking programming)

S6: “If I insist on that I cannot do… It becomes when I think and insist on that I cannot do that. Where do I have problem? I develop anxiety when I cannot do.” (Personal problems- anxiety)

Problems related to self-efficacy for programming

It was seen that eight students stated they could write any program even if they had to give some efforts on it. As a result, it can be said that these students have high self-efficacy. Also, it was found that these students have high success in Web-based programming course and Programming I-II course taken in prior semesters, and they have high prior experiences related to programming. Other four students stated that they could not write the program and they had to seek help for it. Example student views related to this issue are as follows:

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S5: “I can write. Normally, when someone wants me to write a program right now or when s/he says ‘can you do that in this way?’ I cannot do. But I do research about the requested program. I learn its usage and what I should do for it, and I can do it by trial-errors in a step-by-step method.”

S6: “PHP or every programming language. After I understand its logic, anyone can ask any problem related to any programming language. Even if I do not know that programming language, I learn its general logic and its structure… I prepare an algorithm, concept map or flowchart. I look at the Internet for the codes of that language, and I change its codes even if I do not know. I can write. It is not a problem for me.”

S9: “Generally, I think writing. Actually, I want to give an effort for it. Hence, I can write it in my mind. I do not know whether there was a program I could not write. I guess not.”

S7: “I can write when some sources are on me. Otherwise, I cannot write. I can do when there are simple problems such as sum of two numbers, but I cannot do when there are quite complex problems.”

S4: “I cannot solve the problem when you give it to me right now. I haven’t still had such ability.”

Steps followed in programming

Steps the students follow in programming were gathered under five themes which are “trying to understand the problem”, “preparing algorithm”, “benefiting from available codes”, “finding bugs” and “making repetition”. Codes related to these themes and their frequencies were given in Table 6.

Table 6Codes Related to Steps Followed while Writing Programs and Frequencies

Codes fTrying to understand the problem 8Preparing algorithm 8Benefiting from available codes 5

Other documents 2Internet 2Books 2My own notes 1Examples academic staff gives 1

Finding bugs 4Making repetition 1

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It was determined that the way students follow while writing programs is generally trying to understand the problem, preparing algorithm, writing and finding bugs in programming. It was obtained that eight students out of 12 put emphasis on preparing algorithm which carries significant importance in programming. Consequently, it can be said that the majority of the students try to prepare algorithm before writing program. Furthermore, 5 students stated that they benefited from the Internet, books and examples the academic staff gives. It was found that there are 4 students who try to find bugs in program after they have finished writing coding or while they are writing code. One of the students told that s/he tried to write a program by making repetitions of examples academic staff gave. Sample student views related to this issue are as follows:

S5: “Firstly, I examine documents related to the topics. How is it used, what are done, which examples are there? I make an outline of what I will do while writing codes. For example, I draw the things I will do before writing codes of a website. I say I will do it here, and this will be here. Then, I pass them to computer environment. I say ‘Complete the first step, and then the second step’.”

S1: “Firstly, I try to understand the problem. I form an outline by taking the problem into account. I think about that which functions I can use and which ways I can follow?’ After that, I start to write. While I am writing, solution appears. I write and I try to find solutions.”

S7: “I think about how I can solve the problem. It is necessary to have an algorithm to do it. How will I write? How will I start? Firstly, I prepare an algorithm. Then, I start to write.”

S11: “I form an algorithm in my mind. I draw it on the paper. While I am writing a program, I look at what is wanted, what I should do for them and how I should proceed. When this is wrong, I revise the draft.”

Conclusion

In this study, where undergraduate students' views on the causes of failure in programming courses and the problems they had encountered in programming were examined. In this regard, it has been observed that students’ difficulties were mainly related to programming knowledge, programming skills, understanding semantics of the program and debugging; in addition, programming knowledge came to the front among others. Difficulties related to programming knowledge can be listed in the following order; syntax, knowing the concepts or principles related to the programming language, remembering the functions and its parameters, defining variable and choosing the decision structures and loops that will be used in program.

The students who participated in the study stated that they had difficulty in recalling for programming codes/commands in general. This situation can be interpreted as one of the biggest obstacle in programming success resulted from lack of knowledge about program codes or producing them. Similarly, Sivasakthi and Rajendran (2011) indicated that students often had problems in code writing. Another issue which causes the students to have difficulty in programming was determined as remembering functions related to programming languages and the parameters for these functions. According to Ala-Mutka

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(2004), teaching the basic notions of programming after algorithms will increase programming success.

Syntax errors are one of the topics which students have difficulty while writing programs. Confusion the students experienced while using punctuation marks and while deciding their place in the code line has led to appear a considerable number of errors in the program that students wrote. This result is similar to Tan, Ting and Yang’s (2011) study findings which is learning the syntax that is related to programming is one of the most important problems that the students confronted with in programming.

Unlike programming knowledge possessed by students, the strategies that they need regarding to how to use this information is defined as programming skills (Caspersen, 2007). Programming skill is one of the basic skills that students should have in programming (Holvikivi, 2010). In the present study, students, despite of having programming knowledge required, had difficulties in how they would design the program. Similarly, Tan, Ting and Yang (2011) stated that the students have problems with problem solving and separating the problems into steps in programming. Eryılmaz (2003) also stated that especially the individuals those new to programming (novice programmers) should have problem-solving skills as a prerequisite. Students who participated in the study expressed that they have difficulties in debugging especially if written by another person. In a similar study, Tan, Ting and Yang (2011) emphasized that one of the issues that the students have difficulty is finding bugs in the program. According to Bednarik and Tukiainen (2004), debugging is directly related to previous programming experience, advanced programmers are more successful than novice programmers in debugging. Thus, it was seen in this study that the students whose programming experience is comparably higher expressed that they wouldn’t find bugs in program.

Another issue emphasized in the study is the reasons of failures of the students in programming courses. Student’ experiences related to this issue were gathered under three themes. These themes have been ranked in sequence in descending order: problems in the programming process, personal problems, and problems they faced during in-class activities. The scope of the problems related to in the process of programming topics that lead to failure are listed as not making repetition, code editor’s remark on errors, lack of knowledge, not writing algorithm and benefiting from available codes. Within the scope of the personal problems are dislike programming or attending the department, prejudice against programming, anxiety and inattention. Finally, the scope of the problems they faced during in-class activities are listed as studying many topics in a short time, insufficiency of time allocated for application and instruction of topics without following a step-by-step method.

The majority of students stated that the biggest reasons of their failure in programming were related to themselves since they do not work hard enough in programming. In addition, not allocating extra time to programming and to course activities and assignments, as well as insufficient repetitions about the programs learned in the lessons were articulated among the others. In the literature, it has been emphasized that undergraduate students need lots of practice to increase their programming skills (Law, Lee & Yu, 2010). Similarly, Hawi (2010) determined that the most important factors that cause students to fail are lack of study, lack of effort and lack of practice. Accordingly, studying on a computer programming language requires making many activities such as reading textbooks and reference books recommended, using online libraries to writing

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code, learning syntax and logical concepts, analyzing available programs and modifying them.

Students whose previous programming experience are higher (advanced programmers) highlighted that programming performance is dependent on preparing an algorithm. Similarly, Bednarik and Tukiainen (2004) stated that while advanced programmers build hypotheses before writing a program, novice programmers start with writing the program directly. Preparing algorithm become prominent as the primarily issue for especially novice programmers who begin learning a new programming language (Eryılmaz, 2003). Because in the process of preparing an algorithm, flow charts which determine the steps to be followed and strategies to be used in the solution of the problem are created. According to Ala-Mutka (2004), algorithm training which is given in the programming process helps teaching the programming language more easily and in a simple manner. However, it has been seen that developing the algorithmic thinking is one of the biggest problems in programming courses (Ziatdinov & Musa, 2012), because preparing algorithms is perceived as a difficult process and time-consuming by the students.

Other important reasons of the failure that the students confronted with in programming are prejudice against programming and anxiety. In this study it was observed that while the students who like programming reported that they often spend extra time to their self-development, find alternative ways to solve the problem or write more qualified programs; on the other hand, the students who have high level of prejudice against programming feel angry and stressed out when writing programs. Thus, they don’t want to spend extra time on programming. Students who have high level of programming anxiety don’t want to learn programming, because they think that programming is a difficult and boring process (Tan, Ting & Ling, 2009).

According to another result obtained in the study, it was seen that advanced programmers have a higher level of programming performance. In the literature, there are studies related to that advanced programmers are more successful than novice programmers in programming (Lau & Yuen, 2011; Liao & Bright, 1991). This situation can be interpreted as that lack of prior knowledge and experience is another reason of the reason of the students’ failure. On the other hand, in this study, it was realized that the students who have graduated from vocational school failed although they were took many programming lessons. This situation supports the findings of that programming experience has a nondirective effect on programming success (Bergersen & Gustafsson, 2011; Jegede, 2009). According to Bergersen and Gustafsson (2011), programming experience affects primarily programming knowledge, and then programming knowledge affects programming success. Self-efficacy is considered as the other mediator variable that affects the success of programming in conjunction with experience. According to this, students’ preliminary experiences in programming increase their self-efficacy, and perceived self-efficacy increases programming success (Jegede, 2009). In the literature, it was indicated that there is a positive correlation between students’ self-efficacy and the number of programming courses taken by them (Altun & Mazman, 2012; Jegede, 2009), and the number of years in programming affects their self-efficacy significantly (Altun & Mazman, 2012; Aşkar & Davenport, 2009).In this study, it was observed that students who had considerably higher level of programming success also had a higher level of self-efficacy as well. These students defined programming as that it is actually an easy process as long as necessary repetitions are made and it is started with algorithm before writing the program. Therefore, the students believe that they can write program codes successfully if they take enough time. This finding is similar to the results of the studies

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which found that perceived self-efficacy increases the programming success (Cegielski & Hall, 2006).

As a result, to get all the benefits of programming, effective programming education should be given especially in higher education institutions (Fessakis, Gouli & Mavroudi, 2013). It is highlighted that the current curricula should be reconstructed by increasing lesson hours of programming courses and widening their scope. Moreover, more emphasis is called on teaching programming (Akpınar & Altun, 2014); hence, programming education should be carried out taking into account aforementioned problems and present situation.

Further research could determine the reasons of the students’ failures in visual programming courses. Also, introspective methods could be used with the aim of better documenting the obstacles and difficulties that the students confronted with in programming. Different programming languages have different application features, code brevity, and extensibility and so on. Therefore, the usage of alternative programming languages would be valuable for demonstration the differences between programming languages and comparison of the results.

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GENİŞLETİLMİŞ ÖZ

Programlama dili öğrenme oldukça uzun bir zaman gerektiren zor bir süreçtir. Özellikle lisans düzeyindeki programlama dersleri çoğunlukla üst düzey düşünme becerileri gerektirdiği için genellikle giriş seviyesinde programlama bilgisine sahip öğrenciler tarafından oldukça zor olarak algılanmaktadır (Tan, Ting ve Ling, 2009; Gültekin, 2006). Yapılan çalışmalar öğrencilerin çoğunun programlama dili öğrenmede güçlük çektiğini göstermektedir (Başer, 2012; Ambrosio vd., 2011; Hawi, 2010; Aşkar ve Davenport, 2009). Bu durum öğrencilerin programlama derslerinde başarısız olmasıyla sonuçlanmaktadır (Robins, Rountree ve Rountree, 2003; Baldwin ve Kuljis, 2000). Öğrencilerin tekrarlayan başarısızlık deneyimi, özellikle programlama dili öğrenmeye karşı heyecan ve ilgilerini kaybetmelerine neden olmaktadır (Law, Lee ve Yu, 2010). Bu durum araştırmacıların programlama başarısını artırmak üzere çalışmalar yapmaları ve bu konuda farklı yöntemler geliştirmelerine neden olmuştur. Ancak yapılan bu çalışmalar yeterli olmamıştır. Programlama dilleri dersi günümüzde hala öğrencilerin en çok zorlandığı ve başarısız olduğu derslerden biri olmaya devam etmektedir. Buradan hareketle, yapılan çalışma ile üniversite öğrencilerinin programlama derslerindeki başarısızlıklarının nedenlerinin ortaya koyulması ve programlama sürecinde yaşadıkları problemlere ilişkin görüşlerinin incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır.

Çalışma nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden fenomenoloji yaklaşımı ile desenlenmiştir. Çalışma grubu, 2013-2014 güz yarıyılında Türkiye’de bir devlet üniversitesinde İnternet Tabanlı Programlama dersine devam eden öğrenciler arasından seçilmiştir. Çalışma grubunun belirlenmesinde amaçlı örnekleme yöntemi çeşitlerinden ölçüt örnekleme kullanılmıştır. Ölçüt olarak, öncelikle ifade yeteneği yüksek 18 öğrenci seçilmiş, daha sonra çalışmaya katılmaya gönüllü olduğunu ifade eden 12 öğrenci ile görüşme yapılmıştır. Verilerin toplanma sürecinde öncelikle dersin laboratuvar etkinlikleri iki hafta süreyle araştırmacı tarafından yapılandırılmamış gözlem tekniği ile gözlemlenmiştir. Katılımcı olunmayan gözlem anlayışına uygun biçimde yapılan gözlemlerin tümü video kaydına alınmıştır. Yapılan gözlem ile yürütülmesi planlanan çalışmanın alt amaçları, çalışma grubu, çalışmanın yapılacağı ortam hakkında karar verilmiştir. Bu doğrultuda öğrencilerle, programlama sürecinde yaşadıkları zorluklara ilişkin görüşme yapılması kararlaştırılmıştır. Görüşmeler yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme türüne uygun olarak hazırlanmış ve bireysel görüşme şeklinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Tümü sesli kayıt altına alınmıştır. Elde edilen veriler içerik analizine uygun olarak çözümlenmiştir. Kodlamalara ilişkin değerlendiriciler arası güvenirliği sağlamak amacıyla, öncelikle veriler ilk yazar tarafından kodlanmış ve temalar oluşturulmuştur. Daha sonra, bu temalar ve temalara ilişkin rastgele seçilen örnek cümleler nitel araştırma yöntemleri dersi almış iki uzmana verilmiş ve kodlarla örnek cümleleri eşleştirmeleri istenmiştir. Uyum yüzdesi %81 olarak hesaplanmıştır.

Öğrencilerin programlama sürecinde yaşadıkları zorlukların programlama bilgisi, programlama becerisi, programın mantığını kavrama ve hata ayıklama üzerinde yoğunlaştığı görülmüştür. Araştırmaya katılan öğrenciler, büyük çoğunlukla programlamaya ilişkin genel kavram ve ilkeleri hatırlamakta zorlandıklarını ifade etmişlerdir. Öğrenciler, gerekli programlama bilgisine sahip olmalarına rağmen programı nasıl tasarlayacaklarına ilişkin zorluk yaşadıklarını da belirtmektedirler. Bednarik ve Tukiainen’e (2004) göre, bir hata ayıklama programlama deneyimiyle doğrudan ilişkilidir, programlama deneyimi yüksek olan öğrenciler düşük olanlara göre hata ayıklamada daha başarılıdırlar. Nitekim mevcut çalışmada da önceki programlama deneyimi yüksek olan öğrencilerin programdaki hataları bulmakta zorlanmayacakları yönünde görüş belirttikleri

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görülmüştür. Öğrencilerin büyük çoğunluğu, programlama konusunda yeterince çalışmamalarını, ders kapsamında yapılan etkinlikler ve verilen ödevler dışında programlama için ek zaman ayırmamalarını ve verilen programları tekrar etmemelerini programlama dillerindeki başarısızlıklarının en büyük nedeni olarak belirtmişlerdir. Ayrıca, programlama deneyimi yüksek olan öğrenciler, programlama başarısının algoritma oluşturmaya bağlı olduğunu vurgulamışlardır. Algoritma oluşturma, özellikle bir programlama dilini yeni öğrenmeye başlayan öğrencilerin en başta öğrenmesi gereken konu olarak öne çıkmaktadır (İmal ve Eser, 2009; Eryılmaz, 2003). Ancak öğrenciler, algoritma oluşturmayı vakit alıcı ve zor bir süreç olarak algıladıkları için (Futschek ve Moschitz, 2010) programlama derslerinde algoritmik düşünmeyi geliştirme en büyük problemlerden biri olarak görülmektedir (Ziatdinov ve Musa, 2012). Ek olarak, programlamayı sevdiğini belirten öğrencilerin genellikle kendilerini geliştirmek, problemin çözümünde alternatif yollar bulmak veya daha nitelikli programlar yazmak için ekstra zaman harcadıkları görülürken; programlamaya ilişkin ön yargısı olan öğrencilerin program yazarken kendilerini sinirli ve stresli hissettikleri ve programlama için ek vakit ayırmak istemedikleri görülmüştür. Bir diğer sonuç, programlama deneyimi yüksek olan öğrencilerin programlama başarısının yüksek olmasıdır. Ancak, bazı öğrencilerin meslek lisesi mezunu olmaları nedeniyle birçok programlama dersi almalarına rağmen başarısız oldukları görülmüştür. Bergersen ve Gustafsson’a (2011) göre öğrencilerin programlama deneyimi öncelikli olarak programlama bilgisine, programlama bilgisi de programlama başarısına etki etmektedir. Deneyim ile birlikte programlama başarısını etkileyen bir diğer ara değişken ise öz yeterlilik olarak kabul edilmektedir. Buna göre öğrencilerin programlamaya ilişkin sahip oldukları ön deneyimler öz yeterliliklerini artırmakta, öz yeterlilik algısı ise programlama başarısını artırmaktadır (Jegede, 2009). Çalışmada programlamaya ilişkin öz yeterlilik algısı yüksek olan öğrencilerin sayısının diğerlerine göre daha fazla olduğu ve programlama başarısı yüksek öğrencilerin aynı zamanda yüksek düzeyde öz yeterliliğe sahip oldukları belirlenmiştir.

Sonuç olarak, öğrencilerin programlama sürecinde yaşadıkları güçlükleri ve karşılaştıkları engelleri en aza indirebilmek için özellikle yükseköğretim kurumlarında uygun programlama eğitimi verilmesi gerekmektedir (Fessakis, Gouli ve Mavroudi, 2013). Mevcut müfredatın programlama derslerinin saatlerinin artırılması ve bu derslerin kapsamının genişletilmesi suretiyle yeniden düzenlenmesi gerektiği vurgulanmaktadır. Ayrıca, programlama eğitimine daha fazla önem verilmelidir (Akpınar & Altun, 2014); bu kapsamda, programlama eğitimi söz konusu sorunlar ve mevcut durum dikkate alınarak yapılmalıdır.

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The Effects of Study Abroad on Second Language Identities and Language Learning

Yurtdışı Eğitimin İkinci Dil Kimliği ve Dil Öğrenimi Üzerindeki Etkileri

Tomoka SatoFerris University, [email protected]

AbstractThere are numerous studies on the improvement of language proficiency and adaptability to different cultures through study abroad. However, there is a paucity of research on study abroad of Japanese students per se, not to mention the fact that there are even fewer studies on identities that are formed through one’s second language use, which is called second language identity and language learning in study abroad contexts. Based on a narrative inquiry of three Japanese students who participated in three or four-week study-abroad programs, this paper examines the construction of second language identity and language learning. A narrative approach has shown to be an ideal tool for revealing the complexity of human behavior since it is human-centered, and it analyses participants’ identity construction through oral

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accounts of their experiences. Data was collected through one-on-one and semi-structured interviews, in which the participants were asked to describe their study abroad experience. After collecting their statements, content analysis was conducted. The findings reveal that all participants constructed their second language identities. They become active in learning and using English by the interaction with local people and through self-enlightenment that was generated by finding a person they admire, and this impact has lasted well since they returned home. Moreover, the study shows that when there are no inequitable relations of power in social interaction, language learners can favorably construct their second language identities that they want to project. As a result, they become aware of linguistic analysis or pragmatics at the same time.

