Wolf_Concept of a Science of Judaism

On the Concept of a Science of Judaism (1822)BY IMMANUEL WOLF*

IF we are to talk of a science of Judaism, then it is self-evident that theword 'Judaism' is here being taken in its comprehensive sense—as theessence of all the circumstances, characteristics, and achievements of theJews in relation to religion, philosophy, history, law, literature in general,civil life and all the affairs of man—and not in that more limited sense inwhich it only means the religion of the Jews. In any event, it is thereligious idea which conditions all the ramifications of Judaism and theone on which they are based. But the more this idea has everywherepenetrated human life and combined and incorporated itself with life,the more difficult it is to recognize and comprehend it as a whole, unlessone strives to understand it in all its forms and modifications. In thediverse unfolding of the whole life of a people there do of course existaspects and tendencies which are remote from the sphere of religion; butin Judaism, more than anywhere else, the influence of the basic religiousidea is visible in all the circumstances of human life.

From its first formation until our own time, i.e. for a period of atleast three millennia, Judaism has preserved itself as a characteristic andindependent whole. Admittedly, alien views from outside have oftenexercised their influence on Judaism, for in the world of the spirit, nomore than in the world of matter, do two bodies exist side by side withoutexercising a mutual influence. But those alien elements that Judaism hasabsorbed had to submit to the fundamental idea of Judaism in order toassimilate themselves to it and become one with it. Similarly, all that hascome forth from Judaism everywhere bears the imprint of this basic ideaand reveals it in every form. But infinitely more significant is that influ-ence on humanity that Judaism has exercised, as history incontestablyreveals. Founded in alien surroundings, under Egyptian influence, buttaking an altogether different course from the Egyptian people, Judaism,as a result of its own inner characteristics, has always remained strangeand isolated in relation to the rest of the world. But the spiritual content,the idea of Judaism, has communicated itself to the most varied peoples ofthe world.

What is this idea that has existed throughout so much of world historyand has so successfully influenced the culture of the human race? It is ofthe most simple kind and its content can be expressed in a few words. It isthe idea of unlimited unity in the all. It is contained in the one wordHi n ' which signifies indeed the living unity of all being in eternity,the absolute "being outside defined time and space. This concept is re-vealed to the Jewish people, i.e. posited as a datum. But this took place•See Introduction p. XXV-XXVI.

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at a time when man's mind was far from ready to grasp it in all itsuniversality. For man needs time in order to raise himself from the worldof the physical and the many to that of the universal unity, the all-embrac-ing and all-existing Monas. Thus the idea of the unity of God, as taughtby Judaism, could only gradually be comprehended and recognized by apeople which had not yet raised itself from the physical world. At firsttherefore, the idea of God had to be conveyed in personal and individualshape and could only gradually be revealed in its full universality. There-fore the idea of God, if it was to continue and develop amongst mankind,had to be clothed in a body and thus brought nearer to human under-standing. In this way Judaism intimately united the world of the spiritualand the divine with the world of human life. But it depicted the divinein its first revelation as a living, spiritual entity, incommensurable with theworld of matter and incapable of physical representation. But the bodysurrounding the divine idea, in which its gradual unfolding and develop-ment proceeded, was Mosaic theocracy. Thus the Jewish people becamea nation of priests in the sense of guardians of the idea of God—a peopleof God.

But because the idea of Judaism, as a purely spiritual principle, was atthe time of revelation by no means in harmony with the concept of theworld and cultural level of the Jewish people, nor of any other, it nevercame to rest since it was first manifested and has remained in constantstruggle. But peace and permanence are alien to the realm of the spirit,which is truly living. It is in the nature of the spiritual world to be inconstant motion, and never to cease development.

Now as the spiritual principle continued to grow in the Jewish State,of which it provided the foundation, the Jewish people were led to anever more living knowledge of it. But the struggle of the idea of Godagainst the world of the senses in which the Jewish people was stillconfined and to which all the neighbouring peoples enticed it, the constantactivity of this idea, Which, once proclaimed, was bound to overcome allobstacles, must unfold itself continuously and rise to a universal level. —This ferment manifested itself in the division of the Jewish State, in itsnever-ending inner and outer struggles. The prophets in Israel recognizedthat the continued existence of the State was bound up with the funda-mental religious idea and they would not therefore tolerate a secondtemple alongside the one which was a symbol of unity. They prophesiedincalculable misfortune if all maxims of State were not made in con-formity with the basic religious principle. But they proclaimed infinitebliss for mankind once the idea of God were acknowledged.

