World Englishes_A Intro.ppt

8/14/2019 World Englishes_A Intro.ppt

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A resource book for

students

World Englishes

Jennifer Jenkins


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Key topics in World

Englishes

A. Introduction


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A1: The historical, social and political

context

English as a first language (L1)

English as an institutionalised second language (L2)

English as a foreign language (EFL)

English as a lingua franca (ELF)

A1


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The two diasporas of English

First diaspora: Migrations to North America,Australia, New Zealand, South Africa;L1 varieties of English = new Englishes

Second diaspora: Colonialisation of Asia and

Africa; L2 varieties of English = New Englishes

A1


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A2: The origins of pidgin and creole

languages

Definition pidgin

A pidginis a language with no native speakers: it is

no ones first language but is a contact language.

(Wardhaugh 2006: 613)

Definition creole

In contrast to a pidgin, a creoleis often defined as a

pidgin that has become the first language of a new

generation of speakers.

(Wardhaugh 2006: 613)

A2


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Pidgins

- Stigmatisation as inferior, bad languages

- European expansion into Africa and Asia during

colonial period

- Contact languages between dominant European

language speakers and speakers of mutually

unintelligible indigenous African and American

languages

- Fulfils restricted communicative needs between

people who do not share a common language

- Little need for grammatical redundancyA2


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Creoles

Creol isat ion: development of a pidgin into a creole

A: children of pidgin speakers use their parents pidgin

language as a mother tonguecreole

B: pidgin is used as a lingua franca in multilingual

areas and develops to be used for an increasing

number of functions creole

- Vocabulary expands and grammar increases in

complexity

Decreol isat ion: through extensive contact with the

dominant language develops towards standard

dominant language A2


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Theoriesof origins

Three groups of theories

1 Monogenesis: pidgins have a single origin

2Polygenesis: pidgins have an independent origin

3Universal: pidgins derive from universal strategies

A2


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Monogenesis

The theory of monogenesis and relexification:

-All European-based pidgins and creoles derive

ultimately from one proto-pidgin source, a Portuguese

pidgin that was used in the worlds trade routes during

the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries

-Evidence for this theory: many linguistic similarities

between present-day Portuguese pidgins and creoles,

and pidgins and creoles related to other European

languages

A2


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Polygenesis

The independent parallel development theory:

-Pidgins and creoles arose and developed

independently, but in similar ways because they shared

a common linguistic ancestor

-Pidgins and creoles were formed in similar social and

physical conditions

A2


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Polygenesis

The nautical jargon theory:

- A nautical jargon, i.e. the European sailors lingua

franca, formed a nucleus for the various pidgins,

which were expanded in line with their learners

mother tongues

- Evidence for this theory: nautical element in all

pidgins and creoles with European lexicons

A2


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Universal

The baby talk theory:

-Based on similarities between certain pidgins and early

speech of children

-Also because speakers of the dominant language use

foreigner talk (simplified speech) with L2 speakers

A2


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Universal

A synthesis:

-Based on universal patterns of linguistic behaviour in

contact situations

-Inherent universal constraints on language

-Evidence for this theory: proficient as well as less

proficient speakers from different L1s and speech

communities simplify their language in very similar

ways; children go through the same stages in the

mastery of speech

A2


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A3: Who speaks English today?

Three groups of users:

Those who speak English respectively as

- a native language = ENL

- a second language = ESL

- a foreign language = EFL

Neat classifications become increasingly difficult

A3


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Who speaks English today?

English as a Native Language (ENL)

- Language of those born and raised in one of the countries

where English is historically the first language to be spoken (i.e.mainly the UK, USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand)

- ~ 350 million speakers

English as a Second Language (ESL)- Language spoken in a large number of territories which were

once colonised by the English (e.g., India, Nigeria, Singapore)

- ~ 350 million speakers

A3


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Who speaks English today?

English as a Foreign Language (EFL)

- Language of those for whom it serves no purposes within their

own countries

- Historically, EFL was learned to use the language with its

native speakers in the US and UK

- ~ 1 billion speakers with reasonable competence

A3


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Difficulties with the three-way categorisation

ENL is not a single variety of English

Pidgins and creoles do not fit into the categorisation.

There are large groups of ENL speakers in ESL

territories and vice versa.

It is based on the concept of monolingualism, but bi-

or multilingualism is the norm.