Keywords: Study abroad; Second language identity; Language learning

ÖzAlanyazında, yurtdışı eğitim programları aracılığıyla dilde yeterlilik kazanmaya ve farklı kültürlere uyum sağlamaya yönelik bir çok çalışma bulunmaktadır. Ancak, alanyazında ikinci dil kullanımı yoluyla öğrenenlerin kimlik gelişimlerine, yani ikinci dil kimliklerine ve yurtdışı eğitim bağlamında dil öğrenimlerine herhangi bir vurguda bulunulmamaktadır. Yurtdışı eğitim programlarına üç veya dört haftalık bir süre ile katılmış olan üç Japon öğrenciden sözel olarak alınan nitel verilere dayanan bu çalışmada, dil öğrenimi ve ikinci dil kimliğinin yapısı incelemektedir. Çalışma insan merkezli bir çalışmadır. Bu nedenle çalışmada, insan davranışlarının karmaşıklığını ortaya koyabilmek için en uygun yol olduğu düşünülen sözel bir yaklaşım uygulanmıştır. Bu sayede, deneyimlere ilişkin sözel veriler aracılığıyla katılımcıların kimlik yapıları çözümlenmiştir. Araştırmanın verileri, katılımcılardan yurtdışı eğitim deneyimlerini betimlemelerinin istendiği birebir ve yarı-yapılandırılmış görüşmelerden elde edilmiştir. Katılımcılardan elde edilen tüm ifadeler içerik analizine tabii tutulmuştur. Katılımcıların İngilizceyi öğrenmede ve kullanmada etkin bir rol almaya başladıkları görülmüş ve bu etkinin ülkelerine/evlerine dönmelerinden sonra da devam ettiği gözlemlenmiştir. Bu süreçte öğrenenlerin, hayran oldukları insanlarla karşılaşmaları sonucunda oluşturdukları öz-aydınlanmadan ve yerel halk ile olan etkileşimlerden yararlandıkları görülmüştür. Buna ek olarak çalışma, sosyal etkileşimde adaletsiz güç ilişkileri olmadığında, dil öğrenenlerinin herhangi bir çekince veya kaygı hissetmeden dili öğrenebildikleri ve ikinci dil kimliklerini olumlu bir biçimde yapılandırabildiklerini göstermiştir. Bunun bir sonucu olarak katılımcılar dilbilimsel çözümleme ve bağlamsal dilbilim konusunda farkındalık geliştirebilmişlerdir.

Anahtar Sözcükler: Yurtdışı eğitim; ikinci dil kimliği; dil öğrenimi

Introduction

“If I were French, then the clerk would not have treated me in this manner. This is because many Americans find the French people’s English accents cute and attractive. I felt as if I was being treated like a child.” (Yuki, 4/9/2012)

“When I say something in English to a native English speaker, I find myself speaking straightforwardly and even aggressively without hesitation. However, I would not do the same when speaking in Japanese.” (Mieko, 16/11/2012)

In these aforementioned quotes, two students who studied abroad described their feelings as they used English in their host country. In the first quote, owing to her lack of English proficiency, she felt humiliated by the sales clerk who did not (or pretended not to) understand what she said and asked her again with a noticeable frown. In the second quote, my former classmate, who studied in New York as a graduate student, reflected on her belief that native English speakers neither appreciate “wishy-washy” speaking nor

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use euphemisms like many Japanese do on a daily basis, which influenced her change in identity when using English.

Recently, under the guise of globalization, travel agencies and universities as well as the Japanese government have been encouraging students to study abroad by promoting the benefits of study-abroad programs in terms of L2 proficiency and personal competence. Such promotion has been supported by numerous studies that have focused on the enhancement of language proficiency through study-abroad programs, in which participants are expected to use a second language on a daily basis (DuFon & Churchill, 2006; Kinginger, 2009; Magnan & Back, 2007). In addition, various studies have also examined attitudes such as intercultural communication and international awareness (Blackstone, 1997; Elmuti, Tück & Kemper, 2008; Erwin & Coleman, 1998; Kitsantas & Meyers, 2001; Shaftel, Shagtel & Ahluwalia, 2007). However, what is notably absent from all of these studies is any attention to learners’ perception of using the language as a foreigner during their time abroad. Perhaps, it is still commonly believed that “one of the best ways to learn a foreign or second language is to develop friendships with native speakers and to communicate with them using that language” (Kurata, 2011, p.6). This statement seems overly optimistic and convenient, as if there were no mental obstacles to learning a language when exposed to the new environment. Conversely, many teachers tend to characterize inactive and taciturn students in class as having an inadequacy of their communication and social skills without realizing the fact that such students often reveal a more outspoken and assertive character once they leave Japan.Therefore, this study examines how the learning and use of a second language intersect with a person’s identity, which is best described as second language identity (Block, 2007; Norton, 2000; Wolf, 2006) through short-term study abroad.

There are many different “identities” depending on social contexts, such as cultural identity, ethnic identity, gender identity, group identity, occupational identity, spiritual identity, and so on. As an identity regarding second language acquisition, Kanno (1996) examined Japanese returnee’s identities in transition. Her participants were educated in English speaking countries when they were young due to their parents’ job and once returning to Japan, they managed to adjust to Japanese society at the first stage but gradually got the feeling of awkwardness in it. The complex construction of identity arose in this manner. Wolf (2006, p.17) argues that “language is the very foundation upon which the concept of ‘self’ is based: in and through language, we present ourselves as subjects. Subjectivity is ‘the speaker’s ability to present himself as subject distinct from ‘the other’ as object but always the other’s potential subject to whom ‘I’ says ‘you’ and who says ‘you’ to ‘I’.” He examined how French language learners express their subjectivity in a foreign language and found out that they could not avoid expressing subjectivities by using French pronouns, certain tenses, reported speech, and argumentative discourses. From this perspective, second language use helps to create a new identity that differs from that of the learner’s first language.

However, my study sheds light on the socially sensitive perspective of identity in which Norton (2000, p.2) shows “how language learners position themselves and are positioned by others depending on where they are, who they are with, and what they are doing”. In addition, this study elucidates the construction of second language identity or what Block (2007) calls “the emergence of target language (TL)-mediated subject positions,” which are personal identities constructed through one’s second language use. He (2007) also examines three contexts in regard to language learning: migration, foreign language classroom, and study abroad. He claims that the experience of migration is often “one in

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which critical experiences, leading to the emergence of new subject positions, are likely to occur” (p.109), while the prospects for the emergence of new subject positions in foreign language classrooms is “minimal to non-existent” (p.137). Concerning the study-abroad context, he calls for additional research to reveal the full potential ofstudy-abroad experiences as “contexts replete with emerging TL-mediated subjectpositions” (p.185) based on the viewpoint of constructing second language identity.

Therefore, this study addresses three main questions: (1) What is the impact of a three-week study-abroad program on Japanese university students’ overall construction of second language identity? (2) Does this impact last? and (3) What is the relationship between Japanese students’ second language identity and language learning opportunities?

This study is influenced by a poststructuralist framework. Based on this perspective, language is unstable, and identities are multiple, contradictory, and subject to change across various settings and interactions. Namely, poststructuralists often “investigate extrinsic conditions—the social intentions of language users—in their critical analyses of texts” (Morgan, 2007, p.952) and they conceptualize the determination of subjectivity as partial or incomplete in that discourses also create possibilities for autonomy and resistance (Norton & Toohey, 2001; Pavlenko, 2002; Price, 1999, as quoted in Morgan, 2007). In addition, poststructuralists argue that power relationships are always implicated when particular language/identity correlations are formalized. At this point, the study of Norton (2000) comes to prominence in which she stated:

Power does not operate only at the macro level of powerful institutions such as the legal system, the education system, and the social welfare system, but also at the micro level of everyday social encounters between people with differential access to symbolic (e.g., language, education, and friendship) and material (e.g., capital goods, real estate, and money) resources—encounters which are inevitablyproduced within language. (p. 7)

Furthermore, Norton (2007) also stated that the “relations of power can serve to enable or constrain the range of identities, which language learners can negotiate in their classrooms and communities” (p. 9).

Review of Related Literature

Study-abroad research regarding identity has heretofore emphasized the impact of identity factors such as extroverted/introverted nature or gender on language learning opportunities (Kinginger, 2008; Polanyi, 1995; Siegal, 1996; Twombly, 1995). Also, there are some studies that connect second language use with social and personal identity in a study-abroad context. Skarin’s (2001) study reveals that the construct of participants’ identities in their new communities was affected in different ways by their personal histories, ideologies, and the communities whence they came, in addition to their position within their new communities. Jackson’s (2008) ethnographic study of a group of university students from Hong Kong who participated in a five-week program in England shows “the development of bilingual (multilingual) and bicultural (multicultural) identities across time and space” (p. 2). In Kinginger’s (2004) study of a working-class American student who studied in France, the development of personal identity is inferred by the statement that she was no longer a “drifter,” but a graduate student in French “focusing on her aspirations to become a language educator and to help others as they struggle

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with a new language” (p.240). Block’s (2006) discourse analysis investigates identity issues arising from “reverse culture shock” and “being bilingual and bicultural” among five Japanese female graduate students in London during and after the program, while Piller and Takahashi’s (2006) ethnographic discourse analysis examines five Japanese females and their desire to learn English in Australia. In the latter study, the participants’ narratives are described in relation to identity, which shows that “successful identity transformation” (p.70) is related to the extent to which the participants had formed a relationship with native speakers.

All of these studies, which focus on outcomes associating second language competence with personal and social identity, provide some evidence regarding the construction of second language identities through study-abroad programs. However, it may not be true of the emergence of new subject positions that Block (2007) describes. Finally very recent study by Benson, Barkhuizen, Bodycott and Brown (2012) thoroughly explores this area in a systematic way. They investigated the development of second language identities, using nine Hong Kong pre-service teacher education students participating in six and thirteen week English-language immersion programs in different English-speaking countries. Their study reveals that study abroad programs have some impact on second language identities. Their participants became self-confident in using the second language, and their self-concept also developed from learners to users of the second language. Yet, their study does not consider the Norton’s (2000) cautions: ‘how inequitable relations of power limit the opportunities second language learners have to practice the target language outside the classroom’ and ‘affective factors are frequently socially constructed in inequitable relations of power, changing over time and space, and possibly coexisting in contradictory ways in a single individual’ (p.5). Hence, this study focuses not only on the construction of second language identity but also on how social interaction influences on participants’ language learning.

Method

Since this study reveals the construction of students’ second language identities, a narrative approach was used on the basis of self-reflective statements from the students after the completion of the study-abroad program. A narrative approach is shown to be an ideal tool for revealing the complexity of human behavior since it is human-centered, and it situates itself in practice and explores the perspectives of the participants (Lyons & LaBoskey, 2002; Webster & Mertova, 2007). Although some consider narrative inquiry as “easy” research and “just telling stories”, it is much more than the telling of stories. Education and educational studies are a form of experience (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). Narrative inquiry is the best way of representing and understanding experiences that are difficult to observe directly and are best understood from the perspectives of those who experience them. Furthermore, it analyzes learners’ identity construction through oral or written accounts of their experiences when learning a foreign language (Miyahara, 2009).Because the construction of second language identity and language learning in study abroad context can not be observed directly, narratives play a important role in this study.However, there was a key ethical concern in this study. The research participants were my former students. Although there was no longer a mentoring relationship with them, there was still a need to be careful when dealing with them, so as not to give them a sense of being forced to participate. Thus, after being advised about their role as participants, they were provided with a contract requesting their consent, in which it is clearly stated that information gained from them is used only for this study, and that they

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will remain anonymous to protect their privacy.

Data was collected through one-on-one and semi-structured interviews in which the participants were asked to describe their study-abroad experience. The quoted extracts were then translated from Japanese into English. Although they were aware that the study was about second language identity, the word “identity” was not emphasized during the interviews.

After collecting the statements, participants’ responses were transcribed, and their narratives were repeatedly examined to identify statements related to construction or change, which were then categorized under two headings: target language (TL)-mediated changes in the attitude toward learning and using English and TL-mediated self-enlightenment. Content analysis was utilized in this study. Moreover, all of the interactions with the participants were in Japanese, suggesting that translation was necessary to transform the data into research text. It is said that a successful Japanese–English translator must sacrifice 60% of the original meaning in order to communicate the most essential 40%, while an attempt to communicate every aspect has an opposite effect. Therefore, this study focuses on thematic issues during translation.

Furthermore, translation is based on interpretation, which is influenced by the interpreter’s “experienced knowledge” (Hunt, 1992, quoted in Kanno, 1996, p. 83). More specifically, translators bring their life experiences into their translations (Esther Enns-Connolly, 1986, quoted in Kanno, 1996, p. 84). As a graduate student in New York, I drew upon my personal experiences, which included both advantages and disadvantages. The advantage was that subtle nuances and meanings were understood, which could only be achieved by experience in a study-abroad program. At the same time, the disadvantage was the danger of reading too much into their stories. Therefore, in order to make this translation accountable, the narratives (written in English) were shared with the participants to confirm the information and receive valuable feedback regarding the content.

The participants in this study consisted of three undergraduate students (non English-related majors) who participated in two different study-abroad programs organized by the same institution in Tokyo, Japan. Two of the participants spent a three-week study tour in the United Kingdom and attended credit-bearing courses (in English and content-based courses) at Pembroke College, Cambridge University. As for their previous overseas experiences, one of them, a female student named Rie, had been to nine different countries as a tourist, while the other student, a male named Masato, lived in the United States for four years (ages 7 to 11) and attended a Japanese school. Since that time, Masato had never left Japan. Conversely, the remaining participant, a female student named Akiko, studied in New Zealand, stayed in homestays and attended only English classes in the English Language Academy at Auckland University. Previously, she had traveled to two countries as a tourist with her parents. Table 1 summarizes the information of each participant in regard to their majors, study-abroad destinations, durations, and previous experiences in foreign travel.

Table 1 Study Participants

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Participants Sex Destination Major Duration Previous Overseas Experience

Rie F United Kingdom

Economics 3 weeks Traveled to nine countries and most of the trips were with her mother.

Masato M United Kingdom

Law 3 weeks Lived in the United States for 4 years (from 7 to 11 years of age) and attended a Japanese school.

Akiko F New Zealand Law 4 weeks Traveled to two countries, both with her parents.

Findings and Discussion

Target-language-mediated changes in the attitude toward learning and using English

Unlike the first quote mentioned earlier, all of the participants had positive experiences when using English, and the local people in their host countries were extremely kind and friendly. Although all of the participants reported little or no improvement in their English language proficiency, their attitudes toward learning and applying English changed after they used the language in actual practice. According to Masato,

I couldn’t understand any of the local people’s English except for my English teachers’. But when I looked perplexed, they kindly paraphrased their comments. This made me realize that I do not have to be ashamed of my lack of proficiency and I decided to become more active. To be honest, I used to be intimidated by native English speakers because I felt embarrassed by not being able to speak their language. However, after realizing that the local people were actually trying to understand what I was saying, my enthusiasm for communicating with them surpassed my feelings of embarrassment. (6/10/2013)

Likewise, Rie had a similar experience:

The local people were very friendly, and they spoke to me everywhere including the musical theater, the Harry Potter Museum, and the coffee shop. They asked where I was from, what I was doing, and wished me good luck. Since I had a good impression of the local people, I actively asked them (even in my poor English) without hesitation and worry. Therefore, despite the fact that I was asked to repeat myself due to my poor pronunciation, I didn’t mind it at all. (6/8/2013)

Akiko, who spent time in New Zealand, discovered her own theory regarding communication through the actual use of English:

We do not have to be perfect when speaking since we can still communicate. So, I had no problem talking to the local people even though I still had some problems understanding what they were saying [laughing]. (6/15/2013)

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These experiences stated above are those from outside of the classroom in which all participants actively began using English. In this respect, unlike the adult immigrants in Norton’s (2000) study who were frequently subject to discrimination, these participants had a favorable outcome from social interaction. Therefore, they never experienced “inequitable relations of power” (p.5). Instead, they were more willing to use the target language, which never occurred when they were in Japan. In general, in Japan, even if people like Masato wish to communicate with native English speakers, they fear being considered as “show-offs,” and this prevailing idea can impede their initiative to speak English in Japan. However, all of the participants in this study felt encouraged by their exposure to open and friendly local people. Viewed from this perspective, they preferably constructed their second language identity.

At the same time, their experiences in the classroom are interesting. All of the participants joined a study-abroad program organized by their university, which meant that they had to follow the university-based program, and their classmates were only Japanese students from their university. Therefore, the class environment was almost exactly the same as if they had taken it in Japan, except for the fact that they used English all of the time. In Pembroke College, two of the participants were assigned to a top-level class in which half of the students were highly proficient in English since they were so-called “returnees” who had spent a number of years in an English-speaking country because of various reasons. The two participants were not returnees, although Masato spent four years in the United States when he was younger. Since he attended a Japanese school instead of a local school, he had learned English in the same manner as regular Japanese students. According to Masato,

I knew that their educational backgrounds were different from mine, but in my mind, I always compared myself with them because they were also native speakers of Japanese. Therefore, I had a strong rivalry with them, which prevented me from speaking because I did not want to feel embarrassed due to my poor English. (6/10/2013)

On the other hand, Rie considered the students as scaffolding:

For me, they were sort of good teachers since they picked up what I meant in English and read between the lines regarding what I said. So, it was relaxing for me to speak to them. But when speaking to the native English teachers, I felt somewhat nervous because I thought they might not get used to English spoken by a Japanese student with such English skills. (6/8/2013)

In Masato’s contact with the native English teachers, he had an active attitude toward them since this was his only opportunity to use English in class. However, one day, he had a bitter experience when he was asked to interview a teacher in front of the class, and she cast doubtful eyes upon him. At that moment, he realized the importance of carefully and appropriately using English:

Anyway, I just spoke to them without carefully thinking about grammar or accurate word choice because I believed that it was more important to speak under any situation. However, I found that this did not work because I was unable to make myself understood. After this experience, I realized that I needed to study more grammar and learn how to convey meaning in the most accurate and appropriate way, which is crucial for effective communication. I

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became aware of these aspects in conversation, and if I had not studied abroad, I would have never discovered these things. (6/10/2013)

In many studies concerning study-abroad programs, the majority of the participants, especially Asian students who studied in English-speaking countries found that correct grammar and written English were not as important as articulating thought in spoken English. The participants in Benson, Barkhuizen, Bodycott and Brown study (2012) also discovered this. However, Masato rediscovered the significance of learning grammar and developing pragmatic competence. This may have had an impact on his second language identity. The concept of using grammar correctly and speaking appropriately in various social situations also affected his desired identity. From this perspective, language competence, including pragmatic competence, is an indispensable element for the projection of identities in a second language. In addition, the identity that he wanted to project is based on the degree of acquisition and the correct use of grammar and pragmatic competence.