The constant dissensions and disturbances, however, were bound toweaken the small Jewish State to such an extent that it could no longermaintain itself against the neighbouring peoples striving for universaldominion. The Jewish people lost its external independence and only

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found its internal, characteristic independence, its nationhood—in theunique world of their religion. That is the reason why the Babylonianexile was so uncommonly favourable to the development of the idea ofGod. Not until then did it intertwine and become fused with the wholeinner life of the Jews. Incidentally, the influence exercised by the Chaldeanon Jewish culture is well known. When another powerful race of peopleseized dominion over the peoples of Asia, when a new victorious conqueror,in accordance with the manner and spirit of the time, began to force themajority of the then known peoples of the world into one universalmonarchy and to unify them under one sceptre, the Jews, as enemies ofthe previous dynasty, could not be regarded as enemies of the new: theywere permitted to return to their own country. But behold a remarkableevent! Hundreds of thousands remained in the dispersion and were notincorporated a second time into the Jewish State. But everywhere theypreserved the self-same idea on which their nationhood depended. Theyremained adherents of Judaism and thereby links in a chain.

But a Jewish State arose anew, a temple was built anew as a symbol andrallying point for Judaism. The struggle of the idea had nearly ceasedinternally, the Jews had come to terms with the true spirit of their lawsin which the political and moral principles were bound into an indissolubleunity by the religious principle, and had thereby become incapable ofever again falling away from the fundamental idea of Judaism. Theseparation of the Samaritans from the true Jews was the cause of un-ceasing disputes, and the conflict between religious and worldly powerwhich should have been united, soon began to bring about recurrentdisturbances. The conflict with the outside world, however, became moreand more violent. Later a principle that was utterly different fromJudaism came into conflict with it—Hellenism. In Judaism the divineidea is present as a given, revealed idea. In Hellenism all knowledge hasdeveloped from the human spirit itself. Both in their very different waysare the most momentous factors in the cultural history of the humanspirit. When it came into contact with Judaism, Hellenism had alreadywon its triumph over the hitherto dominant Asiatic world. Differentprinciples are hostile to each other. They seek to penetrate and dissolveone another. In most cases a new product emerges, a distinctive thirdentity. The originality and inner consistency of Judaism might well beshaken but was not to be destroyed. Moreover, the Hellenistic principlehere, remote from its native soil in the Syrian empire, was not present inits original power and dignity. It had no wish to inject other peoples withits own spirit and to force it on them. The encounter between the Greekand Jewish principles was more peaceful in Egypt, especially in Alex-andria, because here the two principles did not confront each other inobstinate contradiction, but were attenuated by a third principle, theEgyptian principle, which stood between them. In time new principles

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were formed here combining these three in different proportions but in away that the different components remained visible: the philosophy ofPhilo, Gnosticism, neo-Platonism.

Judaism, meanwhile, was continuously attacked from outside and soonshaken internally by even more damaging tendencies. Different methodsof comprehending and interpreting the religious principle, which was nowclosely bound up with the life of the people, and the different hopes basedon these for the future of the gravely threatened state, divided the wor-shippers of divine unity into as many sects as political parties. The un-folding religious idea was in a state of ferment which caused all mindsto turn to the imminence of a decisive event. Then Judea began its finalstruggle against the all-powerful Romans and the Jewish State succumbed,astonishing the world by its vast strength even whilst dying. But theRoman Empire, this largest and last universal dominion of antiquity, theguiding principle of which now began to weaken, represented a vast organi-zation capable of absorbing the idea which had hitherto lived amonga small people and had developed to a certain level, so that the universalidea might become universal. This took place in the shape of Christianity.