It is based on the basic distinction between native

speakers and non-native speakers, with the first

group being considered superior regardless of the

quality of their language. (cf. McArthur 1998)A3


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Models of the spread of English

Strevens (1980): World map of English

Kachru (1985/1988): Three-circle model of World

Englishes

McArthur (1987): Circle of World English

Grlach (1988): Circle model of English

A3


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Three circle model of World Englishes

Kachru (1992: 356)

Most useful and influential model

World Englishes divided into three concentric circles:

1Inn er Circle:

~ ENL countries, norm-providing

2Outer Circ le:~ ESL countries, norm-developing

3Expanding Circ le:

~EFL countries, norm-dependent

A3


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Limitations with Kachrus model

Based on geography and history, rather than the speakers use

of English.

Grey area between Inner and Outer Circles as well as Outerand Expanding Circles.

The worlds bilingual or multilingual speakers are not taken into

account.

Difficulty of using the model to define speakers in terms of their

proficiency in English.

Does not account for the linguistic diversity within and between

countries of a particular circle.

The term Inner Circle implies that speakers from ENL countries

are central, and may thus be interpreted as superior.

A3


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A4: Variation across Outer Circle

Englishes

New Engl ishes

Four defining criteria by Platt, Weber and Ho (1984)

1. It has developed through the education system.

2. It has developed in an area where a native variety of English

was not the language spoken by most of the population.

3. It is used for a range of functions amongthose who speak or

write it in the region where it is used.4. It has become localised or nativised by adopting some

language features of its own (e.g., sounds, intonation patterns,

sentence structures, words, expressions).

A4


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Innovation in English

Five internal factors to decide the status of an

innovation (Bamgbose 1998):

1 Demographic factor (how many speakers use it?)

2 Geographical factor (how widely dispersed is it?)

3 Authoritative factor (where is its use sanctioned?)

4 Codification (does it appear in reference books?)

5 Acceptability factor (what is the attitude towards it?)

A4


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Levels of variation

Main levels of variation: pronunciation, grammar,

vocabulary/idiom, discourse style

Pronunciation

- Consonant sounds, e.g., dental fricatives // and //

- Vowel sounds: vary across the New Englishes interms of both quality and quantity

A4


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Levels of variation

Grammar

- a tendency not to mark nouns for plural

- a tendency to use a specific/non-specific system for nouns

rather than a definite/indefinite system, or to use the two

systems side by side

- a tendency to change the form of quantifiers

- a tendency not to make a distinction between the third person

pronouns he andshe

- a tendency to change the word order within the noun phrase

(cf. Platt, Weber and Ho 1984)

A4


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Levels of variation

Grammar

limited marking of the third person singular present tense form

limited marking of verbs for the past tense

a tendency to use an aspect system (which shows whether an

action is finished or still going on) rather than tense system

(which shows the time an action takes place)

a tendency to extend the use of be + verb + ing constructions to

stative verbs

the formation of different phrasal and prepositional verb

constructions

(cf. Platt, Weber and Ho 1984)

A4


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Levels of variation

Vocabulary/Idiom

Locally coined words/expressions

Prefixation (e.g., enstool,destool)

Suffixation (e.g., teacheress,spacy)

Compounding (e.g., key-bunch,high hat)

Borrowings from indigenous languages

IdiomsDirect translations from indigenous idioms (e.g., to shake legs)

Variation on native speaker idioms (e.g., to eat your cake and

have it)

Combination of English and indigenous forms (e.g., to put sand

in someones gari) A4


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Levels of variation

Discourse style

- Formal character

- Complex vocabulary and grammatical structure

- Specific expressions of thanks, deferential vocabulary and the

use of blessings

- Greeting and leave-taking

A4


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A5: Standard language ideology in the

Inner Circle

Standard language

Term used for that variety of a language which is

considered to be the norm.

Prestige variety: spoken by a minority of those

occupying positions of power within a society

Yardstick against which other varieties of the

language are measured

Held up as optimum for educational purposes

A5


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Standard language and language standards

Language standards

- Prescriptive language rules which constitute the

standard to which all members of a language

community are exposed and urged to conform during

education.

- Reverse side of the standard language coin

- Because natural languages are dynamic, these rules

are subject to change over time.

- During earlier and transitional stages, language

change is regarded as error by promoters of

standard language ideology. A5


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Standard language and language standards

[] standard languages are the result of a direct and

deliberate intervention by society (Hudson 1996: 32)

Four stages of this process of intervention

1 Selection

2 Codification3 Elaboration of function

4 Acceptance

A5


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What is Standard English?