Akiko’s case was somewhat different from those of the other two students. In the first two weeks of her study in New Zealand, her learning environment in school consisted of Japanese students who were not only from her university but also from various universities in others parts of Japan. Although the teachers were native English speakers, and the students were required to use English in class, the students frequently used Japanese. She mentioned that some high-ranked university students attempted to use English, but the other lower-ranked students did not. She felt disappointed to find out that this learning environment did not differ from the English classes she had previously taken in Japan. However, during the last two weeks, the class environment changed in which the Japanese students and other international students were mixed, and she received more opportunities to practice English. More specifically, she established a close relationship with a Thai female student since both of their English proficiency levels were relatively the same. Therefore, she spoke to her without any stress or strain. Akiko also realized an interesting fact when speaking to her teachers:

Native English teachers teaching in universities in Japan can more or less understand the Japanese language, so when I was unable to put someJapanese sentences into English, I easily gave up and used Japanese, which was allowed. This approach spoiled me because I quickly realized that this did not work here because all of the English teachers were not accustomed to English spoken by Japanese students. But I did not get nervous because they still attempted to understand my English and gave me their full attention when I spoke to them. (6/15/2013)

In this case, Akiko was quite comfortable using English despite her paucity of English proficiency, thanks to her encounter with a certain student at the same proficiency level and wonderful teachers with good patience.She also described her struggle recalling the vocabulary that she had learned in the past:

I was not necessarily interested in learning English, but I studied out of duty in order to pass the university entrance exams. So, when I memorized vocabulary, I never paid attention to how they were used and how they were pronounced. I always ignored the contexts regarding vocabulary and focused only on rote memorization in a way that I could immediately translate English into Japanese as soon as I saw English sentences without giving any thought

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to the structure and vocabulary, because I realized I could attain a good score with this method as well. As you know, the English tests conducted in Japanese high schools still have questions related to translation of English to Japanese. On top of that, these sentences were from the textbooks that we had already learned in class, and were therefore familiar to us. Hence, I just tried to memorize Japanese translation. However, I found this method to be ineffective since the vocabulary that I had memorized in the past barely came to mind. Therefore, I changed my approach toward memorizing vocabulary so that I can use it effectively in a conversation. I have started to memorize vocabulary by listening to a CD. (6/15/2013)

From the three students’ perspectives, the two study-abroad programs evidently had some positive impact on their construction of second language identities both inside and outside of the classroom, which was different from Block’s (2007) statement in which the emergence of new subject positions in the foreign language learning classroom was “minimal to non-existent.” In addition, they not only changed their attitudes toward learning and using English, but such feelings were maintained even after their return to Japan.

Target-language-mediated self-enlightenment: Akogare [yearning] in Japanese

Many studies regarding study-abroad programs have reported self-enlightenment as an outcome that seems to be unrelated to second language learning or application. In fact, like many participants in such studies, the participants in this study also reported the following outcomes: self-confidence, personal growth, increased curiosity about different cultures, autonomy, and maturity. When they spoke about these outcomes, they hardly mentioned the use of language. Given that these outcomes are common among students who study abroad, one question arises: To what extent are these outcomes mediated through the use of English?

In regard to the participants of this study who attended Cambridge University, they coincidentally reported the same aspect about the program assistants (PAs) in their classes. In this case, the PAs were Cambridge undergraduate students who were always available to assist the class. One day, when the teacher canceled class because of illness, the PAs substituted for the teacher. Both Rie and Masato were impressed with the PAs’ excellent communication skills and considerable knowledge. According to Rie,

The study-abroad experience transformed me, especially when I met the PAs. They were super brilliant in that they not only had rich knowledge but they also expressed their own opinions, which made me feel embarrassed because I attended school solely for fun and being with friends. I did not have a sense of learning. So I was unable to answer anything when I was asked, “What do you think”? But now I believe that chatting with my friends at school is a waste of time. Now, I am learning not through a sense of duty but from the desire to enjoy learning. (6/8/2013)

After being prompted for specific examples, she explained

I have started to choose classes conducted by native English teachers and sit in the front row since coming back to Japan. I used to care about others’ eyes and avoided taking native English teachers’ classes because I was afraid of

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being considered as a “show-off” by my friends, but now I don’t care about how I appear, and even thinking about this is a waste of time. Rather, I want to enhance myself and become a sophisticated person like the Cambridge students. (6/8/2013)

Her akogare for the Cambridge students’ brilliance inspired her to develop her identity. Likewise, Masato also expressed his desire to enhance himself after communicating with the PAs. He specifically admired the PAs’ knowledge regarding their home history: “I, of course, got highly motivated to learn English, but at the same time, I wanted to study Japanese history and culture more and explain them in English” (6/10/2013). In addition, his encounter with the PAs increased his motivation to study not only English but other subjects as well. He expressed his feelings as follows: “I decided to become more aggressive toward learning, especially after meeting and talking to them” (6/10/2013). In fact, after making this solid determination, he started to raise his hand and ask questions in class during his stay and after returning to classes in Japan.

On the contrary, in Akiko’s case, she did not encounter such influential role models, but she admired the Chinese students’ talent in speaking without hesitance even though their grammatical competence was quite low. She had a sort of akogare to become more like them. According to Akiko,

I had already known that communication can be achieved without perfect English knowledge and skills. I reaffirmed this through the Chinese students’ attitudes toward using English. When I saw their eagerness to take advantage of the opportunities to speak English, I was stimulated as well as jealous of their impudence. I only studied English not out of a desire to learn it but to simply pass the entrance exams. So, I had good knowledge of grammar and reading skills.* I noticed that the size of one’s vocabulary is more crucial for effective communication rather than perfect grammar because uttering several words, regardless of their order, enables those to understand what I am trying to say. (6/15/2013)

In addition to her observation of the Chinese students, she was convinced of the necessity of vocabulary through communication with the children in her host family. Because of her lack of English proficiency, she was unable to converse with them, but she somehow managed using an electronic dictionary. However, she found herself less stressed even in this circumstance than when she was in Japan. The experience of staying with a host family gave her a different meaning of akogare. In addition, her host family mother was always busy with work and away most of the time, which brought her a feeling of freedom since her parents (especially her father) were strict disciplinarians. She realized that this noninterference was exactly what she had been yearning for all of the time:

I realized how wonderful it was to feel free from my father’s annoying interference. Even though I was unable to speak English with the family, I could still convey what I wanted to say as long as I had my dictionary. This experience influenced my desire to visit many places alone and use English in the future in order to escape my parents’ restraints and enjoy freedom. Now I

*In general, in Japan, entrance exams for universities are based on grammar and reading.

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try to memorize vocabulary that is useful for communication. (6/15/2013)

In this case, it seems that Akiko’s desire to travel or study abroad stems from her frustration against her parents’ interferences. However, it is interesting to note that she did not think of this change as independence from her parents. She confirmed that she could survive even with her poor English skills in New Zealand, but she was not satisfied with the status quo. Instead, she showed enthusiasm for studying vocabulary in a meaningful context so that she could accomplish her goals.

Discussion

The study mainly examined the construction of second language identity in the context of study abroad through an analysis of data in which students described their short-term study-abroad experiences. The findings revealed that all of the participants constructed new target language subject positions, they became more active in both speaking and learning (which had not been previously seen in Japan), and the impact lasted well after they returned home. Moreover, when there were no “inequitable relations of power” in social interaction, language learners favorably constructed their second language identities that he/she wanted to project, which enabled them to become aware of linguistic analysis or pragmatics. Furthermore, as seen in Rie and Akiko’s cases, overall participants’ confidence in projecting identities as competent English-speaking individuals and overcoming certain difficulties in communication were revealed. At the same time, Masato was hesitant to speak to Japanese returnees in class due to his self-depreciation. From this perspective, what Norton (2000) pointed out is true: “Relations of power can serve to enable or constrain the range of identities, which language learners can negotiate in their classrooms and communities” (p. 9). In short, second language identities and language learning opportunities are closely related.

Finally, this study presented the findings of a small-scale pilot study, which focused only on the impact of short-term study abroad. All of the participants enjoyed their study-abroad experience despite the fact that their English proficiency was insufficient for academic contexts. Perhaps, this inadequacy was due to the short duration of their stay, which did not allow them to become challenged as a resident. That is, they were simply tourists who were welcomed by their host country and school. This raises the question of whether there might be a difference in the construction of second language identity if one stays for a longer period of time. It is assumed that a longer duration of study abroad may be a more intense experience in terms of opportunities for second language identity than a shorter visit. In this case, as Norton mentions, it could be more possible for participants to encounter power relationships at the micro level of everyday social encounters between people, influencing their construction of second language identities. In addition, Wenger’s (1998) notion that learning is the transformation of identity by participating in a community of practice will be more emphasized. The current literature suggests that there is the need for additional research regarding study abroad during longer periods of time.

References

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193. Blackstone, B. (1997). Use of the CCAI (Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory) to assist

students’ preparation in cross-cultural communication.The Review of Inquiry and Research, 65, 413–425.

Block, D. (2006). Multilingual identities in a global city: London Stories. London: Palgrave.Block, D. (2007). Second language identities. London: Continuum.Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass DuFon, M., & Churchill, E. (2006).Language learners in study abroad contexts. Clevedon,

UK: Multilingual Matters.Elmuti, D., Tück, B., & Kemper, F. (2008). Analyzing cross-cultural adaptability among

business students: An empirical investigation. International Journal of Management, 25, 551–568.

Erwin, T. D., & Coleman, P. K. (1998). The influence of intercultural experiences and second language proficiency on college students’ cross-cultural adaptability. International Education, 28, 5–25.

Jackson, J. (2008). Language, identity, and study abroad: Sociocultural perspectives. London: Equinox.

Kinginger, C. (2004). Alice doesn’t live here anymore: Foreign language learning and identity construction. In A. Pavlenko & A. Blackledge (Eds.), Negotiation of identities in multilingual contexts (pp. 219–242). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Kinginger, C. (2008). Language learning in study abroad: Case studies of Americans in France. Modern Language Journal, 92(s1). 1–124.

Kinginger, C. (2009). Language learning and study abroad. London: Palgrave Macmillan.Kitsantas, A., & Meyers, J. (2001). Studying abroad: Does it enhance college student

cross-cultural awareness?Paper presented at the combined annual meeting of the San Diego State University and the U.S. Department of Education Centers for International Business Education Research (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 456648).

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Lyons, N., & LaBoskey, V. K. (2002). Why narrative inquiry or exemplars for scholarship of teaching? In N. Lyons & V. K. LaBoskey (Eds.), Narrative inquiry in practice: Advancing the knowledge of teaching (pp. 11–30). New York: Teacher College Press.

Magnan, S. S., & Back, M. (2007). Social interaction and linguistic gain during study abroad. Foreign Language Annals, 40(1), 43–61.

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Morgan, B. (2007). Post structuralism and applied linguistics: Complementary approaches toidentity and culture. In J. Cummins & C. Davison (Eds.), International handbook of English language teaching (pp. 949–968). New York: Springer Science +

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Business Media, LLC.Norton, B. (2000). Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity, and educational

change. Harlow, England: Pearson Education Limited.Piller, I., & Takahashi, K. (2006). A passion for English: Desire and the language market.

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Twombly, S. (1995).Piropos and friendship: Gender and culture clash in study abroad. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 1, 1–27.

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Son zamanlarda, sadece seyahat acentaları ve yayın evleri değil aynı zamanda üniversiteler de ikinci dil yeterliliği ve bireysel yetiler geliştirme gibi yararlı çıktılarını öne sürerek yurtdışında eğitim alma konusunda öğrencileri cesaretlendirmektedirler. Alanyazında, katılımcıların ikini bir dil kullanmalarının ve kültürlerarası yeterlilikler ve küresel farkındalık kazanmalarının öngörüldüğü yurtdışı eğitim programları aracılığıyla dil yeterliliği kazanımına yönelik birçok çalışma bulunmaktadır. Bu çalışmaların sonuçlarının, üniversitelerin öğrencileri yurtdışı eğitim konusunda cesaretlendirdiğine ilişkin bulguları destekler nitelikte olduğu görülmektedir. Ancak, bu çalışmalar incelendiğinde dikkati çekecek bir şekilde eksik olan bir noktanın bulunduğu gözlemlenmektedir. Çalışmalarda, ikinci dil kullanımı yoluyla öğrenenlerin kimlik gelişimlerine, yani ikinci dil kimliklerine ve yurtdışı eğitim bağlamında dil öğrenimlerine herhangi bir vurguda bulunulmamaktadır. Muhtemelen, yabancı veya ikinci bir dil öğreniminin en iyi yolunun, o dili anadili olarak

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konuşan kişilerle arkadaşlıklar geliştirmenin ve onlarla bu dil aracılığıyla iletişime geçmek olduğuna inanılmaktadır. Bu ifade fazlaca iyimser ve uygun görünmekte ve bir dil öğreniminde yeni bir ortama maruz kalındığında herhangi bir zihinsel engelle karşı karşıya kalınmayacağını varsaymaktadır. Buna karşılık, birçok öğretmen iletişim ve sosyal becerilerde yetersizlik gösteren öğrencileri pasif ve sessiz olarak tanımlamaktadırlar. Ancak, bu noktada öğretmenler, bu tarz öğrencilerin Japonya’dan ayrıldıklarında genellikle daha açık sözlü ve özgüvenli bir karakter sergilediklerine ilişkin gerçeği farkına varmamaktadırlar. Bu nedenle, yurtdışı eğitim programlarına üç veya dört haftalık bir süre ile katılmış olan üç Japon öğrenciden sözel olarak alınan nitel verilere dayanan bu çalışma, ikinci dil kimliği ve dil öğreniminin yapısını post-yapısalcı bir çerçevede incelemektedir. Post-yapısalcı bakış açısıyla, dil değişendir; kimlikler ise çok yönlü, çelişkili ve birçok farklı duruma ve etkileşime göre değişir. Buna ek olarak, post-yapısalcılar belirli bir dil/kimlik bağıntısı oluşturulduğunda, güç ilişkinlerinin her zaman karıştırıldığını tartışmaktadırlar. Çalışmanın amacı, öğrencilerin kimliklerindeki değişimleri gözler önüne sermektir. Bu nedenle çalışmada, insan davranışlarının karmaşıklığını ortaya koyabilmek için en uygun yol olduğu düşünülen sözel bir yaklaşım uygulanmıştır. Bu sayede, deneyimlere ilişkin sözel veriler aracılığıyla katılımcıların kimlik yapıları çözümlenmiştir.

Araştırmanın verileri, katılımcılardan yurtdışı eğitim deneyimlerini betimlemelerinin istendiği birebir ve yarı-yapılandırılmış görüşmelerden elde edilmiştir. İlk olarak katılımcıların ifadeleri, Japonca’dan İngilizce’ye çevrilmiştir. Katılımcılardan elde edilen tüm ifadeler çevrildikten ve bir araya getirildikten sonra, ifadeler yazıya aktarılarak kaydedilmiştir. Daha sonra katılımcıların anlatıları, yapı veya değişimle ilgili olan ifadeleri betimlemek amacıyla tekrar tekrar incelenmiş ve iki ana başlık altında kategorize edilmiştir: hedef dil (HD)-odaklı gelişim ve HD-odaklı öz-aydınlanma. Çalışmada, katılımcıların deneyimlerini nasıl betimledikleri üzerine odaklandığından dolayı içerik analizi işe koşulmuştur.

Araştırmanın bulguları, tüm katılımcıların ikinci il kimliklerini olumlu bir şekilde yapılandırdıklarını göstermiştir. İlk olarak, tüm katılımcılar İngilizce dil yeterliliklerinde az bir gelişim olduğunu ya da hiç gelişim olmadığını söylemelerine rağmen, İngilizce’yi öğrenme ve kullanma davranışları, dili gerçek uygulamada kullanmalarının ardından değişmiştir. Katılımcılar, yerel halkın kendilerine karşı olan açık ve arkadaşça davranışlarının karşısında cesaretlenmiş ve İngilizce’yi kullanma konusunda isteklenmişlerdir. Katılımcıların bu cesaretleri ve isteklilikleri, kişiler Japonya’dayken hiç ortaya çıkmamıştır. Bunun nedeni, katılımcıların kötü telaffuzlarından dolayı utanmaları veya anadili İngilizce olan öğretmenlerle konuşmaya çalıştıklarında diğerleri tarafından “hava atıyormuş” gibi görünmelerinden çekinmeleridir. Çok kuvvetli bir biçimde olumlu olarak kazanılan deneyimler, öğrencilerin ülkelerine/evlerine dönmelerinden sonra da devam ettiği görülmüştür. Buna ek olarak, tüm katılımcıların geliştirmeyi planladıkları ikinci dil kimliklerini uygun bir şekilde yapılandırabildiklerini gözlemlenmiştir. Bu yapılandırma sürecinde öğrenenler, hayran oldukları insanlarla karşılaşmaları sonucunda oluşturdukları öz-aydınlanmadan yararlanmışlardır. Aynı zamanda, katılımcılar kendilerini özlem duydukları koşullara yerleştirdiklerinde, dilbilimsel çözümleme ve bağlamsal dilbilim konusunda farkındalık geliştirebilmişlerdir. Genel olarak çalışma, sosyal etkileşimde adaletsiz güç ilişkileri olmadığında, dil öğrenenlerinin herhangi bir çekince veya kaygı hissetmeden dili öğrenebildikleri ve ikinci dil kimliklerini olumlu bir biçimde yapılandırabildiklerini göstermiştir.

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Pre-Service Language Teachers’ Reflections on the Implementation of a Blended-Learning Environment

Yabancı Dil Öğretmen Adaylarının Harmanlanmış Öğrenme Uygulaması Hakkındaki Görüşleri

Hatice Müge SatarBoğaziçi University, [email protected]

Sumru AkcanBoğaziçi University, [email protected]

AbstractThe study investigated pre-service language teachers’ reflections about a 20-week blended-learning environment. An online social presence training developed by Hauck and Warnecke (2012) was introduced to the face-to-face practicum course during the fall term and the pre-service teachers were immersed in an online learning environment where they can practice their newly acquired skills during the spring term. The course was also a combination of pedagogical and technical training as the pre-service teachers not only learned how to use different tools to participate online, but also experienced using them for teaching and learning purposes whilst constantly reflecting on their practice. The design of this study was a descriptive case study. 42 pre-service language teachers participated in this study during the fall semester and 25 during the spring semester of 2012-2013 academic year. Canvas was used as the learning management system in which the participants created audio/visual or written introductions and weekly discussions on the discussion board. The data collection included online forum participations and journal entries per participant at certain intervals throughout the course to obtain participants’ ongoing reflections about the course. The results obtained from an analysis of the participants’ journal and forum entries indicated that social presence training enhanced their awareness towards the active use of the online platform; however, the design of the task affected the level of motivation and communication among the pre-service language teachers. The discussion emphasizes the significance of the interrelationship between task design and the maintenance of participation in a blended-learning environment.

Keywords: Blended learning; online tools; social presence; reflection; teacher education

ÖzBu çalışma yabancı dil öğretmen adaylarının kendilerine sunulan 20 haftalık bir harmanlanmış öğrenme ortamı hakkındaki görüşlerini araştırmayı amaçlamaktadır. Hauck ve Warnecke (2002) tarafından geliştirilen ve çevirimiçi bir eğitim olan sosyal bulunuşluk eğitimi güz döneminde sunulan ve yüz yüze sunulan okul deneyimi dersi kapsamına dahil edilmiştir. Bahar döneminde ise öğretmen adayları okul deneyimi seminer dersi kapsamında sunulan çevirimiçi öğrenme ortamında yeni öğrendikleri becerileri kullanma imkanı bulmuşlardır. Harmanlanmış öğrenme ortamı ile hem pedagojik hem de çevrimiçi ile ilgili teknik eğitimin vurgulandığı derste öğretmen adayları yalnızca çevirimiçi ortamlara katılırken farklı araçları nasıl kullanacaklarını öğrenmekle kalmamış aynı zamanda sürekli olarak deneyimlerini değerlendirerek bu

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araçları öğrenme ve öğretme ortamlarında nasıl kullanabileceklerini deneyimlemişlerdir.