The life of the peoples of antiquity, generally moving out of the worldof the senses and the infinite, reflected higher and eternal values only invague and surmised form, truly and spiritually perceived only by a fewoutstanding sages. Yet this life which practised and encouraged individualvirtue and which will always remain of great interest historically, as thechildhood of the human race, had completed one cycle and was now tobecome a more serious and advanced spirit. The idea of God spreadamongst the peoples and raised them to a higher level of being, but it wasinwardly understood and shaped differently, according to different aspectsand clothed in different forms. The Jewish State, however, had fulfilledits mission; and together with the Temple in which the pure idea of Godhad reigned without being represented in physical images but only to becomprehended by the thinking spirit, together with this lofty Temple, thefoundation of the whole edifice, the Jewish State collapsed. Thus a peoplewas robbed of freedom and independence, which it could and would enjoyto the fullest extent or not at all. A people whose every circumstance,public and domestic life, science and art, was conditioned and ordered byone and the same principle; a people whose literature is nothing but therepresentation of a religious idea at an ever more advanced stage of devel-opment, whose poetry is nothing but the glorification of this idea.

The Jewish State collapsed but not Judaism. Hundreds of thousands stillacknowledged their adherence to the self-same idea. Misfortune onlyattached them to it more firmly; they carried it with them throughout theworld. Everywhere the Jew preserved his national characteristics and re-mained a Jew. The greater the misfortunes the people underwent, themore confidently did they give themselves up to the childlike hope for

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reunification and renewed glory. The expectation of a Messianic end oftime which would resolve all injustice, and bring all truth to light, is asnatural to humanity, especially when humiliated and downcast, as thelegend of a blissful golden innocent dawn. Misfortune, suppression andpersecution—the more they are intensified, the more lively the convictionon the part of the suffering that his present state will not endure; themore closely do the fellow-sufferers cling together and the more firmlydo they hold fast to everything that yet remains to them as testimony ofa blissful past. But the scholars amongst the Jews in the first centuries afterthe destruction of their state were once again able to bind the idea ofJudaism and life closely together, modified to accord with the changedcircumstances of the times. Even under the Mosaic constitution all publicinstitutions were a reminder of this fundamental idea but the sameconcept was bound up with domestic life, even extending to clothing(ritual fringes and phylacteries). But now everything that referred to thepublic life of the people, to the sanctified soil of the national territory,had lost its significance. Temple and priest were no more. What was nownecessary was to unite with domestic life everything that had formerlybeen significantly bound up with public life. A profound knowledge ofhuman nature was the foundation of this scheme. Family life is the sourceand training ground of morality and, when customs and habits are boundup with the domestic hearth, they grow deep and indestructible roots inthe minds of men. That is why the rabbis have interwoven the whole lifeof the Jews with religious reminiscences and customs. The mysteriousmeaning which they attributed to most of these, the pious cast of mindin which they struggled and decided every atom of this world of ceremony,filled the people not only with holy reverence at every religious action andpopular custom, which it had preserved; but the people also accepted witheagerness and with the same reverence, the new decrees of the Talmudists,with which the latter succeeded in complementing the age-old decreesartificially, as an oral tradition running parallel to the scriptures. Thusthe Talmudists, with the most minute care but with the best of intentions,erected a fence around the Law (as they themselves put it) in order thatthis might remain all the more inviolable and pure. This unique mode oflife, everywhere surrounded by a veil of sacredness and piety, founded ona single and an essentially extremely simple idea, preserved by the Jewswith anxious care, transmitted from generation to generation, and heldtogether even more consistently and more firmly by continued outsidepressure, is what has preserved Judaism for so long.

Without the vitality of the original religious idea indwelling in Judaism,the spirit Would inevitably very soon have succumbed to the pressure ofexternal events. But the active inner principle developed ever-new life,ever-new strength. Judaism also developed alongside its Pharisaic andRabbinical manifestation, a purely intellectual and speculative outlook,

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already to some extent in evidence in the sects of the Essenes, Therapeut-ics and Sadducees, and then in the systems of Jews familiar with Greekphilosophy and, finally, and notably, in the Cabbala. Thus we see theJews, even in the Middle Ages, together with the Arabs, energeticallytilling the fields of scholarship, particularly in Spain. This was at a timewhen Islam, which had borrowed its finest dogmas from Judaism, seemedwilling to make amends for the damage previously done to scholarship.The Jews became the interpreters of Arab learning to the European worldand with the re-establishment, or rather the beginning of real scientificlife in Europe—dying Greece bequeathing its inheritance to the Westernworld—Judaism also influenced the shaping of the new literary life. Onlywhen modern history began were the Jews overtaken in the life of culture.Fanatical violence which had raged most cruelly against the Jews, partic-ularly from the beginning of the Crusades until Ferdinand the Catholic,had succeeded in producing that effect which continuous hostile pressureand subjugation never fail to produce, and which only the vitality of theidea basic to Judaism had been able to avert for so long. In the end thespirit too had necessarily to succumb to the fetters which deprived thebody of freedom of movement. Excluded from public life, restricted tocertain fields of activity, the Jews were more and more pushed back intotheir own unique world, handed down to them by their fathers and fore-fathers. But the life of this world, that had been preserved from antiquity,became more and more constricted and hollow, for the living spirit couldno longer move freely within it. Since then, and until the present day, therabbis confined themselves to their scholastic preoccupations. But that isthe nature of scholasticism: to follow the letter of a tradition assumed to beholy and inviolable, to develop from within it every aspect of humanknowledge in all directions and thus to hamper every free, individual andliving movement of the human mind, and to preclude any rational andindependent understanding of infinite truth.