1 The dialect of educated people throughout the British Isles. It

is the dialect normally used in writing, for teaching in schools

and universities, and heard on radio and television (Hughesand Trudgill 1979, repeated in the 2nd ed., 1996)

2 The variety of the English language which is normally

employed in writing and normally spoken by educated

speakers of the language. It is also, of course, the variety of

the language that students of English as a Foreign or SecondLanguage (EFL/ESL) are taught when receiving formal

instruction. The term Standard English refers to grammar and

vocabulary (dialect)butnot to pronunciation (accent).

(Trudgill and Hannah 1982, and repeated in the 4th ed., 2002).

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3 Standard English can be characterized by saying that it is that

set of grammatical and lexical forms which is typically used in

speech and writing by educated native speakers. It includesthe use of colloquial and slang vocabulary as well as swear-

words and taboo expressions (Trudgill 1984).

4 (The term) Standard English is potentially misleading for at

least two reasons. First, in order to be self-explanatory, it really

ought to be called the grammar and the core vocabulary ofeducated usage in English. That would make plain the fact

that it is not the whole of English, and above all, it is not

pronunciation that can in any way be labelled Standard, but

only one part of English: its grammar and vocabulary

(Strevens 1985).A5


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5 Since the 1980s, the notion of standard has come to the fore in

public debate about the English language We may define the

Standard English of an English-speaking country as a minorityvariety (identified chiefly by its vocabulary, grammar and

orthography) which carries most prestige and is most widely

understood. (Crystal 1995, repeated in the 2nd ed., 2003).

6 Traditionally the medium of the upper and (especially professional)

middle class, and by and large of education [] Although notlimited to one accent (most notably in recent decades), it has been

associated since at least the 19th century with the accent that,

since the 1920s, has been called Received Pronunciation (RP),

and with the phrases the Queens English, the Kings English,

Oxford English, and BBC English (McArthur 2002).A5


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Standard English: what it isnt

It is not a language: it is only one variety of a given English.

It is not an accent: in Britain it is spoken by 1215% of the

population, of whom 912% speak it with a regional accent.

It is not a style: it can be spoken in formal, neutral and informal

styles, respectively.

It is not a register: given that a register is largely a matter of

lexis in relation to subject matter (e.g. the register of medicine,

of cricket, or of knitting), there is no necessary connection

between register and Standard English

It is not a set of prescriptive rules: it can tolerate certain

features which, because many of their rules are grounded in

Latin, prescriptive grammarians do not allow. (cf. Trudgill 1999)A5


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Standard English

A dialect

That differs from other dialects in that it has greater

prestige

That does not have an associated accent

That does not form part of a geographical

continuum.

It is a purely social dialect.

(Trudgill 1999)

A5


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Non-standard Englishes

Non-standard native English varieties

New Englishes: standard and non-standard varieties

Implicit belief that New Englishes are result of fossi l isat ion

A5


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READING D5: IS LANGUAGE(STILL) POWER?


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A6: The spread of English as an

international lingua franca

Ambivalent attitude towards English as an

international lingua franca

Reasons for the international status of English:

- Historical reasons

- Internal political reasons

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External economic reasons- Practical reasons

- Intellectual reasons

- Entertainment reasons

- Personal advantage/prestige (Crystal 1997)A6


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Mutual intelligibility and group identity

Intelligibility and identity: two opposing forces

Mutual intelligibility: accent differences decrease

Identity: accent differences increase

A6


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A7: The roles of English in Asia and

Europe

Europe Asia

Expanding Circle Outer Circle

Emerging Euro-English Asian Englishes

Bi- and multilingual contexts

Linguistic orphans (Kachru 1992)

A7


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English as an Asian language

Regional categorisation

- South Asian varieties

- Southeast Asian and Pacific varieties

- East Asian varieties

Functional categorisation

- Institutionalised varieties (Outer Circle)

- Non-institutionalised varieties (Expanding Circle)

A7


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English in Europe

European Union (EU):

- 23 official languages

- 3 dominant languages: English, French, German

- English = the de factoEuropean lingua franca

- Emerging features (Seidlhofer, Breiteneder, Pitzl 2006)

- Nativisationprocesses

A7


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A8: The future of World Englishes

Languagedistribution vs. language spread

(Widdowson 1997)

Difficulties inherent in the English language:

- Orthographic

- Phonological

- Grammatical

Spanish as the principal world language:- Increasing influence in the EU and America

- Simpler pronunciation, spelling and verb system

A8

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