Bu çalışmanın araştırma yöntemi tanımlayıcı durum çalışmasıdır. Çalışmaya 2012-2013 eğitim-öğretim döneminde güz döneminde 42, bahar döneminde de 25 yabancı dil öğretmen adayı katılmıştır. Çalışmada eğitim yönetim sistemi olarak Canvas kullanılmıştır. Sistem içinde katılmcılar kendilerini tanıcıtıcı görsel/işitsel veya yazılı metinler oluşturmuş ve tartışma panosunda haftalık tartışmalara katılmışlardır. Araştırma verilerini katılımcıların çevirimiçi tartışma panolarına katılımları ve eğitim süresince katılımcıların eğitim hakkındaki gelişen ve değişen görüşlerini takip edebilmek üzere belirli aralıklarla öğretmen adaylarından istenen günlükler oluşturmaktadır.

Katılımcıların günlüklerini ve tartışma panosu katılımlarından elde edilen verilerin nitel analizi sonucunda elde edilen veriler sosyal bulunuşluk eğitiminin öğretmen adaylarının çevirimiçi ortamın aktif kullanımı konusunda farkındalığını arttırdığını göstermektedir. Aynı zamanda, eğitimde kullanılan görev ve etkinliklerin öğretmen adaylarının motivasyon ve iletişimini etkilediği görülmektedir. Bulgular harmanlanmış öğrenme ortamlarında etkinlik tasarımı ve katılımın devamlılığının sağlanması arasındaki sıkı ilişkinin önemini vurgulamaktadır.

Anahtar Sözcükler: Harmanlanmış öğrenme; internet araçları; sosyal bulunuşluk; üstünde düşünme; öğretmen eğitimi

Introduction

There is a general agreement that developing reflective skills is a valuable aim in teacher education (Farrell, 2007; Freese, 2006; Lougran, 2002). Integrating reflection-based tasks into field-based experiences benefits both pre-service teachers and teacher educators by helping them to better understand the process of becoming a teacher. There are different ways of reflecting on one’s beliefs about classroom practices, interaction, and the learning process. These can be explored by the use of classroom observations, video recording of a teaching performance, and synchronous and asynchronous group discussions. Richardson (2006) indicated that online environments could facilitate thinking and collaboration for reflection and decision-making.

In Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory, learning is defined as “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (p.41). Teachers need to create a conversational environment in which they can talk about their experiences as they transform experience into knowledge. They can do this by sharing and reflecting on their experiences. Since 1980s, many synchronous and asynchronous tools have been used in online interaction and exchange to facilitate sharing and reflection practices in learning processes (Dooly & O’Dowd, 2012). Caner (2010) proposed an online platform to facilitate sharing of online lesson plans and video recordings of practice teachings and to foster reflection through peer feedback in an online discussion board. He concluded that continuous feedback from the tutors and peers on lesson plans and teaching practices contributed to pre-service teachers’ professional growth.

As technologies have become more and more ubiquitous in learning and teaching settings, it is no longer sufficient to introduce learners to online resources, but “we have to promote the kind of literacy required to use the new democratic learning spaces to their best effect” (Hampel & Hauck, 2006). As Pegrum (2009) suggests, social constructivism plays an important role in preparing students to digitally mediated

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societies and in equipping them with the necessary digital literacy skills. Hauck and Warnecke (2012) argued that we could ready language teachers for the skills required for the future by offering them an online tutoring skills training with a focus on improving awareness of participatory literacy and social presence.

Participatory literacy involves “digital communicative literacy, which provides a foundation for online interactions, [...] and which facilitates the collaborative processes” (Pegrum, 2009; cited in Hauck & Warnecke, 2012). Hockly (2012) further contends that participatory literacy “involves being able to create and produce digital content; this in turn includes ‘cultural/intercultural literacy’ when working with international virtual teams”. As such, participatory literacy is deemed necessary for full participation in the digital world. Social presence, on the other hand, is defined by Kehrwald (2008) as “the ability of the individual to demonstrate his/her availability for and willingness to participate in interaction” (Kehrwald, 2008) and is developed “through seeing and experiencing … how others interact with one another and how others react to their personal efforts to cultivate a social presence” (Kehrwald, 2010, p.47).

In order to foster the development of these two skills, i.e. the skills needed to fully participate online and to demonstrate availability and willingness to participate, Hauck and Warnecke (2012) developed an online tutoring skills training. For the design of the training, they drew on “Hoven’s (2006) ‘experiential modeling approach’ where the tools and processes the tutors were expected to use in their teaching were experienced beforehand from a learner’s point of view” (p.102) and on Allwright and Hanks’ (2009) understanding of exploratory practice in which the learners (teachers) and the tutors are considered as colleagues helping each other explore and learn from their own practices.

The training was originally developed for practicing teachers teaching in online environments and it was clearly structured around five weeks of study with three tasks to be completed each week. As further explained in the methods section, in the present study, an adapted version of the online tutoring skills training by Hauck and Warnecke (2012) was implement in a blended learning context to equip pre-service English language teachers with the skills they would need in their future careers. The training was further supported with an environment for extended practice and production in the skills gained.

This study focused on online interaction and exchange in which pre-service language teachers interacted with each other by using online networks for the purpose of professional development. In other words, the practicum course was designed in a blended-learning environment in which face-to-face discussions and online exchanges were used simultaneously during the course.Within this context, the guiding questions of the present study were:

1. How do the pre-service English language teachers react to the implementation of online tools used in a practicum course in a blended-learning environment?

2. What are the pre-service English language teachers’ opinions towards the integration of online tasks into the face-to-face environment of the practicum course?

Research Methods

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This study adopts a qualitative approach to research, which stresses “the socially constructed nature of reality, the intimate relationship between the researcher and what is studied, and the situational constraints that shape inquiry” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005, p.10). Qualitative research is sometimes criticized to lack rigour and objectivity, yet as Richards (2003) states “qualitative inquiry is anything but a soft option – it demands rigour, precision, systematicity and careful attention to detail” (2003, p.6). Epistemologically, the study takes an interpretivist stance in order to explore the subjective meanings of the participants in a context within which “knowledge is ‘constructed not discovered’, is ‘multiple not single’ and cannot “ever be simply ‘dis-covered’” (Stainton-Rogers, 2006, p.80).

The study is a descriptive case study in that it aims to document a naturally occurring implementation of a blended learning situation to provide an in-depth understanding of the reflections of pre-service teachers (Creswell, 2007; Yin, 2003). Yin (2003) commented that a case study approach is especially suitable where contextual conditions are highly relevant. This study is also an opportunistic case study as the case was the most accessible (Creswell, 2007) and provided the highest opportunity to learn (Stake, 2005) because one of the researchers was the tutor of the courses at the time when the introduction of the online training was feasible. While the main aim of a case study is to focus on the particular context of the case (Creswell, 2007; Stake, 2005; Yin, 2003), the findings of the study can be used for naturalistic generalizations (Stake, 1995) where other researchers or practitioners can compare their own experience with the one presented here.

Although the data was collected over two semesters (fall and spring) as part of two related practicum courses, the instruction provided in both semesters is perceived as a single case because the spring semester course acted as a continuation of the fall semester and participation to the online training during the fall semester was a prerequisite for the spring semester. Moreover, the online components evolved with continuous interaction and consultation with the participants; i.e. changes were made to meet participant needs and expectations based on prolonged feedback through journal entries, comments on the discussions and face-to-face interactions. Throughout the case, especially between the two semesters, the number of teacher candidates and tutors as well as the nature of the tasks changed as explained in the subsequent sections, and at times whole class discussions had to be divided into group discussions to allow deeper engagement with the content. Each of these changes could have had an effect on the dynamics of the online community at various stages of the study. Therefore, we do not attempt to compare the data from two semesters, but rather to describe and explore the participants’ experience and engagement throughout the two semesters.

We also acknowledge the potential influence of our participation and our changing tutor roles in the online environment on the participants’ perception of the online context and thereby on their experience. In our analysis, we have been cautious of any willingness on the part of the pre-service teachers to be ‘a good research participant’ and tried to observe and reflexively interpret the effects of our presence and participation on participant reflections.

Participants and the Case Context

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The participants of this study were pre-service English language teachers from the English Language Teaching (ELT) department of an English-medium state university in Istanbul. Pre-service teachers with an age range of 20 to 22 took their practicum course as fourth-year students in their teacher education programme. All of the participants in this study were graduates of teacher training high schools. They were all considered to be highly motivated pre-service teachers. The participants formed a homogeneous group in terms of their educational background, pre-service instructional experience and English proficiency level. They had all learnt English in classroom settings and had been exposed to formal training. Prior to commencing their ELT studies, the participants had all completed the English foundation programme of the university for one academic year and met the minimum English language proficiency requirement on the university’s English proficiency test.

In the ELT department in which this study was conducted, students are provided with a foundation in theoretical and applied areas through courses in English linguistics and literature, teaching of grammar and the four skills, first and second language acquisition, teaching young children, syllabus design, language testing, and foreign language teaching methodology to prepare them to teach English at primary, secondary and tertiary level.

The ELT department also offers courses such as school experience and practice teaching in selected private and state schools. Apart from the practice teaching, the pre-service teachers also meet for a two-hour seminar course once a week, taught by the university supervisor, to share their experiences in the cooperating primary, secondary and high schools. The seminar classes aim to help pre-service language teachers make connections between the course materials and the classes they observe and teach.

Data for this study was collected during the fall and spring semesters of 2012-2013. Forty-two pre-service language teachers took the course in the fall semester and twenty-five pre-service language teachers enrolled in the practicum course in the spring semester. All teacher candidates taking the courses in both semesters gave informed consent to participate in the study and their names have been anonymized for analysis purposes. All participant comments in this paper are reported verbatim.

All of the spring semester participants had taken the fall semester course and thus had participated in the fall semester. Both the fall and the spring semesters included a face-to-face component in which the pre-service language teachers shared their practicum experiences and reflected on their teaching performance. One of the researchers was the tutor for the face-to-face component for both semesters.

The Online Component

The focus of this study concerns the data collected in relation to the online component of the courses. During the fall semester, the online component constituted the introduction of an online training developed and offered by Hauck and Warnecke (2012), which focused on the facilitation and improvement of online tutoring skills with special attention paid to social presence and participatory literacy skills. Hauck and Warnecke themselves participated in the online platform as tutors, as well as the researchers, acting as facilitators. For the spring semester, the online component was not structured as a training environment per se, but rather as a platform where participants could have

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extended practice in online tutoring skills and the use of various Web 2.0 tools in online teaching contexts.

We used the open-source Learning Management System (LMS) Canvas by Instructure (http://www.instructure.com/) as the learning platform for the online components in both semesters. The platform was easy to use and did not require much technical knowledge neither to set it up nor to run it. The participants’ instructional technology skills were varied and thus usability was a main concern. Accessed via a menu on the left-hand side of the web page, the platform offers a discussion board, personal pages, syllabus, quizzes and a synchronous videoconference tool. It also has a course analytics page, which provides both overall and individual quantitative course data. In addition to introducing the participants to the active use of an LMS, several other freely available Web 2.0 tools were included in the tasks. Some of these were:

- audio and/or video recoding (recording within Canvas and www.voxopop/com)

- screen recording (www.screenr.com)

- story creation (www.storyjumper.com)

- online posters (www.glogster.com)

- onlinesmartboard (http://express.smarttech.com/)

- synchronous teaching environment (http://bigbluebutton.org/)

- other tools of interest (websites, blogs, video and presentation creation tools including www.goanimate.com and www.prezi.com)

The activities in both semesters were designed with a task-based online learning format. A task is an activity “designed for learners … to share ideas and opinions and to collaborate towards the accomplishment of a goal” (Pica, Kanagy & Falodun, 1993). The online training for the fall semester was designed around five topics, which were 1. Introductions and online icebreaker ideas, 2. Patterns of participation, 3. Forums and motivation, 4. Online smartboards, and 5. Task design. Tasks for each topic lasted two weeks during which participants carried out the tasks and discussions on the discussion boards within Canvas. Each topic was built around three tasks and had the same structure. The first stage for each task aimed to relate the topic to participants’ earlier experiences, the second stage was planned to get participants engage in the theoretical background, research findings or practitioner recommendations, and at the third stage the participants were asked to reflect on their own experiences (Hauck & Warnecke, 2012). Therefore, the task stages for each topic was highly structured and based on activating prior knowledge, learning about the theory and reflecting on experience. While some tasks were more theoretical and the reflection consisted of contemplation on earlier experiences (Figure 1), others encouraged participants to create and reflect on an actual experience during the course (Figure 2).

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Figure 1. Fall Semester Task Design 1

Figure 2. Fall Semester Task Design 2

The online component for the spring semester was a venue for experimentation, creation and discussion. There were three topics each to be completed over a period of three weeks. The topics were 1. Exploring Web 2.0 tools, 2. Job interviews, and 3. Animated stories. All topics incorporated trying out a new tool to create a material for language teaching purposes and, in the case of the second topic, recording a job interview and

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then reflecting on the effects of recording learners for language teaching purposes. The participants were also allowed to start their own discussion threads independent of the three topics presented to them in which they shared ideas for teaching including lesson planning and classroom management. Task design for the spring term was production oriented. There were mainly two stages to task design. During the first stage, the topic or a variety of Web 2.0 tools were presented and the participants were encouraged to experience using the tool and to produce an activity or material. For the second stage, the participants were asked to reflect and comment on each other’s productions and reflect on their uses in language learning contexts (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Spring Semester Task Design

Data Collection Techniques

Case studies collect “multiple sources of information (e.g. observations, interviews, audiovisual material, and documents and reports), and reports a case description and case-based themes” (Creswell, 2007, p.73, italics in original). In the ensuing analysis, participants’ perspectives about the online component are reported based on the data obtained from eight journal entries (one after each topic; five in the fall semester and three in the spring semester) and the participants’ reflections in the online discussions throughout both the fall and the spring semesters.

Methods of Data Analysis

A qualitative in-depth analysis of the data was conducted drawing on grounded theory principles laid out by Strauss and Corbin (1998) and thematic analysis for case studies as explained by Stake (1995). Grounded theory analysis begins by the identification of

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salient categories and then constantly looking for other confirming or contradictory examples of the categories by constant comparison method. Stake (1995) describes four stages of data analysis. Categorical aggregation is the first stage where the researcher looks for instances in the data that represent issue-relevant meanings. In the second stage, direct interpretation, the researcher tries to make sense of each instance without looking for multiple instances. Following this, the third stage, pattern establishment, involves establishing relationships between categories and finally the fourth stage, naturalistic generalizations, enables the readers to draw conclusions from the case.

Following these principles, initially, both researchers individually coded and looked for salient themes constantly trying to make sense of the data and checking for examples that confirms or disconfirms the initial coding. This was followed by a cross-comparison of the themes coded by each researcher to obtain recurrent themes and finally drawing conclusions from the case.

Analysis

Before embarking on an explanation of the emerging themes, for descriptive purposes, it is perhaps useful to provide an outline of the amount of engagement with the online environment. To that end, Table 1 represents the number of pages viewed during the fall and spring semesters. Fall semester page views were highest during the first two weeks of the course reaching 1800 pages, and then dropping down to 700 pages towards the end of the semester. On the other hand, page views in the spring semester reached 1000 pages, with highest page views towards the middle and end of the semester. The figures indicate a high level of interest in the online platform in terms of logging in and viewing the pages. However, it would be presumptuous to draw any conclusions on the reasons for the fluctuations in page views given the data analyzed for and the scope of this paper because the fluctuations might have been due to changes in the number of participants, the nature of the tasks and the content, and the number of tutors as the semesters developed; hence, due to changes in the dynamics of the community, or simply in relation to factors irrelevant to the course, such as students’ workload throughout the year.

Table 1Number of Page Views

Fall semester – 42 pre-service teachers

Spring semester – 25 pre-service teachers

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Thematic Analysis of Participant Reflections

Following the qualitative analysis of the data in order to explore participants’ perspectives on the integration of an online component to the existing face-to-face practicum course and their opinions on the tasks used, five recurring themes emerged. These are presented in Table 2 below. Each of these themes is explained and exemplified in the following sections.

Table 2Recurring Themes

1. Web 2.0 tools 4. Participation2. Workload 5. Task design3. Group versus whole class discussion

Web 2.0 tools

For both semesters, participants were pleased with the fact that they were introduced to Web 2.0 tools and given the chance to develop language teaching materials using these tools. The online platform, i.e. Canvas as the LMS, was in itself a point of interest as the participants were well aware of the increasing use of these systems in secondary schools, especially in private ones. Below are the comments of two participants, at different times of the year, explaining their awareness of the need to use Web 2.0 tools in their future careers and their enthusiasm in learning about the tools.

“In week 1, what I find most useful was "sharing an icebreaker idea" because I think that as a prospective teacher it will be useful for me in the near future. I can use them ... in forums like this if I become a teacher in a private school because the usage of forums like canvas, moodle etc. is very common in private schools.” (Fatma G., Fall, Journalentry 1)

“The best thing I learned was amazing web tools that I can make use of in my future career. ... As teaching with webtools is the latestf ashion at schools, I would create activities with different tools. For example, creating a story online with a new web tool was amazing. I would have used it in my officials as main activity if I had known it before.” (Zehra Y., Spring, Journalentry 3)

In the extracts above, Fatma G. comments on one of the tasks in the fall semester, the topic of which was “sharing an icebreaker idea” that could be used online. By their final year, pre-service teachers were well informed about such activities to be used in face-to-face classrooms yet face-to-face activities cannot easily be transformed to online

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contexts. Zehra Y., on the other hand, shares her eagerness to develop teaching materials online and to be able to use them not just in online contexts, but also in face-to-face settings.

Workload

Another theme that ran over both semesters was workload. For the fall term, the requirements of the online tutoring skills training, specifically the amount of material the students needed to engage with, the number of tasks they had to complete and their participation in the discussion forum, was the main contributing factor to workload.

“I would be very happy if there were fewer tasks. … This is because it is really hard to catch up with it.” (Zehra Y., Fall, Forum entry, Topic 1)

“At first, it was easy to follow the discussions, and I was really eager to do it, but then the messages kept coming and coming, then I felt that I was lost. And I started not to be able to keep up with the messages, and missed many of them. … However, no matter how much more I want to participate in the discussions, I only have 1 or 2 days to visit here and read the messages. … This is my last year as the rest of my friends, and we have lots to do right now: we have our observations in high schools and primary schools (practicum), some of us (including myself) are working part time, we are taking tests that are required forgetting hired, and I'm also taking open university courses.” ( Zeynep K, Fall, Journal entry 1)

The extracts above indicate that while Zehra Y. expresses her wish for fewer tasks to reduce workload, Zeynep K.’s concern is focused on not being able to engage with and participate in the discussions fully. Her comment is from the beginning of the fall semester, where there were forty-two students enrolled in the system. With the novelty effect, participation was high, which made it really time-consuming to read and respond to all or most forum contributions. The second part of Zeynep K.’s comment reflects the busy life of a senior undergraduate student with a variety of commitments as part of their degree and extra-curricular concerns. This latter concept of workload was highly relevant especially for the spring semester implementation of Canvas. Although workload for the online component was considerably reduced, some students, e.g. Filiz B. and Mehmet T., still found it difficult to balance the load for the online component and the face-to-face component in addition to other life concerns. These are exemplified in the extracts below.

“The worst thing [about the online component] is it really increased the load of the lesson. It became overwhelming. … We have already been doing an intense internship programme. Also, we have other classes and right now we are in job hunting process. Thinking all of these, canvas made [code of the practicum course] overwhelming.” (Filiz B., Spring, Journal entry 3)

“[code of the practicum course] is a very demanding course. … Using Canvas is a nice idea, yet ...There are too many other things to do apart from Canvas.” (Mehmet T., Spring, Journal entry 3)

Group versus whole class discussion

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Another salient feature of participant reflections directly follows from the previous theme in that in order to reduce the workload caused by the time required to read and respond to the discussion posts, the participants were allocated to smaller discussion groups for the last three topics during the fall semester. The participants were divided into three randomly selected groups each with a separate discussion thread. This received both positive and negative reactions.