Thus the Jews in general now live, and most of all their scholars, i.e.their rabbis, in hollow isolation, in self-imposed constraint, in peacefulbrooding over the letters of vanished centuries. But no one familiar withhistory should be surprised at this. For the history of the European Jew inthe Middle Ages for the most part consists only of a series of experimentsarranged by the enemies of this unfortunate people in order to oppress andto exterminate them. The history of European greed in America andAfrica can show deeds of greater shame. Yet from time to time benevolentNorthern light brightens the darkness, into which Judaism finally fell.

In the inner family life of the Jews there were preserved, together withold customs and habits, ineradicable traces of a more noble human natureand an active mind. But what is of the highest importance is this: thatJudaism, in succumbing, so to speak, beneath the weight of years andexternal violence into a debilitating lethargy, was yet depicted in accord-

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ance with its unique, vital and eternal idea, in the latter's highest degreeof definition, consistency and freedom—as though this were the last, ex-hausting act of its manifestation—in the manner of the pure speculativethinking i.e. purely scientifically. This was in the system of Benedict deSpinoza, a man whose subtlety and profundity were centuries in advanceof his time, Whose highly significant influence on the more consistent andprofound philosophies of the present day is unmistakable, who did indeedrenounce the external rites of Judaism but who had understood all themore its inner spirit.

Thus Judaism shows itself to be for most of the history of the worldan important and influential factor in the development of the humanspirit. The only person who can fail to recognize this is the man wholooks at history, as he looks at everything else, with preconceived notions;or the man who only sees in the history of the world an aggregate ofindividual events, to whom the random succession of diverse events is amere source of amusement, and for whom only bloody battles, bold con-quests and miraculous coincidences of fate are of importance. The annalsof world history could only offer us the satisfaction of our curiosity, merefood for our yearning for the miraculous and empty play for our fantasiesif they contained nothing besides this. But events are only manifestationsof the moving and developing spirit and it is indeed the gradual unfoldingof the living spirit which constitutes the instructive element in worldhistory, which alone makes possible a true understanding of the past andthe present. History, considered from this point of view, would be just asinstructive and as meaningful if it were to give us a complete record ofthe dreams of the greatest men of every age, as these could tell us just asmuch as their actions about the development of the spirit.

An idea, such as Judaism, which has developed and remained inexistence for so many centuries, which has been alive and productive forsuch a long period in the history of the world must for this very reasonbe founded on the essence of humanity itself and thus be of the greatestsignificance and importance for the thinking spirit.

Judaism presents itself to us in a dual form, first, in the documents ofhistory and literature, in an extensive set of writings; and secondly, as astill living principle, acknowledged by millions of people dispersed all overthe world. To the latter the original simple idea has, so to speak, turnedrusty under the influence of the oxygen in a hostile atmosphere. Thefence with which the Law was surrounded gradually spread wider andwider, so that it grew into a challenging barrier, barring the path to theinner sanctuary, and even burying the sanctuary. But the free spirit ofscience breaks through the weeds of a ceremonial that a thousand yearsof habit have made mechanical and lifeless; and within, it sees the self-same idea of God, that was formerly revealed in all its clarity. The in-fluence of the irresistible progress of spirit already begins to make a

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powerful impact on Judaism. Where external pressure has ceased, thespirit can begin to develop more freely. The idea strives to free itself fromthe unyielding Walls in which it has been imprisoned, and must onceagain reveal itself in its own inner, spiritual essence.

Judaism, as a whole, as here presented, based on its own inner principleand embodied, on the one hand, in a comprehensive literature, and, on theother, in the life of a large number of human beings, both can be and needsto be treated scientifically. Hitherto, however, it has never been describedscientifically and comprehensively from a wholly independent standpoint.What Jewish scholars have achieved, especially in earlier times, is mostlytheological in character. In particular, they have almost completely neglect-ed the study of history. But Christian scholars, however great their meritin the development of individual aspects of Judaism, have almost alwaystreated Judaism for the sake of a historical understanding of Christiantheology, even if it was not their intention to place Judaism itself in ahateful light, or, as they put it—to confute Judaism. Even though someimportant scholarly works written from a general literary standpoint andinterest have emerged, not merely as vehicles or propaedeutics for Christ-ian theology (which is admittedly difficult to separate from Jewish theo-logy) these achievements apply only to individual aspects of the whole. Butif Judaism is to become an object of science in its own right and if a scienceof Judaism is to be formed, then it is obvious that quite a different methodof treatment is under discussion. But any object, no matter of what type,that in its essence is of interest to the human spirit, and comprehensivein its diverse formation and development, can become the object of aspecial science.

The content of this special science is the systematic unfolding and re-presentation of its object in its whole sweep, for its own sake, and not forany ulterior purpose. If we apply this to the science of Judaism, then thefollowing characteristics emerge:

1. The science of Judaism comprehends Judaism in its fullest scope;2. It unfolds Judaism in accordance with its essence and describes it

systematically, always relating individual features back to the fundamentalprinciple of the whole;

3. It treats the object of study in and for itself, for its own sake, andnot for any special purpose or definite intention. It begins without anypreconceived opinion and is not concerned with the final result. Its aimis neither to put its object in a favourable, nor in an unfavourable light, inrelation to prevailing views, but to show it as it is. Science is self-sufficient,is in itself an essential need of the human spirit. It therefore needs toserve no other purpose than its own. But it is for that reason no less truethat each science not only exercises its most important influence on othersciences but also on life. This can easily be shown to be true of the scienceof Judaism.

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Every science falls into several parts according to the essential dif-ferences in the material, and this will also apply to our science. Thishowever, in accordance with the above-mentioned twofold revelation ofits object, will fall initially into two main divisions:

1. Study of Judaism in its historical and literary writings;2. Statistical study of Judaism in relation to the present-day Jews

scattered throughout all the countries of the world.The aim will be to depict Judaism, first from a historical standpoint,

as it has gradually developed and shaped; and then philosophically, accord-ing to its inner essence and idea. The textual knowledge of the literatureof Judaism must precede both methods of study. Thus we have, first, thetextual study of Judaism; second, a history of Judaism; third, a philosophyof Judaism.

1. The textual study of Judaism is the interpretative and critical under-standing of the whole literature of the Jews, as the literature in whichare defined the special world of the Jews and their unique way of life andof thought. Textual study will make use of varying methods in as muchas this literature is in different languages, embraces different themes andbelongs to different ages.

2. The history of Judaism is the systematic description of Judaism, inthe forms it has assumed at any special time, and in all its aspects. Inparticular, there are three such tendencies: the religious, the political, andthe literary which are everywhere, however, intimately bound up with eachother. When depicted as a whole they yield the general history; when de-picted individually, they yield the history of religion, politics and literature.

The history of the Jews will fall into several periods in accordance withthe many different aspects in which the spiritual principle of Judaismhas manifested itself in the course of time, or in accordance with thedifferent levels at which the idea, the formative spirit of the whole, hasappeared.

3. The philosophy of Judaism. This has as its object the conceptionof Judaism as such. This it must unfold and reveal in all its truth inaccordance with its inner rationality. It will teach the understanding ofthe idea of God as it has gradually been revealed in Judaism. Furthermore,it will point to the connection between external historical events and theinner development of the living idea. Whereas history concerns itself onlywith what has happened, with the past, the interest of philosophy alsoextends to the state of the idea in the present, in the Judaism of today.The history of the past is directly followed by the second main divisionof the subject i.e. Judaism in the living form in which it lies before us —the general statistical position of the Jews in every country, with specialreference to their religious and political circumstances.