“I just want to thank you that you understand our workload, and try to help us by grouping us for the discussions.” (Zeynep K., Fall, Journal entry 2)

“It was definitely different than the whole class discussions as, now, I can read each of my group-mates' posts. I can actually follow the discussions, and share my ideas with them.” (Zeynep K., Fall, Journal entry 3)

“I think as a hindsight that the whole class discussions was better. That is because now there are only a few posts in my group. Everybody did not participate contrary to original purpose in setting groups. I enjoy reading others' posts. Therefore I was disappointed when few participated. But I should admit that this whole thing turned out to be less time consuming, though.” (Yigit A., Fall, Journal entry 2)

As the extracts above indicate, the idea of making smaller discussion groups did help reduce the workload, especially for pre-service teachers like Zeynep K., who wanted to engage in all the posts by reading and reflecting on them and adding her own comments. Her appreciation of the change is clearly visible in the comments she made at separate occasions. However, the move was not always welcome, particularly in one of the groups where there was less active participation. Not surprisingly, each participant’s pattern of participation was different; while some preferred to read more and write less, others enjoyed being more vocal. In groups where there were more ‘quiet’ students, lack of inviting and intriguing comments caused the discussions to die off despite tutor efforts to encourage participation and stir discussion. Consequently, pre-service teachers like Yigit A. were put at a disadvantage.

Participation

As one of the topics of the fall semester was online participation, there was a wealth of data in which participants reflected on their participation patterns. Throughout the course, not all students actively participated and engaged in the discussions at all times. This was an expected outcome given potentially different interests and communication styles of the participants in learning environments. In terms of passive participation, where participants read, but not contributed to discussions, three reasons were put forward. One of these was a lack of a ‘need’ to contribute and the notion that feeling involved did not necessarily require active participation. Zeynep K., who was actually one of the active participants, expressed this idea as in the following extract.

I think I could read my friends' posts, and felt that I was involved in the discussion even though I didn't feel the need to write a response to many of them. (Zeynep K., Fall, Journal entry 2)

Another idea that participants’ put forth relates to ‘ease’ and perhaps their already established patterns of participation and ways of indicating online presence in social

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media where much of the interaction involves short comments and expressing ‘likes’ by clicking on a ‘like button’.

I rarely participate forums, but i read a lot when searching for a piece of information. sometimes i want to thank to the writer of that topic but the forum requires to be signed up. Thats why i always want a "like button" which, i believe, makes things a lot easier : ) (Mehmet T., Fall, Forum entry, Topic 2)

Finally, when learners participated in online discussions, they wished to be ‘noticed’ and ‘valued’, which happened when others commented on their posts. As expressed by Dilek S. and Merve C. below, platforms that are not ‘sincere’ and the fear of ‘going unnoticed’ and ‘not being liked’ might become the primary reasons for reduced active participation in the discussions within the learning management system.

“When I partipate in discussions, I feel valued when someone comment on my ideas. I think that they read my ideas and try to understand me.” (Dilek S., Spring, Journal entry 2)

“The only place where I sometimes share something and participate is facebook. Even in facebook I seldomly share something or comment on something. In general I like the comments of others, but do not post a comment. there are many reasons behind it: I do not find these types of platforms sincere, but the main reason that even I myself do not accept can be 'I have the concern of going unnotticed, not being able to catch the attention of others and not being liked.” (Merve C.,Fall, Forum entry, Topic 2)

Task design

The final theme that emerged in the analysis of the data was related to online task design. As explained in the methods section, the online component for the course had different task designs in the fall and spring semesters. Each topic in the fall semester was clearly structured around three tasks, the focus of which were, consecutively, activating earlier experiences, engaging in theoretical background and production and reflection. Therefore, the output for the first two tasks was discussions while the third also included a concrete output produced by experimenting with an online tool. Participants seemed to prefer the first and the third tasks more as they supported free expression of earlier experiences and production and did not require prior theoretical reading. Zeynep K.’s comments on these ideas were as follows.

And I think the first task of that week worked the best, as we didn’t need to get informed on something first to share our response. We had the info, and we wrote it right away. But, that doesn’t mean that the rest of the tasks didn’t work. I especially like tasks 3 where we need to produce something. In those tasks, we learned new tools, and had a meaningful reason to use them. (Zeynep K., Fall, Journal entry 3)

Furthermore, some participants acknowledged the fact that different learners would prefer different types of tasks. For example, for Deniz G.: “some of us like writing or some of us are in favour of making projects” (Fall, Journal entry 2). Ozkan L. was another participant who expressed similar views. For him, it was necessary for online tasks to be

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engaging and to make students feel independent. Yet he also accepted that ‘a fierce consolidating discussion’ could be as attractive.

To encourage students online learning the tasks should be engaging, I mean Students need to feel independent and at the same time they need to have some fun. ... For example, collaborative group works on online projects, ... writing and academic essay together, going over articles related to relevant issues. ... sometimes, even feeling that you are in a fierce, consolidating discussion that will add your bulk of knowledge could be a trigger for students to go online and share their ideas, there. (Ozkan L., Fall, Forum entry, Topic 5)

On the other hand, the spring semester tasks did not involve much theoretical reading. The main focus in these tasks was concrete productions using Web 2.0 tools and reflections on the implementations of the tools in language learning settings. Hence, the tasks were highly related to the participants’ immediate contexts. The spring semester also allowed participants to start their own discussion threads and share useful ideas and web links. The quotes from Sema P. and Burcu Z. below reflect the positive effect of relevance on their willingness to participate.

“The discussions and tasks which are more related to our job/practicum make it easier for us to participate. ... I think I participate in Canvas more often because the topics are more related to our field and I feel happy to share my experiences and learn from others.” (Sema P., Spring, Journal entry 2)

“During the second semester canvas was more meaningful and practical. Whenever I searched for an idea, I checked it because my friends and tutors shared some useful links.” (Burcu Z., Spring, Journal entry 3)

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to explore pre-service English language teachers’ reflections on the integration of an online component in two fourth-year face-to-face practicum courses as part of an English Language Teaching undergraduate program in Istanbul. The findings represented participant reflections under five themes: Web 2.0 tools, workload, group versus whole class discussions, participation and task design.

It is now widely accepted that the inclusion of new technologies in our lives requires the inclusion of new skills, i.e. information, media and technology skills, in education programs (Hockly, 2012). It is not only the students who need to become competent in digital literacies, but the teachers also need to use new tools and teach in online environments. One of the findings in our study indicated that this need was widely acknowledged by the pre-service teachers and their willingness to learn about the use of new technologies in teaching was high. This means that the introduction of digital literacy skills and Web 2.0 tools are no longer optional, but they should become an essential component of language teacher training programs.

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Another finding of this study was related to participant comments on their workload. It became apparent that blended courses should be carefully designed specifically in terms of the workload because participating in online communities and using Web 2.0 tools and creating materials with such tools might take much more time than the tutors can envisage. An iterative design would perhaps be suitable where workload is adjusted based on the needs and skills ofeach student group as well as the feedback obtained from previous groups. Moreover, introduction of such platforms should perhaps take place in the earlier years of the undergraduate program where students are less distracted with other life concerns. As Goldman (2011) suggests, the demanding workload of online education can also be reduced by being more flexible in choosing a convenient time and day for students for discussion tasks. Student retention and learning outcomes can be accomplished through systematic announcements, innovative tasks, and group projects (Goldman, 2011).

A solution to the increased difficulty in participating in the discussions due to a high number of posts was to divide the participants into smaller groups. While participants who were then able to participate at a deeper level welcomed this move, it created uneasiness in groups with little active participation. This indicated that any intervention to the online group would probably change the dynamics of the online community affecting the efficiency of the discussions. Hence, tutors should carefully observe the dynamics within the community and be flexible enough to make changes as necessary.

However, this might increase the workload of the tutor further. As Peachy (2013) contends, “If the tutor is unhappy, or feels overwhelmed or exploited then the course is unlikely to be successful, however well you may have designed your materials” (p.72). Here, it is important to note that in addition to the pre-service teachers, it was also difficult for the tutors to monitor and facilitate the discussions. The availability of four tutors during the fall semester and two tutors during the spring semester helped reduce the workload as we were able to notify each other when we would be available or unavailable as online tutors and hence share the workload. Where this is not possible, an alternative would be to assign different aspects of the tutor role, e.g. facilitator, critical reflector, summarizer, to different participants in the course (Vonderwell & Sachariah, 2005). The impact of such distribution of roles on the group dynamics and participation patterns should also be considered. As Vonderwell and Sachariah (2005) argued: “It becomes essential to understand the implications of online roles and tasks for learner participation, specifically in the context of a course that relies on interdependence, participation, and interaction” (pp.222-223).

Although one of the aims of the online tutoring skills training was to allow pre-service language teachers explore participatory literacy skills (Hauck & Warnecke, 2012; Pegrum, 2009), some of the participant comments indicated their preference for passive participation, i.e. observing the participation of others. They indicated a feeling of involvement even though they did not contribute to the discussion themselves. Sutton (2001) and Williams (2004) found similar results and argued that ‘absorbing’ and ‘processing’ the interaction among others might as well lead to learning. Yet, Vonderwell and Sachariah (2005) concluded that “online presence and participation is essential for motivation and ongoing dialogue among course participants” (p.225). Therefore, the expected idea of participation should be clearly identified and explained to the participants.

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Online tutors should also need to be aware that there could be other reasons for silence and lack of participation. As our findings suggest, one such reason could be worries about not being valued and paid attention to, while another could be participants’ already established participation patterns in social media which are limited to expressing likes using a ‘like button’ or adding short comments. Given that collaboration and reflection are invaluable resources in learning contexts, tutors need to monitor and acknowledge learner participation carefully. Moreover, tutors’ attention alone would perhaps not be sufficient, but learners would need to be noticed and valued by their peers, too. To that end, tutors should encourage learners to find ways of expressing their understanding of their friends’ comments and to engage in higher order thinking skills that foster engaging dialogue among the learners.

One way to encourage learners to actively participate is a thoughtful design of tasks. The findings in this study illustrated that the participants saw the real value of the online component in tasks where they could produce and share their output, which was not feasible in the face-to-face component. The participants also stated that they enjoyed sharing their individual experiences online, potentially because of limited time allocated for sharing of individual experiences in the classroom due to time constraints of the face-to-face setting. However, the participants were not as enthusiastic about the theoretical readings for the online course. One interpretation of this could be their perception of theoretical reading and discussion to be part of the face-to-face component or simply the workload, as discussed earlier. Finally, participant comments demonstrated the importance of immediate relevance of the online content. Peachy (2013) underscores the importance of task design in triggering deeper engagement. Tasks, especially the ones that require theoretical discussions, rather than production of materials, need to be designed and monitored to stimulate “fierce, consolidating discussion”, as one of the participants described. Peachy (2013) also recommends unity and continuity between the online and face-to-face components of the blended learning, using social interactivity as the core element for the design of online tasks, encouraging autonomy and reflection, being time realistic and being prepared to change based on the lessons learned and the developments in technology and materials.

Conclusion

The online tutoring skills training in our study enhanced pre-service language teachers’ awareness towards the active use of the online platform; while the design and topic of the tasks affected the level of motivation among them. There was a strong relationship between task design and maintenance of participation.

The experiential learning tasks used in the blended-learning environment of the practicum course offered pre-service teachers opportunities to make meaning from direct experience. They were actively involved in the experience, reflected on it and shared their ideas with their peers. As reflected in the words of one of the pre-service teachers, Zeynep, four words capture the nature of this learning experience clearly: “Learn, Comment, Produce and Share”. The participants also frequently benefited from their decision-making and problem-solving skills to generate new ideas and implement them into their practicum schools.

Experiential activities are among the most powerful teaching and learning tools for most educators in the field. It is obvious that reflection has a prominent place in the

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experiential learning process in which pre-service teachers learn how to apply online tools to their own teaching practices in real classes.

Further research is needed on the interrelationship between task design and participation in blended-learning settings designed for the practicum course. Future qualitative studies on perceptions and experiences of pre-service teachers in different online environments would also be beneficial to further our understanding of participation in such settings, including motivation and group dynamics.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the B.U. Research Fund under Grant Number 6957.

We would like to express our gratitude to Mirjam Hauck and Sylvie Warnecke for sharing their online tutoring skills course and working with us to implement it in the Turkish context by acting as online tutors.

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Öğretmen eğitiminde öğrettiğinin üstüne düşünme becerilerinin geliştirilmesi çok önemlidir (Farrell, 2007; Freese, 2006; Lougran, 2002). Öğretmen adaylarının, alan deneyimleri hakkında konuşup deneyimlerini paylaşarak bu deneyimleri bilgiye dönüştürmeleri gerekmektedir. Bilgisayar teknolojileri günlük hayatımızın olduğu gibi eğitim ve öğretim ortamlarının da ayrılmaz bir parçası haline gelirken, öğrencilere çeşitli internet kaynak ve araçları hakkında sadece bilgi vermek yeterli olmamakta; yeni demokratik öğrenme ortamlarını en etkili şekilde kullanabilmek için gereken okuryazarlık becerilerinin de desteklenmesi gerekmektedir (Hampel and Hauck, 2006). Hauck ve Warnecke (2012)’ye göre katılımcı okur-yazarlık (Pegrum, 2009) ve sosyal bulunuşluk (Kehrwald, 2008 ve 2010) kavramları temel alınarak geliştirilmiş bir çevirimiçi öğretmenlik becerileri eğitimi ile dil öğretmenlerini gelecekte ihtiyaç duyacakları becerileri kullanmaya hazırlamak mümkündür.

Bu çalışmada mesleki gelişimleri için bir harmanlanmış öğrenme ortamına katılan öğretmen adaylarının çevirimiçi iletişim ve etkileşimleri incelenmiştir. Araştırmada şu sorulara yanıt aranmıştır:

1. Yabancı dil (İngilizce) öğretmen adaylarının okul deneyimi dersinde harmanlanmış öğrenme ortamında sunulan eğitim ve internet araçları hakkındaki görüşleri nelerdir?

2. Yabancı dil (İngilizce) öğretmen adayları yüz yüze yürütülen okul deneyimi derslerine dahil edilen çevirimiçi görev ve etkinlikler hakkında ne düşünmektedir?

Yöntem

Bu çalışmanın yöntemi tanımlayıcı durum çalışmasıdır (Creswell, 2007; Yin, 2003). Çalışmada öğretmen adaylarının görüşlerinin derinlemesine araştırılması için çalışma gerçekleştirildiği sırada gerçekleşmekte olan bir harmanlanmış öğrenme ortamı betimlenmektedir.

Çalışmaya Istanbul’da İngilizce eğitim öğretim yapan bir devlet üniversitesinde İngilizce Öğretmenliği bölümünde okumakta olan dördüncü sınıf öğretmen adayları katılmıştır. Çalışma verileri adı geçen bölümdeki harmanlanmış öğrenme modeli ile sunulan okul deneyimi ve seminer dersleri kapsamında toplanmıştır. Veriler, özellikle bu derslerdeki çevirimiçi eğitime ilişkindir.

Hauck ve Warnecke (2012) tarafından gelişitirilmiş olan çevirimiçi öğretmenlik becerileri eğitimi, güz döneminde sunulan çevirimiçi materyalin içeriğini oluşturmaktadır. Bu eğitimde öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bulunuşluk ve katılımcı okuryazarlık becerilerinin desteklenmesi ve geliştirilmesi amaçlanmaktadır. Bahar döneminde ise, çevirimiçi eğitim yönetim sistemi, öğretmen adaylarının çevirimiçi öğretmenlik becerileri eğitimi ile edindikleri bilgi ve becerileri kullanmaya devam edecekleri ve çeşitli internet araçlarını

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çevirimiçi öğrenme ortamlarında kullanımını deneyimleyebilecekleri bir platform olmuştur.

Hem güz hem de bahar dönemindeki etkinlikler göre odaklı öğrenme ilkeleri çerçevesinde geliştirilmiştir. Güz dönemi çevirimiçi öğretmenlik becerileri eğitimi beş konu etrafında tasarlanmıştır. Her konu üç etkinlikten oluşmuş ve her etkinlik önceki bilgilerin etkinleştirilmesi, bilgi edinme ve tecrübenin üstüne düşünme basamaklarından oluşmuştur. Bahar döneminde eğitimin çevirimiçi basamağı bir deneme, yaratma ve tartışma ortamı halinde sunulmuştur. Bahar dönemi içerisinde yaklaşık dokuz-on haftaya yayılan bir süreçte üç etkinlik tamamlanmıştır. Her etkinlik, dil eğitiminde kullanılabilecek yeni bir internet aracının keşfedilip denenmesi ve daha sonra bu deneyim üzerine fikir ve görüşlerin paylaşılmasından oluşmuştur.

Harmanlanmış eğitimde katılımcıların çevirimiçi uygulama hakkındaki görüşleri, uygulanan her etkinliğin ardından öğretmen adaylarının tuttuğu toplam sekiz günlük girdisi ve güz ve bahar dönemleri boyunca çevirimiçi tartışma panolarında yer alan tecrübe üzerine düşünme yoluyla elde edilen veriler ile incelenmiştir.

Verilerin nitel derinlemesine incelenmesinde gömülü (grounded) kuram (Strauss ve Corbin, 1998) ilkeleri ve Stake (1995) tarafından tanımlanan durum çalışmaları için tematik analiz ilkelerinden faydalanılmıştır.

Bulgular ve Tartışma

Bu çalışmanın amacı İngilizce Öğretmenliği bölümü dördüncü sınıf öğretmen adaylarının yüz yüze eğitime dahil edilen bir çevirimiçi öğrrenme ortamı hakkındaki görüşlerinin araştırılmasıdır. Çalışma bulguları katılımcı görüşlerinin Web 2.0 araçları, iş yükü, grup ya da tüm sınıf tartışmaları, katılım ve görev tasarımı olmak üzere beş tema altında incelenebileceğini göstermiştir.

Çalışmada, öğretmen adayları, hem öğrenci hem de öğretmen olarak dijital okuryazarlık becerileri edinmeye ihtiyaçları olduğunu belirtmişler ve öğretme ortamlarında yeni teknolojilerin kullanımı konusunda öğrenme isteklerini ortaya koymuşlardır. Bu durum, yabancı dil eğitimi programlarında dijital okuryazarlık ve Web 2.0 araçlarının kullanımı konularında ilgili becerilerin kazandırılmasının isteğe bağlı olmaktan çıkıp bu programların vazgeçilmez bir parçası olması gerektiğini vurgulamaktadır.Çalışmada elde edilen bir başka bulgu da katılımcıların iş yüküne ilişkindir. Harmanlanmış öğrenme ortamlarının özellikle gerektirdiği iş gücü, yani öğrencilerin ayırması gerekecek zaman göz önüne alınarak dikkatle yapılandırılması gerekmektedir çünkü çalışma bulgularında görüldüğü gibi çevirimiçi topluluklara katılma ve Web 2.0 araçlarını kullanma ve bu araçları kullanarak materyal geliştirme eğitimleri öngörülen zamandan çok daha fazlasını gerektirebilir. İş gücünün doğru şekilde değerlendirilmesinde yinelemeli bir tasarım ile eğitim her sunulduğunda öğrenci grubunun ihtiyaç ve becerilerinin göz önüne alınması ve önceki gruplardan elde edilen geri bildirimin yorumlanması oldukça önemlidir.