This would be, in general outline, the framework of the science ofJudaism. A vast field embracing literary researches, compilations and

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developments! But if the object as such is important to science and thehuman spirit in general, its progressive development is bound to follow.The truly scientific spirit therefore cannot on account of the multifarious-ness and the vast scope of the field doubt the possibility that such a sciencemight be established. The essence of science is universality, infinity, andtherein lies the spur and the attraction which it has for the humanspirit whose nobler nature rejects any limitations, any rest, any standingstill. But should the question be asked: what advantage will accrueto science as a whole from a scientific treatment of Judaism on theselines? it will be obvious once again that such a question cannot emanatefrom anyone who has grasped the true spirit of science. How could itbe that an object, which in any way at all had its place within the fieldof scientific research, could be examined and discussed without sheddingsome light on other objects of science and thus indirectly over thewhole field of the sciences? In the realm of the sciences nothing standson its own, nothing is isolated. On the contrary, all the sciences are subjectto mutual influence, are bound to each other by an inner harmony. Butit is above all the task and the obligation of our age to summarize thesemain branches of human knowledge, which are manifestations of a prin-ciple, in their whole extent, together with all connected and related fieldsand to trace their general development back to its basic principle. Thuseverything that the admirable diligence of earlier ages had achieved andgathered together in detail would be assembled into a unity of meaning.But today the attention of the scholar, in his attempt to obtain a thoroughinsight into the history of the development of the human spirit from theearliest ages of man, is directed, above all, towards the Orient, this cradleof human culture, this source of so much that is great and sublime. Asthis is so, would it not be timely to subject Judaism, this richest and mostwidespread fruit of the Orient, to a thorough examination from a purelyscientific point of view? Or are we to neglect, in our attraction towardsthe more unknown and more remote world of the Hindus and Persians,the treasures of a Judaism that is closer and more accessible? Or indeeddo the latter promise no yield? Are they perhaps already exhausted? Any-one who supposes this to be the case is ignorant of the wealth of materialavailable.

But Judaism is not only of historical interest. It is not a principle thatbelongs to the past, that has already lived and is now preserved merelyin the pages of history. It lives on, acknowledged by a not inconsiderableportion of humanity, even of European humanity, on a numerical basisalone. And yet the position of these living witnesses of antiquity amongstthe peoples of Europe is still the subject of debate. The institutions of theMiddle Ages have here, as elsewhere, ceased to function. The situationof humanity has changed but is not yet settled. No universally valid prin-ciple has yet been found for the relations of the Jews; and if there is ever

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204 Immanuel Wolfto be a just decision on this issue, then this can clearly only be donethrough the ways of science. Scientific knowledge of Judaism must decideon the merits or demerits of the Jews, their fitness or unfitness to begiven the same status and respect as other citizens. This alone will makeknown the inner character of Judaism and separate the essential fromthe accidental, the original from the later addition. Science alone isabove the partisanship, passions and prejudices of daily life, for its aimis truth. I mean genuine science, free and infinite, not that pseudo-sciencewhich only consists of empty reasoning, in an arbitrary combination ofdifferent opinions, which number among them prejudice due to selfishness,love of power, envy and vanity. It deals in assertions, it relies on theauthority of concepts which happen to be currently accepted by themasses, instead of being founded on the inner concept of its objects. Truescience will ignore an opponent of this kind, for the latter will vanish atits sight, as night before the day.

It remains to indicate in a few words that aspect, in the light of whichthe establishment of a science of Judaism seems to be a necessity of ourage. This is the inner world of the Jews themselves. This world too, hasin many ways been disturbed and shaken by the unrelenting progress of thespirit and the associated changes in the life of the peoples. It is manifesteverywhere that the fundamental principle of Judaism is again in a stateof inner ferment, striving to assume a shape in harmony with the spirit ofthe times. But in accordance with the age this development can only takeplace through the medium of science. For the scientific attitude is thecharacteristic of our time. But as the formation of a science of Judaism isan essential need for the Jews themselves, it is clear that, although thefield of science is open to all men, it is primarily the Jews who are calledupon to devote themselves to it. The Jews must once again show theirmettle as doughty fellow-workers in the common task of mankind. Theymust raise themselves and their principle to the level of a science, forthis is the attitude of the European world. This attitude must banish therelationship of strangeness in which Jews and Judaism have hitherto stoodin relation to the outside world. And if one day a bond is to join thewhole of humanity, then it is the bond of science, the bond of pure reason,the bond Of truth. Translated by Lionel E. Kochan

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