Bu çalışmada tartışma panosuna oldukça yüksek sayıda yeni giriş olması ile görüşleri takip etme ve katılımın zorlaşması öğretmen adayları tarafından karşılaşılan güçlüklerden biridir. Bu güçlüğün aşılmasında katılımcıların sınıf halinde değil de daha küçük gruplar halinde tartışmaları sürdürmesi ön görülmüş ve katılımcılar tartışmaların devamında üç gruba bölünmüştür. Yeni gruplama sonunda katılımcıların bir kısmı daha derin tartışmalara katılma fırsatı bulmuş ve bu düzenlemeyi memnuniyetle karşılamıştır. Ancak

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aktif katılımın düşük olduğu gruplarda bu yeni düzenleme huzursuzluk yaratmıştır. Buradan yola çıkarak çevirimiçi grup bir kere oluştuktan sonra yapılacak her türlü düzenlemenin dikkatle gerçekleştirilmesi gerektiğini söylemek mümkündür çünkü küçük değişiklikler çevimiçi topluluktaki dinamikleri değiştirebilmekte ve tartışmaların etkinliğini etkileyebilmektedir. Bu nedenle eğitmenler, yaşanacak güçlüklerin aşılması için değişikliklere her zaman açık olmalı, ancak bu değişiklikleri yaparken katılımcılar arasındaki dinamikleri de dikkatle gözlemlemelidirler.

Tartışmalarda sessiz kalma ve tartışmalara aktif olarak katılmamanın çeşitli sebepleri olabilmektedir. Bu çalışmada öne sürülen sebepler arasında değer verilmeme ve dikkate değer bulunmama konusundaki endişeler ile katılımcıların diğer sosyal medya araçlarındaki katılım eğilimlerini transfer etmeleri yer almıştır. Bu eğilimler kısa yorumlarda bulunma ve beğenileri sadece bir “beğen” butonuna tıklama ile ifade etmedir. Eğitmenler, öğretmen adaylarına arkadaşlarının katılımlarını anladıklarını göstermenin farklı yollarını bulmalarına yardımcı olmalı ve öğretmen adayları arasında üst bilişsel düşünme becerlerini destekleyici iletişimin gelişmesini desteklemelidir.

Öğretmen adaylarının aktif katılımını desteklemenin bir yolu görev ve etkinliklerin özenle tasarlanmasıdır. Mevcut çalışmada öğretmen adayları çevirimiçi ortamın asıl değerinin materyal üretebilme ve ürettikleri paylaşabilme olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. Öğretmen adayları ayrıca bireysel deneyimlerini de bu ortamda paylaşabilmekten memnun olmuşlar, ancak kuramsal bilgi edinmeye dayalı etkinlikler öğretmen adayları tarafından daha az ilgi görmüştür. Bu çalışmadaki katılımcı görüşleri ayrıca çevirimiçi içeriğin öğretmenlik deneyimleri ile bire bir ilintili olmasının önemi vurgulamaktadır.

Sonuç ve Öneriler

Bu çalışmada sunulan çevirimiçi öğretmenlik becerileri eğitiminin, öğretmen adaylarının çevirimiçi ortamlara aktif katılma konusundaki farkındalığını arttırdığı; görev ve etkinliklerin konu ve tasarımlarının katılım motivasyonunu etkilediği görülmüştür. Gelecek çalışmalarda, okul deneyimi dersi için harmanlanmış öğrenme ortamlarında görev tasarımı ve katılım arasındaki ilişkilerin incelenmesi faydalı olacaktır. Öğretmen adaylarının farklı çevirimiçi ortamlardaki deneyim ve görüşlerini inceleyecek nitel çalışmalar, bu ortamlarda öğrenci katılımı, motivasyon ve grup dinamikleri gibi konulardaki mevcut bilgileri derinleştirecektir.

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Mason’un Bilişim Etiği Boyutları Altında Vikipedi’nin İncelenmesi

Investigation Of Wikipedia Under The Light Of Mason's Papa

Şenay OzanAnadolu Üniversitesi,

Tü[email protected].

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Adile Aşkım KurtAnadolu Üniversitesi,

Tü[email protected]

Hatice Ferhan OdabaşıAnadolu Üniversitesi,

Tü[email protected]

ÖzBu çalışmada bilişim etiği boyutları altında Vikipedi kullanımı incelenmeye çalışılmıştır.

1301E015 nolu Anadolu Üniversitesi BAP projesi kapsamındaki bu çalışmanın özeti 5-7 Şubat 2014 tarihinde Dubai/Birleşik Arap Emirliklerinde gerçekleştirilen International Teacher Education Conference (ITE-C) adlı konferansta bildiri olarak sunulmuştur.

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Nitel araştırma desenlerine uygun olarak desenlenen çalışmanın verileri Anadolu Üniversitesi Bilgisayar ve Öğretim Teknolojileri Eğitimi (BÖTE) Bölümünde öğrenim gören sekiz öğretmen adayı ile yapılan küçük odak grup görüşmeleri aracılığıyla toplanmıştır. Öğretmen adayları ile yapılan görüşmeler her bir sınıf düzeyinden bir erkek ve bir kadın olmak üzere ikişer kişilik dört adet küçük grup görüşmesi olarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Elde edilen veriler içerik analizi yöntemi ile analiz edilmiştir. Bu bağlamda veriler bilişim etiği ölçütleri altında düzenlenmiş ve bu ölçütler altında Vikipedi incelenmiştir. Araştırma sonucunda katılımcıların bilişim etiğine ilişkin tanımlamalarının yetersiz olduğu ancak örneklerle açıklamaya çalıştıkları görülmüştür. Katılımcıların erişebilirliğe ilişkin görüşleri incelendiğinde Vikipedi’nin erişebilirliği yüksek bir ortam olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Bu ortamdaki doğruluk ve fikri mülkiyet boyutundaki etik problemlerin ise ortamdan değil, kullanıcıdan kaynaklı olduğu görülmüştür. Bu bulgular sonucunda bireylere Web 2.0 teknolojileri kullanırken etik düşünmelerine ve bu doğrultuda karar alabilmelerine ilişkin eğitim verilmesi önerilmektedir. Elde edilen diğer bir bulgu ise bireylerin bu ortamı bilinçsiz kullandığıdır. Bu nedenle Web 2.0 araçlarına yönelik okuryazarlık becerilerinin geliştirilmesi gerekmektedir. Aynı zamanda yanlış bilgilerin Vikipedi’ye göre diğer Web 2.0 ortamlarında daha çok görüldüğü sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Bu durumda bireylerin bilgi okuryazarlık düzeylerinin geliştirilmesinin önemli olduğu düşünülmektedir.

Anahtar Sözcükler: Vikipedi; Bilişim Etiği; PAPA.

AbstractThe aim of this study was to investigate Wikipedia under the light of the dimensions of informatic ethics according to Mason (1986). Data set of this study was designed as qualitative research design and was collected by small focus group interview. The participants of the study were eight teacher candidates in the department of computer and instructional technology education in University of Anadolu. Interviews were carried out as four small focus group interviews including one male and one female from each grade level. The obtained data was analyzed with content analysis. Concordantly the data was organized and Wikipedia was investigated under the light of dimensions of information ethics. Results were discussed under two headings. The first as being, participants awareness regarding information ethics; and the second as being participants point of views on Wikipedia regarding the aspects of privacy, accuracy, property and accessibility. Results on participants awareness regarding information ethics revealed that they had not a structured knowledge on information ethics, but were familiar with the issue as can be understood by the informal examples they used. Results related with accessibility indicated that Vikipedi has high accessibility. Findings related to accuracy and intellectual property reveal that ethical problems are rather user based, note the environment. There came a theme which can be titled under ethical considerations regarding Wikipedia use which presented participants hesitations on entering issues without any control. Under the light of the findings of this study, we came to an understanding of a necessity for more information web 2.0 technologies. This may require a web 2.0 literacy training for teacher candidates.

Keywords: Wikipedia; Informaion ethics; PAPA.

Giriş

Bilgi toplumlarında insan gücünün kalitesine verilen önemin artması ile birlikte bireyler ihtiyaçları doğrultusunda en kısa sürede ve en fazla bilgiye ulaşmak istemektedirler. Bu bağlamda Web 1.0’ın uzantısı olan ve kullanıcıyı merkeze alan Web 2.0 teknolojilerine duyulan ilgi toplumlarda giderek artmaktadır. Öte yandan Web 2.0 ile birlikte bilgilerin kullanılması kopyalanması ve değiştirilmesi ön plana çıkmıştır. Bu teknolojilerden biri de kullanıcıların işbirliğine dayalı bir şekilde çevrimiçi içerik geliştirmesine olanak tanıyan vikilerdir. Viki basit ancak içerik oluşturmak ve düzenlemek için işbirliğine dayalı güçlü bir web tabanlı yazarlık (ya da içerik yönetimi) sistemidir (Murugesan, 2007). Gruplara ve

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bireylere yeni bilgiyi düzenleme ve yapıyı gözden geçirme olanağı sağlamasıyla kişilerin içerik üretmeleri için birlikte çalışabilmelerine olanak tanımaktadır (Gürcan, 2012). Aynı zamanda vikiler, metinsel öğelerin yanında resim, ses, video gibi medya kaynaklarının da ortama eklenebileceği dinamik bir yapıya sahiptir (Ağır, 2010). Vikiler, üzerinde düzenlemeler yapılmasına olanak sağlayan, bir sözlüğü, ansiklopediyi ya da veritabanını andıran web siteleri gibi düşünülebilir. Genellikle kullanıcılar viki sistemlerine kayıt olup oturum açma zorunluluğu olmadan girebilmektedirler. Bu durumda sistem bu kullanıcılar tarafından yapılan değişiklikleri IP adresleri ile veritabanına kaydetmektedir. Bazı durumlarda viki sayfaları yönetici tarafından koruma altına alınabilmekte bazen de sadece kayıtlı kullanıcıların içerik ekleme ve değiştirmelerine izin verilebilmektedir (Tekinarslan, 2011). Her iki durumda da içeriğe yapılan tüm katkılar ve katkıyı yapan kişi, geriye dönük olarak veritabanında kayıt altında tutulmaktadır.

Viki olarak akıllara ilk gelen Vikipedi (Wikipedia)’dir. Vikipedi kullanıcılar tarafından işbirliği içerisinde oluşturulan özgür, bağımsız, ücretsiz, reklamsız kar amacı gütmeyen bir internet ansiklopedisidir (Vikipedi, 2014a). Takımlara ve bireylere yeni bilgiyi ekleme, düzenleme ve yapıyı gözden geçirme olanağı sağlamasıyla birlikte içerik üretme olanağı tanımaktadır. 285 dil sürümü bulunan Vikipedi’nin 275’inde 100.000 üzerinde madde sayısı bulunmaktadır. 224.208 madde sayısı ile Türkçe 29. sıradadır (Vikipedi, 2014b). Vikipedi’ye içerik üreten ve katkıda bulunan herkes vikipedist olarak adlandırılmaktadır (Vikipedi, 2014b). Vikipedistlerin üye oma zorunluluğu yoktur. Üye girişi olmadan oluşturulan içerik ve yapılan değişiklikler ise IP adresi ile kayıt altına alınmaktadır. 19 Şubat 2014 tarihi itibariyle 3035’i aktif olmak üzere 546637 kayıtlı vikipedist bulunmaktadır (Vikipedi, 2014c). Bu bilgiler doğrultusunda binlerce kişi tarafından binlerce içeriğin oluşturulmasından kaynaklı bazı etik sorunların meydana gelebileceği akıllara gelmektedir. Bu sorunlara örnek olarak bilginin doğruluk ve güvenirliğinin sağlanamaması gösterilebilir. Bu bağlamda Vikipedi’yi yönetenler tarafından kayıtlı olan vikipedistlerden bazılarına Vikipedinin işleyişi için gerekli olan bazı işlevlere erişim hakkının verilmesi ile bu sorunlara çözüm getirilmeye çalışılmıştır. Bu erişim haklarına sahip olan kişiler devriyeler, denetçiler, gözetmenler, bürokratlar, kahyalar ve hizmetliler olarak adlandırılmaktadır (Vikipedi, 2014ı).

Hizmetliler, Vikipedi’ye düzenli olarak katkıda bulunmuş, Vikipedi politikalarını tanıyan ve uygulayan aynı zamanda topluluğun güvenini kazanmış, topluluğun zararlı olabilecek araçların güvenle emanet edebileceklerini düşündüğü kişilerdir. Bu kişilerin kuralları koyma ya da topluluğu yönetme durumları yoktur. Ancak madde ve dosya silme, silinen bir maddeyi geri getirme, maddeleri koruma altına alma, kayıtlı kullanıcı ya da IP adresinin erişimini engelleme ve yeniden erişime izin verme, koruma altındaki sayfaları ve Vikipedinin kullandığı Mediawiki yazılımının arayüzünü düzenleyebilme, isteyen kullanıcılara yetki verme sorumlulukları vardır (Vikipedi, 2014d).

Bürokratlar ise hizmetlilerde bulunmayan üç teknik işlevi yerine getirme sorumluluğuna sahiptirler. Bunlar hizmetli ve bürokrat atama işlevleri, bir kullanıcıya bot statüsü verme ve bu statüyü iptal etme işlevi, kullanıcının kullanıcı ismini değiştirme işlevidir. Bu işlevleri uygularken Vikipedi politikalarına ve topluluğun oluşmuş fikir birliğine uygun hareket edecekleri, doğru muhakemede bulunabilecekleri varsayılır ve istenildiğinde uyguladığı işlevin arkasında yatan nedeni açıklayabilmeleri beklenir. Ancak bürokratların adı geçen atamaları yapma yetkileri yoktur (Vikipedi, 2014e). Bu atama yetkileri sadece kahyalara verilmiştir.

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Kahyalar çok dil bilmekte ve tüm Vikipedi projelerinde bir yıl süre ile görev almaktadırlar (Vikipedi, 2014f). Aynı zamanda kahyalar gözetmenlik rolünü üstlenebilecekleri gibi gözetmenlik atamasını da yapabilmektedirler. Gözetmenler mahremiyeti korumakta telif hakkı ihlalini ve iftira niteliği taşıyan bilgileri hizmetliler de dahil her türlü erişime kapatabilmektedirler. Ancak gözetmenler bu erişime kapatılmış bilgileri görebilmekte ve bir hata olduysa düzeltebilmektedir. Vikipedi’de en az iki gözetmen pozisyonunda bulunan kullanıcı olmalıdır ya da hiç bulunmamalıdır. Bunun nedeni ise birbirleriyle iletişim halinde olma ve birbirlerini de denetleme gereksinimidir (Vikipedi, 2014g). Birbirlerini denetlemeleri gereken sadece gözetmenler değildir. Denetçilerin de sayısı karşılıklı olarak birbirlerinin faaliyetlerini denetlemeleri açısından en az iki olmalıdır. Denetçiler diğer vikipedistlerin birden fazla kullanıcı hesabı olup olmadığını ve bu hesaplarla yaptıkları değişiklikleri denetlerler. Vikipedi’de farklı hesaplara sahip olmak yasak değil, bu farklı hesapların kötü amaçlı kullanımı yasaktır. Denetçiler ise sahip olunan bu farklı hesapların oylamalara birden fazla katılma gibi suistimalleri denetlerler (Vikipedi, 2014h).

Vikipedistler arasında bazı özel yetkilere sahip olanlardan birisi de devriyelerdir. Bu kişiler Vikipedi’de bulunan maddeleri kontrol ederek onay veya ret işlemini gerçekleştirebilen vikipedistlerdir. Vikipedi’de oluşabilecek etik problemleri engellemeye çalışmaktadırlar. Devriyelerin sorumluluklarını istismar ettikleri görüldüğünde hizmetliler tarafından yetkileri geri alınmaktadır (Vikipedi, 2014ı). Bu yetkilendirme işleminin amacı Vikipedi’de oluşabilecek etik problemleri önlemeye çalışmak ve bilgi güvenirliğini sağlamaktır.

Vikipedi uygulamasında vikipedistleri yetkilendirme işlemi, sitenin etik dışı kullanımını en aza indirebilir ancak tamamen çözemeyebilir. Bu durum sadece belirli görevlerin kullanıcılara verilmesiyle değil aynı zamanda kullanıcılar tarafından doğru kullanılmasının sağlanması ile mümkündür. Vikipedi, vikipedistler tarafından bilişim etiğine uygun bir şekilde kullanıldığı sürece bu soruna çözüm getirilebilecek ve fayda sağlanacaktır. Bu noktada bilişim etiği üzerine odaklanmak yerinde olacaktır. Öncelikle etik kelimesinin anlamına bakıldığında etiğin, davranışları yönlendiren davranış standartlarını veya sosyal normları belirlediği görülmektedir (Resnik, 2004).

Bilişim etiği ise bilim ve etiğin arasında bir alan olmasına ve onlara bağlı olmasına rağmen, hem anlayış için kavramsallaştırma hem de bilgisayar teknolojisinin kullanımı için ilkeler sağlayan kendi doğrusu içinde bir disiplindir (Kılıçer ve Odabaşı, 2006). Teknolojinin her geçen gün farklı bir uygulamayla hayatımıza girmesi, bu durumla ilgili politika ve kanunlarda boşlukların olması bilişim etiğini günümüz toplumu için en önemli konulardan biri yapmıştır (Kılıçer, 2013). Alanyazında bilişim etiğinin farklı şekillerde gruplandırıldığı görülmektedir. Ancak Mason (1986) bilişim etiği boyutlarını gizlilik (Privacy), doğruluk (Accuracy), fikri mülkiyet (Property), ve erişebilirlik (Accesbility) olarak diğer sınıflamaları kapsayacak şekilde tanımlamıştır. Bunlar alanyazında İngilizce isimlerinin baş harflerinin kısaltması olan PAPA olarak kullanılmaktadır. Mason (1986) tarafından bu boyutlar aşağıdaki şekilde tanımlanmıştır.

Gizlilik (Privacy): Bu boyut, “bireylerin kendisine ya da kendi grubuna ait bilgiyi hangi koşullar altında, hangi güvence ile ne ölçüde paylaşmalıdırlar?” soruları ile açıklanmıştır. Gelişen teknolojilerle birlikte bilgiler artık çok daha kolay ulaşılabilir ve paylaşılabilir hale gelmektedir. Ancak bilgilere kolay ulaşmak her zaman iyi sonuçlar vermemektedir. Bireylerin bilgilerinin kendi kontrolleri dışında kötü niyetli bireyler tarafından ele geçirilmesi istenmeyen sonuçlara sebep olmaktadır. Mason (1986) bu durumu farklı veri tabanlarından elde edilen bilgilerin birleştirilmesi ile bireyler hakkında daha detaylı

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bilgilerin oluşturulması ve oluşturulan bilgilerin kullanılması olarak örneklendirmiştir. 1986 yılındaki teknoloji ile günümüzdeki teknolojiyi karşılaştırdığımızda bu durumun artık çok daha kolay bir şekilde yapılabildiği ve farklı örneklerin de oluşabildiği görülmektedir.

Doğruluk (Accuracy): Bu boyut, “bilginin doğruluğundan ve güvenirliğinden kim sorumludur? hatalı bilgilerden kim sorumlu tutulmalıdır?” soruları ile açıklanmaya çalışılmıştır. Web 2.0 teknolojileri ile birlikte kullanıcıların içerik oluşturması, yanlış bilgilerin kolay oluşturulmasını ve kolay şekilde paylaşılmasını sağlamaktadır. Bu yanlış bilgiler hayati önem taşıyabilmektedir. Bu duruma 1980 yılında Milli Hava Tahmin Servisi’nin Georges Kıyısı yakınlarında meydana gelen fırtına hakkında yanlış bilgi vermesi ve bu servisi takip eden bir gemi mürettebatından birinin fırtınada ölmesi örnek olarak verilebilir (Mason, 1986).

Fikri Mülkiyet (Property): Bu boyuttaki etik sorunlara “bilginin sahibi kim?, fiyatlandırma ve dağıtım nasıl olmalıdır?, kaynaklara nasıl erişilmelidir? bilgiyi elde etmek için gereken ücret nedir?” soruları ile açıklık getirilmeye çalışılmaktadır. Bu soruların cevapları sahiplik ile ilgilidir. Sahiplik bir mülkiyetin başkaları tarafından nasıl kullanılması gerektiğini belirtmekle birlikte kişinin o mülkiyetin bütün haklarına sahip olmasıdır. Ancak gelişen teknolojilerle birlikte bilgilerin çok kolay bir şekilde kopyalanabilir ve dağıtılabilir olması fikri mülkiyetin korunması için büyük bir tehdit oluşturmaktadır. Hukuksal olarak fikri mülkiyetin korunması için telif hakkı ve patent gibi önlemler alınmıştır (Uysal ve Şendağ, 2010).

Erişebilirlik (Accessiblity):Bu boyut ise“dijital ortamdaki bilgiye erişim olanağı nasıl sağlanmalıdır? kullanılan teknolojiler hakkında bireylerin ne düzeyde becerilere sahip olması gerekmektedir?” soruları ile açıklanmaya çalışılmıştır. Bireylerin bilgiye erişebilmesi için gerekli bilgi düzeyine ve gerekli ekonomik düzeye sahip olmaları gerekmektedir. Mason (1986) bu boyutta okuryazarlığa ve bilgi sistemlerinin ulaşılabilir olmasına değinmiştir.

Bu çalışmada yukarıda tanımlanan bilişim etiği boyutları altında üniversite öğrencilerinin Vikipedi kullanımları incelenmeye çalışılmıştır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda aşağıdaki araştırma sorularına cevap aranmıştır.

· Öğrencilerin bilişim etiği boyutlarına ilişkin farkındalıkları nasıldır?· Bilişim etiği boyutları altında Vikipedi nasıl değerlendirilmektedir?· Öğrencilerin bilişim etiği boyutları çerçevesinde Vikipedi kullanım deneyimleri

nasıldır?

Yöntem

Bu çalışma nitel araştırma desenlerine uygun olarak desenlenmiştir. Nitel araştırma bireylerin yaşadıkları dünyayı ve buradaki tecrübelerini nasıl algıladıkları ve nasıl yorumladıklarını analiz etmek üzere geliştirilen araştırma yaklaşımıdır (Güler, Halıcıoğlu ve Taşğın, 2013). Nitekim bu çalışmada da araştırmanın katılımcılarını oluşturan Anadolu Üniversitesi Bilgisayar ve Öğretim Teknolojileri Eğitimi (BÖTE) Bölümünde öğrenim gören sekiz öğretmen adayından, Vikipedi’deki etik boyutlarına ilişkin görüşleri istenmiştir. Katılımcıların BÖTE bölümünden seçilmesinin nedeni ise bilişim teknolojileri alanında eğitim verecek öğretmen adayları olarak diğer öğretmen adaylarına göre hem Web 2.0 teknolojileri hem de bilişim etiği hakkında daha yüksek farkındalığa sahip olduklarının düşünülmesi ve beklenilmesidir. Veriler küçük odak grup görüşmeleri ile toplanmıştır.

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Odak grup görüşmesi seçilmiş bir grup katılımcının bir konu üzerinde tartışmasını sağlamaktır (Glesne, 2013). Odak grup görüşmelerinde yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu kullanılmıştır. Yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu Vikipedi hakkındaki görüşleriniz nelerdir? Bilişim etiği hakkındaki görüşleriniz nelerdir? Vikipedi’yi bilişim etiği altında nasıl değerlendirirsiniz? şeklinde açık uçlu sorulardan oluşturulmuştur. Görüşme formunun son hali nitel araştırmalar konusunda deneyimi olan üç alan uzmanının görüşleri alınarak oluşturulmuştur. Öğretmen adayları ile yapılan görüşmeler her bir sınıf düzeyinden 1 erkek 1 kadın olmak üzere ikişer kişilik dört adet küçük grup görüşmesi olarak yapılmıştır. Görüşmeler ortalama 21 dakika sürmüştür. Araştırmanın birinci ve ikinci sorusuna yanıt aramak için “betimsel analiz” yöntemi üçüncü sorusuna yanıt aramak için ise “içerik analizi yöntemi” kullanılmıştır.Veriler bilişim etiği ölçütleri altında düzenlenmiş ve bu ölçütler altında Vikipedi incelenmeye çalışılmıştır.

Bulgular

Yapılan analiz sonucunda öncelikle katılımcıların bilişim etiğine ilişkin farkındalıkları belirlenmeye çalışılmıştır. Sonrasında ise bilişim etiği boyutları altında katılımcıların Vikipedi’ye ilişkin görüşleri incelenmiştir. Araştırmada bir tema olarak çıkan etiğe ilişkin Vikipedi kullanım deneyimleri ayrı bir başlık altına alınarak sunulmuştur. Bu çalışmada bulgular verilirken katılımcıların gerçek isimleri kullanılmamış bunun yerine kod isimler kullanılmıştır.

Bilişim Etiğine İlişkin Farkındalık

BÖTE öğretmen adaylarının “Bilişim etiğini nedir?” sorusuna verdikleri cevaplar incelendiğinde bilişim etiğini örneklendirerek açıkladıkları görülmüştür. Katılımcılardan üçü örneklerle birlikte tanım yapmışlardır. Öğretmen adaylarından Hasan; bilişim etiğini şöyle tanımlamıştır:

“Bilişim etiği de bunu kısaca şöyle söyleyebiliriz şu an düşündüğüm bir şey bu ee aslında bizim internet kullanarak web tabanını kullanarak bilgisayarı kullanarak bunun üzerine ee yaptığımız bize dayatılan değil aslında herhangi bir uuıı kağıt üzerinde belki yasalar üzerinde bir zorunluluğu olmayan ancak internet kullanıcıların uyması gerektiği paylaşımcıların okuyucuların derleyicilerin kurallar bütünü.”

Katılımcılardan Miray ve Zehra bilişim etiğini benzer şekilde tanımlamışlardır. Tanımları ise aşağıdaki şekildedir:

“bilişim teknolojilerini doğru ee doğru ve hani toplum yararına ve uygun bir şekilde kullanma” olarak tanımlamıştır (Miray). “bilişim etiği bilgisayar ee bilgisayarla ilgili durumların halkın yararına daha çok hani kötü yöne değilde iyi yönde halkın yararı için kullanılması bilginin paylaşılması diyebilirim” (Zehra).

Öğretmen adaylarının bilişim etiğini internet kullanıcılarının uyması gereken kurallar ve bilişim teknolojilerinin toplumun yararına kullanılması olarak tanımlandığı söylenebilir. Katılımcıların bilişim etiğini tanımlamak için verdikleri örnekler incelendiğinde katılımcıların bilişim etiği boyutlarından olan fikri mülkiyet boyutuna ilişkin örnekler verdikleri görülmüştür. Öğretmen adaylarından Yeşim’in verdiği örnek şu şekildedir:

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“Bilişim etiği dendiğinde ilk başta benim aklıma ya bilgilerin bir kişiye ait olduğu zaten ilk başta belli bir kişi bilgisini yayıyor internette ama hani o bilginin ona ait olup olmadığı yani kopyala yapıştır aracılığıyla mesela bilgilerde bu çok fazla görüyoruz aktaran ismi genelde olmuyor hani kime ait olduğu pardon hani olmuyor.”

Katılımcılardan Umut ise bu boyuta ilişkin iki farklı örnek vermiştir. “bir veri siteleri bir araştırmadan bir belge makale aldığımızda onun kaynağını belirtmeliyim belirtmemiz gerektiğini” ve “mesela yazılım kullanıyoruz en basit onu korsan olmadığını yani korsan olarak kullanmamamız gerektiğini” ifade etmiştir. Tülay ise bu boyutu “Ben facebook üzerinde çok fazla rastlıyorum bir söz paylaşılıyor altında o söz sahibinin ismi yazmıyor kendisi yazmış gibi paylaşabiliyor internet üzerinde misal etik değil hani örnek verecek olursak” şeklinde örneklendirmiştir. Öğrencilerin fikri mülkiyet boyutuna ilişkin verdiği örneklerde kişiye ait olan bir ürünü izinsiz kullanmamaya yönelik örnekler olduğu görülmüştür.

Gizlilik boyutuna ilişkin verilen örnekler incelendiğinde iki katılımcının bu boyutta farkındalıkları olduğu görülmüştür. Katılımcılardan Ahmet’in örneği şu şekildedir: “aslında şu şekilde ee başkalarını haklarına hak sınırlarının içine girmeden yani eee öyle bilgiler vardır mesela bizim edinmemiz gerekmez o bilgileri ve edindiğimiz taktirde karşı tarafa zarar verici bilgiler olabilir hani”. Miray ise bu boyutu “başkalarının hak şeylerine saldırıda bulunmamalı zararlı içerik paylaşmadan” şeklinde örneklendirmiştir. Gizlilik boyutuna ilişkin örneklerde öğretmen adaylarının başkalarına zarar verecek biçimde özel bilgilerini kullanmamaya vurgu yaptıkları söylenebilir.

Öğretmen adaylarından ikisi doğruluk boyutuna ilişkin örnekler vermişlerdir. Miray’ın örneği şu şekildedir: “bilişim etiği derken hocam hani bilgisayar internet üzerinden doğru bilgi paylaşımı bilginin güvenliği”. Osman’ın verdiği örnek ise “Önemli olan doğru bilgilerin tabi hani yanlış bilgilerde etiğe aykırı hani etik kavramını şey olarak düşünürsek uygunluk insanların kullanabileceği doğru bilgiler olarak tanımlarsak etik kavramı olmalı tabi doğru bilgiler olmalı” şeklindedir. Doğruluk boyutunda öğretmen adaylarının bilginin doğru biçimde paylaşımına vurgu yaptıkları söylenebilir.

Katılımcıların görüşleri incelendiğinde bilişim etiğine ilişkin farkındalıklarının olduğu görülmüş ancak bilişim etiğini tanımlayamadıkları ve bütün boyutları ile bilmedikleri ortaya çıkmıştır. Boyutlara ilişkin katılımcıların farkındalık durumları incelendiğinde ise özellikle fikri mülkiyet boyutunun ön plana çıktığı görülmektedir. Katılımcıların gizlilik ve doğruluk boyutlarını örneklendirebildikleri ancak erişim boyutunda ise herhangi bir örnek vermedikleri görülmüştür. Bu durumda katılımcıların erişimi bir etik sorun olarak görmedikleri söylenebilir.

Bilişim Etiği Boyutları Altında Vikipedi’ye İlişkin Görüşler

Vikipedi’nin PAPA boyutları altında değerlendirilmesi için öğretmen adaylarının görüşleri incelendiğinde gizlilik boyutuna ilişkin herhangi bir bulguya rastlanmamıştır. Aynı zamanda katılımcıların internet ortamında insanların özel hayatına müdahale edebilecek bilgilerle ve durumlarla karşılaştıkları görülmüştür. Hasan bu konudaki görüşünü şu şekilde dile getirmiştir: “insanlar hakkında doğru yanlış yalan pek çok haber çıkabiliyor buda insanların özel hayatına müdahale eden hamleler olabiliyor”. Ancak Vikipedi ortamında gizlilik boyutunda etik ihlallere rastlamadıkları görülmüştür. Tülay “ya

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vikipedia daha çok bilgi paylaşım amaçlı bir yer olduğu için etiğe aykırı pek bir şeyine rastlamadım açıkçası” şeklinde görüşünü ifade etmiştir.

Doğruluk boyutu altında Vikipedi’de yer alan içeriğin doğruluğuna ilişkin hem olumlu hem olumsuz değerlendirmeler bulunmaktadır. Olumlu değerlendirmeler Vikipedi’nin birçok kişi tarafından kullanıldığı ve yanlış bilgi olsa bile kullanıcılar tarafından bu yanlış bilgilerin düzeltileceği yönündedir. Katılımcılardan Tülay bu durumu “ama şey var mesela Wikipedia’da dediğim gibi değiştirilebiliyor ya hani yanlış bile olsa o bilgi bir sürü insan o bilgiye bir şekilde rastladığı için yanlışta olsa düzeltilebiliyor o bilgi orda yani kalıcı değil değiştirme şansı var insanların” şeklinde ifade etmiştir. Umut ise görüşünü “hani olumlu bir tarafı etik kavramında doğru bilgiyi sağlıyor” ve“aynen hiç taraf tutar yazılarda yok bir yeri övüp bir yeri şey yapmıyor hani bilgi neyse odur o tür bir site” şeklinde belirtmiştir. Osman’ın görüşü ise “haniolumlubirtarafıetikkavramındadoğrubilgiyisağlıyor”şeklindedir.

Olumsuz değerlendirmeler ise kullanıcılar tarafından yanlış bilgi girişlerinin yapılması, kaynakçaların güvenilir olmaması ve taraf tutar yazılar yazılması gibi etik ihlallerin yapılabileceği yönündedir. Zehra görüşünü şu şekilde belirtmiştir: “şimdi yanlış bilgilerde olabilir içinde sonuçta ee kullanıcılar eğer oraya girip kendi bildikleri bir şeyi oraya yazabilirler ama herkes doğru şeyler yazamaz ee yanlış şeylerde yazabilirler”. Aynı zamanda Zehra taraflı yazım hakkındaki görüşünü de “kendi doğru bildiğini en kusursuz bir dilde anlatıp ama karşı tarafı da böyle çok hani sanki orada bir atışma varmış gibi böyle ağır bir dille eleştirmemesi gerekiyor öyle bir bilgi oluşturması gerekiyor” şeklinde dile getirmiştir.

Olumlu görüş belirten katılımcıların bu ortamda yanlış ve taraflı bilgiye rastlamadıkları fakat olumsuz görüş belirten katılımcıların bu durumlarla karşılaştıkları görülmüştür. Hatta bu katılımcılar kısa kısa, bir bütünlük içerisinde olmayan bilgilere rastladıklarını bu nedenle o bilginin kaynağının güvenli olup olmadığından şüphe ettiklerini belirtilmişlerdir. Ahmet görüşünü “insan hani doğruluğu hakkında şeye düşebiliyor yanılmaya düşebiliyor mesela bazı sayfalarda çok kısa kısa bilgiler ve hani insan düşünebiliyor bunun devamımın olmaması hani bu hani güvenli kaynaktan alıntı mıdır diye düşünebiliyor?” şeklinde dile getirmiştir. Miray ise görüşünü “… çok sık olarak hani doğru hani doğru bilgi elde etmek için çok iyi bir yer değil hani güvenli bilgi açısından hani çok sık olarak kullanmıyoruz” şeklinde ifade etmiştir.

Fikri Mülkiyet boyutu altında da Vikipedi’ye ilişkin değerlendirmeler iki yönlüdür. Öğretmen adayları Vikipedi’yi içerdiği kaynakça bölümünden dolayı etik olarak değerlendirilmekle birlikte kaynakça eklemeden de bilgilerin yayınlanabilmesi özelliğinden dolayı fikri mülkiyet haklarının bu ortamda ihlal edilebildiği şeklinde değerlendirmişlerdir. Bu konuda Umut olumlu görüşünü “kaynakçalarını belirtiyor mesela her zaman altta kaynakçaları mevcuttur” şeklinde belirtmiştir. Yeşim ise görüşünü olumsuz şekilde ifade etmiştir: “Ama hani dediğim gibi kime ait olduğuda belirtilmediği sürece etiğe de aykırıdır yani emeğe saygıya biraz şey oluyo sanırım açıkçası hani vikilerde onu görüyoruz yani pek etiğe uygun değil gibi.” Ahmet ise Yeşim gibi olumsuz görüş belirtmiştir: “şöyle bir şey var hocam mesela orda kullanıcılar bilgiyi ekleyebiliyor hani geliştirebiliyor ve bu bilginin o kişiye ait olduğu hani hakkında kesin bir güvence yok bir yorum bir bilgi ekledi paylaştı ama o bilgi ona ait mi değil mi onu bilemiyoruz”. Zehra ise görüşünü “kaynak göstermedi oluyor yani çoğu zaman eee bilgiye ulaşmak isteyen okuyucular işte Vikipedi’de bunu gördüğünde doğru zannedebilir o açıdan kesin bir kaynak göstermesi gerekiyor öyle herkes kaynak göstermeden bilgiyi paylaşmamalı vikipedide” şeklinde dile getirmiştir.

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Erişebilirlik boyutunda Vikipedi ortamına ilişkin olumsuz değerlendirmeler olsa da çoğunlukla olumlu görüş belirtilmiştir. Olumlu değerlendirmeler Vikipedi içeriğinin çok geniş olması, arama motorlarında bilgi ararken üst sıralarda çıkması, farklı dil olanaklarının olması, birçok kitleye hitap etmesi, kullanımının kolay olması, insanlara bilgilerini ve fikirlerini paylaşması için özgür bir ortam sağlaması şeklindedir. Vikipedi’nin içeriğinin geniş olmasına ilişkin Osman görüşlerini “aradığımız herşeyi rahat rahat bulabildiğimiz bir site ve a dan z ye bütün konuları ayrıntılarına kadar mesela bir futbolcuyu araştırdığımız zaman babasının dedesinin de şeylerini anlatarak çok geniş bir yapıya sahip gayet iyi bence” şeklinde belirtmiştir. Tülay ise bu durumu “arayıp arayabileceğimiz her türlü bilgi içinde mevcut yani şarkıcısından tutun mankenine kadar ne bileyim aklınıza gelebilecek herşey mevcut” şeklinde değerlendirmiştir. Vikipedi’nin ulaşılmasının kolaylığına ilişkin Yeşim “bence ulaşımı daha kolay vikipedinin” şeklinde görüş belirtmiştir. Hasan ise “evet öncelikli çıkıyor ya ben zaten dolaylı olarak oraya girmiş oluyorum aslında” diyerek Vikipedi’nin erişiminin kolay olduğunu dile getirmiştir. Aynı zamanda Hasan Vikipedi’yi erişilebilirlik boyutunda değerlendirirken “ama şu yandan da baktığımızda bilgi paylaşımı insanların bilgiye ulaşımı noktasında fayda sağlandığı için aslında” şeklinde değerlendirmiştir. Zehra ise “insanlara özgür bir ortam sağlanmış oluyo, insanlar fikirlerini yazılı bir ortamda sonuçta söylediklerinde kalıcı oluyor” şeklinde görüş belirtmiştir. Bununla birlikte Zehra Vikipedi’nin erişilebilirliğinin yüksek olduğunu “farklı dil olanakları var insanlar ıı her dilde bunu öğrenebilirler her bilgiyi istedikleri her şeyi çok rahatlıkla ulaşabilirler” şeklinde dile getirmiştir. Miray ise “geniş bir kitleye hitap ediyor herkes tarafından uluslararası anında kullanabiliyor hani bi çok kişiye düşüyor bi çok kişide kullanabiliyor hayatta” şeklinde ifade etmiştir.

Olumsuz değerlendirmeler ise geniş bir kitleye hitap etmesine rağmen ihtiyacı karşılamadığı, güncel bilgilerin olmadığı doğrultusundadır. Ahmet Vikipedi’yi“birde şu mesela herkesin aklında güncellik konusu hani her zaman güncel bilgi bulunamıyor hani güncellik konusunda da sıkıntı yaşanan bir ortam” şeklinde değerlendirmiş ve şu şekilde örneklendirmiştir: “örnek veriyordu halbuki nüfus oranları 8-10 sene evveline aitti hani güncel bir bilgiye sahip değildi o ülkenin genel bilgisi hakkında.” Miray ise “…geliştirilmesi gerekiyor mutlaka hani daha çok kitleye hitap ediyor ama hani şu anda geçen şeyde kitlenin ihtiyaçlarını biraz karşılaması gerekiyor” şeklinde görüş belirtmiştir.

Erişebilirlik boyutunda ortama ilişkin değerlendirmeler olduğu gibi bireye ilişkin de değerlendirmeler olmaktadır. Ancak bunlar bireylerin bilinçsiz kullanımına ve etik değerlerine yönelik olumsuz yöndedir. Yeşim görüşünü “hani çoğu kişiyi belki de yarısından fazlası bu kullanıcıların hani bilinçli olarak tak yazıyor en üstte çıkıyor giriyor alıyor kopyalıyor yapıştırıyor” ve “gerçekten bilinçsizce kullanıyoruz diye düşünüyorum hani bitek bu vikiler değil interneti de öyle kullanıyoruz ama vikileri daha alt düzeyde kullanıyoruz o yönden” şeklinde belirtmiştir. Aynı zamanda Yeşim bu durumu şu şekilde örneklendirmiştir: “biz vikipedianın ne amaçla nasıl ne verimlilikle kullanılabileceğini biz ilk başta görmediğimiz yada bilmediğimiz için kulaktan dolma bilgilerle hee şurdan mı buldun tamam bende bir girip bakayım. hani bu yollardan öğrendiğimiz için çokta bilinçli olmuyor”. Hasan ise “işte sen napıyorsun vikipediden bakıyorum mesela ben hiç vikipedi bilmiyorsam soruyorum mesela nasıl buluyorsun şunları? wikipediadan. Ben napıyorum bu Wikipedia’yı buluyorum orda arama yapıyorum o bulduysa zaten iyidir diyorum hop çekip alıyorum bilgimi” şeklinde ifade ederek bilinçli kullanılmadığını belirtmiştir.

Katılımcıların Vikipedi hakkındaki eksik bilgilerinin olması da bunu destekler niteliktedir. Katılımcılardan hiçbiri Vikipedi’nin kontrol mekanizmasına ilişkin bilgi sahibi değildir. Bilgi

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girişi yapan kişilerin kullanıcı adlarının ya da IP numaralarının kayıt altına alındığından, tartışma bölümlerinde içerik hakkında tartışma yapılabileceğinden haberdar değillerdir. Umut’un Vikipedi’nin kontrol yapısına ilişkin şu görüşü bu yapıyı bilmediğini göstermektedir: “büyük ihtimal benim yazdığımı googledan yani google benzeri bir motorla tüm sitelerde tarattırıyor o bilgiye fazlasıyla rastlarsanız hani yüzde 70 yüzde 80 oranında o zaman o bilginin doğruluğuda kanıtlıyor. Bi de benim yazdığım dil benim hani kişi belki onuda iyi bir dille yazmamıştır ama baktığımızda çok güzel bir kullanılmış onu düzeltiyor olabilir”. Yeşim ise “yani isim belirtilebilir evet altında hani mesela yada IP sismi alınıyor yada başka bir şeyimi alınıyor bunlar kayıt tutulabilir” şeklinde Vikipedi’ye fikri mülkiyet boyutunda çözüm önerisi sunmuştur. Ancak IP ve kullanıcı kaydının tutulması Vikipedi’de var olan bir durumdur. Bu durum da öğretmen adaylarının Vikipedi’nin yapısını bilmediklerini göstermektedir. Benzer şekilde Hasan’nın da Vikipedi hakkında eksik bilgiye sahip olduğunu şu görüşü göstermektedir: “şöyle hiç birşey yokmuş gibi düşünerekten söylüyorum çünkü öyle bir yer varsa söylediklerim varsa da şöylede olabilir girilen entrylere şikayet et oylama vesaire yapılabilir bilgilerin doğruluğuna güveniyorum güvenmiyorum gibi seçenekte sunulabilir hani böylece daha fazla olumsuz alan ee girdiler araştırılıp doğruluğu kontrol edilmesi sağlanabilir hani her biri kontrol edilmese bile o şekilde bir yöntemle çözülebilir”. Aynı zamanda Hasan, Yeşim, Zehra ve Ahmet Vikipedi’nin kontrol mekanizmasına ilişkin bilgileri olmadığını doğrudan belirtmişlerdir. Aynı zamanda Ahmet’in Vikipedi’de özel görevleri bulunan Vikipedistlerden haberdar olmadığı şu görüşünden anlaşılmaktadır:

“bilginin denetimi konusunda mekanizma varmı bilmiyoruz ki hani bence olmasıl azım en azından mesela her bir ülkede belirli bi temsilcileri olmaları gerekiyor mesela diyelim türkçe sayfalar için türkiyede belirli bi temsilcileri olmaları gerekiyor hani mesela vardırya mesela bir yorum yazarsın mesela bir siteye mesela yönetici görür önce yöneticinin gözünden geçer doğruluk payı hani uygunluk payı gözlemlenir ondan sonra o yazı metin yada içerik diğer kullanıcıların ee erişimine açılır hani onun gibi mesela bişeyin olması gerekiyor şuan öyle birşey varmı bilmiyorum”

Bilişim Etiği Boyutları Çerçevesinde Vikipedi Kullanım Deneyimleri

Katılımcılarla yapılan görüşmelerde araştırmanın başında amaçlarda olmamasına karşın katılımcıların bilişim etiği boyutları çerçevesinde Vikipedi’ye ilişkin görüşleri bir tema olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu görüşler incelendiğinde iki katılımcının Vikipedi’yi etik ihlallerin olduğu bir ortam olarak değerlendirdiği görülmektedir. PAPA boyutları altında bu ortama ilişkin olumsuz sayılabilecek değerlendirmeler yapmışlardır. Bu katılımcılar Vikipedi’ye güvenmemekte ve beş yıldan fazla bir süredir kullanmamaktadırlar. Ahmet kullanım durumunu “ortaokuldan bu yana nerdeyse hani okul amaçlı hiç kullanmıyorum ders amaçlı” şeklinde ifade ederken Miray çok sık olarak kullanmadığını belirterek sebebini şu şekilde açıklamıştır: “güncel bilgiler çok yok ve hani içerik hakkında çok geniş ayrıntılı hani bilgi edinme imkanı yok sadece hani yüzeysel var ama hani tam olarak istediğim içeriği bulamıyorum bide mesela nasıl diyim içerik mesela planlaması güzel hani ayrıntılı bir şekilde var ama”.

Vikipedi’yi tüm boyutlar altında olumsuz değerlendiren öğretmen adaylarının yanında, bir öğretmen adayı bu ortamı özellikle doğruluk olmak üzere PAPA’nın bütün boyutları altında olumlu değerlendirdiği görülmüştür. Katılımcının bu olumlu değerlendirmesinin Vikipedi’ye tek seferlik yapmış olduğu bilgi girişi deneyiminin etkili olduğu söylenebilir. Umut bu deneyimini şu şekilde ifade etmiştir: “ama onu bir kerede yayınlamıyor mesela

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ben yazdım onu hemen yazmıyor onu araştırıyor hani benim bilgimin doğruluğuna bakıyor şey vardıya butur.netinvaronun gibi mesela bir kerede şey yapmıyor bir çok yerde bunun sorgulamasını yapıyor ben ona birşey yazdığımda onun doğruluğuna bakıyor”. Bu deneyim sürecinde katılımcı, girilen bilginin hemen yayınlanmaması ve kaynak istenmesi gibi bilginin yayınlanma sürecini yaşamış ve bu durum Vikipedi‘ye karşı olumlu görüş geliştirmesini sağlamıştır.

Diğer katılımcıların ise Vikipedi’de etik ihlallerin olabileceğini düşünmekle birlikte, diğer Web 2.0 araçlarına (blog, forum, vb.) kıyasla daha güvenilir buldukları ve bu nedenle bilgi edinmek için tercih ettikleri görülmektedir. Yeşim “hani Vikipedi’nin daha iyi olduğunu düşünüyorum ama hani etik konusundan bakıldığında bence öbürlerine göre daha iyi yani hani gene tartışılır bir konu ama diğerlerine göre daha iyi görünüyor yani” şeklinde görüş belirtmiştir. Hasan ise “İşte bir güven çizgisi vikipedide daha kalın” şeklinde ifade etmiştir. Tülay ise görüşünü şu şekilde belirtmiştir: “ya wikipedia daha çok bilgi paylaşım amaçlı bir yer olduğu için etiğe aykırı pek bir şeyine rastlamadım açıkçası”.

Sonuç ve Öneriler

Araştırma bulguları incelendiğinde öğretmen adaylarının bilişim etiğine ilişkin farkındalıklarının yeterli olmadığı söylenebilir. Katılımcıların bilişim etiğine ilişkin yeterli tanım yapamadıkları, bilişim etiğini örneklerle açıklamaya çalıştıkları görülmüştür. Araştırmanın bu sonucu Kuzu (2009)’un çalışmasından elde edilen “bilgi ve iletişim teknolojileri ile geçmişi olan kişilerin bilişim etiği konusunda yeterli tanımlar yapamadıkları ancak örneklerle açıklayabildiklerini” sonucu ile tutarlılık göstermektedir. Alanyazında bu sonucun ortaya çıkma nedeni; lisans eğitiminde herhangi bir ders alınmaması (Kuzu, 2009) ve etik davranışlar konusundaki bilgi ve eğitim eksikliği (Çelen, 2012) olarak gösterilmiştir. Bu bağlamda özellikle öğretmen yetiştiren kurumların öğretim programlarının bilişim etiği eğitimini kapsayacak şekilde yeniden düzenlenmesi önerilmektedir.

Öğretmen adayları Vikipedi ortamını bilişim etiği açısından incelediğinde hem kullanıcıdan hem de ortamdan kaynaklı doğurguları olduğunu öne sürmektedirler. Öğretmen adaylarının görüşleri incelendiğinde Vikipedi’nin erişebilirliği yüksek bir ortam olduğu ancak etik ihlallere de açık olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Aynı zamanda buradaki etik problemlerin doğruluk ve fikri mülkiyet boyutunda ortamdan değil kullanıcıdan kaynaklı olduğu görülmüştür. Araştırmanın bu sonucu Beyhan ve Tunç (2012) çalışmasından elde edilen “fikri mülkiyet boyutunda etik dışı kullanımın diğerlerine oranla daha fazla olduğu” bulgusu ile uyuşmaktadır. Masrom, Ismail, Anuar, Hussein ve Mohamed (2010) yaptıkları araştırmalarında doğruluk ve erişilebilirlik boyutlarının daha fazla dikkate alınması gerektiğini vurgulamışlardır. Buradan da eğer kullanıcı etik değerlere sahip bir birey ise ortam etik ihlallerin yapılmasında ne kadar müsait olursa olsun, birey kendi değerleri ile karşılaştığı etik sorunları çözebilir. Etik değerlere sahip olmayan bir birey için ise ortamın güvenliği bir engel teşkil etmeyecektir.

Kullanıcıyı merkeze alan, içeriği üretmenin, paylaşmanın ve depolamanın çok kolay bir şekilde yapılmasına izin veren Web 2.0 teknolojilerinin gelişmesi ile birlikte bireylerin bu teknolojilere ilişkin etik düşünme becerilerine sahip olması gerekliliğin altı çizilmelidir. Bu teknolojiler kullanılırken bir sorun ile karşılaşıldığında bu teknolojilere ilişkin etik değerlere sahip bireyler çözüm getirebilecekler ve bu sorunların oluşmasını

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engelleyebileceklerdir.Bu nedenle bireylerin Web 2.0 teknolojileri kullanırken etik düşünmelerine ve bu doğrultuda karar alabilmelerine ilişkin eğitim almaları önemlidir.

Uysal ve Odabaşı (2006)’nın çalışmasında bireylerde bilgisayar etiği ile ilgili sorunlara karşı farkındalık oluşturmak ve bu sorunlar hakkında uygun biçimde karar vermelerini sağlamak amacıyla bireylerin bilgisayar etiği konusunda mutlaka bilgilendirilmeleri gerektiği vurgulanmaktadır. Van den Bergh ve Deschoolmeester (2010) tarafından etik davranış kurallarının varlığının, bilgi ve iletişim teknolojileri gibi dinamik ve karmaşık bir alan için etik davranış ve bilinç kazandırmak için yeterli olmadığı belirtilmiştir. Çınar (2011) ise bu bilincin küçük yaşlardan itibaren kazandırılması gerektiğini, bununda çocukların sorumluluk duygularını artırarak yapılabileceğini söylemektedir.

Kılıçer ve Odabaşı (2006) yaptıkları çalışmasında bilişim etiğinin kazandırılması için bilgisayar öğretmenlerinin rollerinin önemli olduğunu belirtmektedirler. Aynı zamanda bilişim etiği öğretiminde bireylere bilgisayar teknolojilerinin doğru kullanımı ile ilgili salt kurallar vermek yerine doğrunun neden doğru olduğunun öğretilmesi gerektiği belirtilmiştir. Aksi takdirde bilişim etiğinin sadece kurallar bütünü olarak kalacağı ve teknolojinin gelişmesiyle ortaya çıkan yeni etik meselelere uyum sağlanamayacağı belirtilmiştir. Bu doğrultuda başta BÖTE öğretmen adayları olmak üzere tüm öğretmen adaylarının bilişim teknolojileriyle gelen etik sorunlara karşı farkındalık oluşturmaları ve bilgilendirilmeleri için gereken önlemler alınmalıdır.

Araştırma sonucunda Vikipedi’de kullanıcı sayısının çok olmasından dolayı yanlış bilgi oranının az olduğu ancak bu durumun diğer Web 2.0 araçlarında daha çok görüldüğü bulgusuna ulaşılmıştır. Bu bulgular sonucunda etik değerlerle birlikte bireye bilgi okuryazarlığının da kazandırılmasının önemli olduğu düşünülmektedir. Bilgi okuryazarlığı genel anlamda farklı kaynaklardan bilgiyi kullanma, organize etme, değerlendirme ve bilgiye erişme becerisi olarak tanımlanmaktadır (Ata, 2011). Bilgi okuryazarlığına sahip olan bireyin Web 2.0 araçlarında karşılaştıkları etik problemler karşısında çözüm getirebilecekleri düşünülmektedir.

Öğretmen adaylarının görüşleri incelendiğinde elde edilen bir diğer bulgu ise bireylerin Vikipedi ve diğer Web 2.0 araçlarının kullanımı konusunda bilinçsiz olmasıdır. Fyrdenberg ve Press (2010) bilgisayar okuryazarlığından Web 2.0 okuryazarlığına olan süreci incelemiş ve Web 2.0 araçlarının gelişmesi ile birlikte öğrencilerin okullarda, toplumda ve kariyerlerinde faydalanacakları yeni becerilere ihtiyaç duyduklarını öngörmüştür. Bu bağlamda bireylere Web 2.0 araçlarına ilişkin okuryazarlık becerilerinin kazandırılması gerektiği düşünülmektedir.

Araştırma sonucunda Vikipedi’ye bilgi girişi yapan bir katılımcının yazarlık deneyimi sonucunda bu ortama karşı olumlu tutumlar geliştirdiği görülmüştür. Bu bağlamda bireylerin Vikipedi’yi sadece bilgi edinmek için değil aynı zamanda bilgi giriş yapmak için kullanmalarının sağlanması gerekmektedir. Bireylere Vikipedi’de yazarlık deneyimini yaşatarak onlarda olumlu tutum geliştirilmesi gerektiği söylenebilir. Yang ve Lai (2011) çalışmalarında Vikipedi’ de bilgi paylaşım davranışını araştırmışlar ve bireylerin Vikipedi’ye karşı olan tutumlarının bilgi paylaşım için motivasyonlarını önemli derecede etkilediğini bulmuşlardır. Bu bağlamda öğrencilerin bilgi üreticisi olmaları için etkinlikler düzenlenebilir. Bilişim öğretmenlerine öğrencilerde bu ortama ilişkin olumlu tutum geliştirmeleri konusunda önemli görevler düşmektedir. Bilişim öğretmenleri tarafından bilişim etiğine uygun bir şekilde bireylerin bu ortamı kullanması ve güvenilir bilgi girişi yaparak geliştirmesi sağlanmalıdır. Aynı zamanda mobil iletişim araçlarının ve mobil

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uygulamaların yaygınlığı göz önüne alınmalı ve Vikipedi ortamının mobil araçlara taşınması gerektiği düşünülmektedir.

Kaynakça

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Çınar, H. (2011). Eğitimde internet kullanımı ve internet etiği: Büro yönetimi ve sekreterlik programı öğrencileri üzerinde beş faktör kişilik modeli ile bir araştırma. Uluslararası İktisadi ve İdari İncelemeler Dergisi, 3(6), 67-82.

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EXTENDED ABSTRACT

21. century faces many technological challenges in learning and teaching which directly or indirectly effects the teachers and students. Teacher candidates are a group that faces these challenges deeply as being the ones between teaching and learning. Regarding the roles of teacher candidates as future teachers, we believe that we should be aware of the fact that they carry the skills necessary for 21. century. The recent web 2.0 technologies offer many opportunities both for students and teachers. However as in many other countries, web 2.0 technologies are underestimated in their role of education. They are seen as for communication or individual reflection most of the time regardless of their capacity for education. It is therefore we wanted to investigate a very crucial aspect of information, information ethics regarding Wikipedia use by means of involving teacher candidates into a Wikipedia study.

Wikipedia is a Web 2.0 technology of an Internet encyclopedia created in collaboration by users, free, independent, commercial-free and non-profit. This technology provides opportunity to create content together through the structure with teams and individuals who are able to add, edit and revise information. Everyone creating content and contributing to Wikipedia are known as “Wikipedian”. There is no obligation to be a member to Wikipedians. Creating content and the revisions can be realized without logging. Wikipedia has a valuable effect for internet users if used in accordance with the ethical rules. In this sense, it would be appropriate to focus on using this technology in accordance with the information ethics. Although informatic ethics is a field between science and ethic and depends on both of them, it is a discipline in its own truth providing not only conceptualizing understanding but also the use of technology. Information ethics has four core dimensions as privacy, accuracy, property and accessibility, according to Mason’s (1986) work. The work summarizes the area by means of an acronym – PAPA as;

Privacy: What information about one's self or one's associations must a person reveal to others, under what conditions and with what safeguards? What things can people keep to themselves and not be forced to reveal to others?

Accuracy: Who is responsible for the authenticity, fidelity and accuracy of information? Similarly, who is to be held accountable for errors in information and how is the injured party to be made whole?

Property: Who owns information? What are the just and fair prices for its exchange? Who owns the channels, especially the airways, through which information is transmitted? How should access to this scarce resource be allocated?

Accessibility: What information does a person or an organization have a right or a privilege to obtain, under what conditions and with what safeguards? (Mason, 1986).

The aim of this study was to investigate Wikipedia under the light of these dimensions of informatic ethics according to Mason (1986). Data set of this study was designed as qualitative research design and was collected by small focus group interview. The participants of the study were eight teacher candidates in the department of computer and instructional technology education in University of Anadolu. Interviews were carried out as four small focus group interviews including one male and one female from each grade level. The obtained data was analyzed with content analysis. Concordantly the data was organized and Wikipedia was investigated under the light of dimensions of information ethics. Results were discussed under two headings. The first as being,

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participants awareness regarding information ethics; and the second as being participants point of views on Wikipedia regarding the aspects of privacy, accuracy, property and accessibility. Results on participants awareness regarding information ethics revealed that they had not a structured knowledge on information ethics, but were familiar with the issue as can be understood by the informal examples they used. Results related with accessibility indicated that Vikipedi has high accessibility. Findings related to accuracy and intellectual property reveal that ethical problems are rather user based, note the environment. There came a theme which can be titled under ethical considerations regarding Wikipedia use which presented participants hesitations on entering issues without any control. Under the light of the findings of this study, we came to an understanding of a necessity for more information web 2.0 technologies. This may require web 2.0 literacy training for teacher candidates.

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