WMR2010 Migration Policies Asia-pacific

8/13/2019 WMR2010 Migration Policies Asia-pacific

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BACKGROUND PAPER

WMR 2010The Future of Migration

Policies in the Asia-Pacific Region


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The opinions expressed in the report are those of the authors and do not

necessarily reect the views of the Internaonal Organizaon for Migraon

(IOM). The designaons employed and the presentaon of material

throughout the report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever

on the part of IOM concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or

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IOM is commied to the principle that humane and orderly migraon

benets migrants and society. As an intergovernmental organizaon, IOM

acts with its partners in the internaonal community to: assist in meeng

the operaonal challenges of migraon; advance understanding of migraon

issues; encourage social and economic development through migraon; and

uphold the human dignity and well-being of migrants.

Publisher: Internaonal Organizaon for Migraon

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Switzerland

Tel: +41.22.717 91 11

Fax: +41.22.798 61 50

E-mail: [email protected]

Internet: hp://www.iom.int

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permission of the publisher.

60_10


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BACKGROUND PAPERWMR 2010

The Future ofMigration Policies

in the

Asia-Pacific Region

GRAEME HUGONATIONAL CENTRE FOR SOCIALAPPLICATIONS OF GIS,UNIVERSITY OFADELAIDE

[email protected]


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FOREWORD

This paper is one of 19 background papers which have been prepared for the IOM, 2010 World

MigrationReportwhich isentitled theFutureofMigration:BuildingCapacities forChange.The

2010reportfocuseson likelyfuturetrends inmigrationandthecapacitiesthatwillberequiredby

States, regional and international organizations, civil society and the private sector to manage

migrationsuccessfullyoverthecomingdecades.

Over the next few decades, international migration is likely to transform in scale, reach and

complexity, due to growing demographic disparities, the effects of environmental change, new

globalpoliticalandeconomicdynamics,technologicalrevolutionsandsocialnetworks.

The2010WorldMigrationReportfocusesoncapacitybuilding,firstbecause it isgoodgovernance

toplan for the future,especiallyduringaperiodofeconomicdownturnwhen the tendency is to

focuson

immediate

impacts

and

the

short

term

period

of

recovery.

Second,

capacity

building

is

widelyacknowledgedtobeanessentialcomponentofeffectivemigrationmanagement,helpingto

ensuretheorderlyandhumanemanagementofmigration.

PartAof theWorldMigrationReport2010 focuseson identifying core capacities in keyareasof

migrationmanagement.Theaimisnottorecommendonesizefitsallpoliciesandpractices,butto

suggestobjectivesofmigrationmanagementpoliciesineacharea,tostimulatethinkingandprovide

examples of what States and other actors can do. Part B of the World Migration Report 2010,

provides an overview of the latest global and regional trends in migration. In recognition of the

importanceof the largestglobaleconomic recessionsince the1930s, this sectionhasaparticular

focusontheeffectsofthiscrisisonmigrants,migrationandremittances.

FrankLaczko

HeadoftheResearchandPublicationsDivision

IOMHeadquarters

Geneva,Switzerland

Email:[email protected]


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5

INTRODUCTION

In any discussion of the future of global migration, the AsiaPacific region is important for the

followingreasons:

Ithas57.6percentoftheglobalpopulation.

Economically,it

is

the

worlds

fastest

growing

region

and

there

is

awidening

of

the

demographicandeconomicdifferentialsbetweennations,whichtheGlobalCommissionon

International Migration (GCIM, 2005: 6) identifies as the main drivers of international

migration.

TheWorldBank(UNESCAP,2008)estimatesthat23.9percentofthepopulationofAsiaand

thePacific live inpoverty(954millionpersons),whichrepresentssome59.8percentofthe

globaltotal.

The World Bank (2008) has shown that the AsiaPacific region has 26.7 per cent of the

countrieswiththeworldslargestimmigrantcommunitiesbut40percentofthenationswith

the largestemigrantcommunities, in termsofnumbers; intermsofproportionofthetotal

population

of

immigrants

and

emigrants

in

each

country,

the

region

has

23

per

cent

and

17

per cent, respectively. Of the 30 largest corridors of international migration globally, 13

involveatleastoneAsiaPacificnation.

Although international migration has a long history in Asia, it has reached unprecedented levels,

diversityandsignificanceinrecentyears.AttheSecondAsianPopulationConferenceheldinTokyo,

Japanin1972,internationalmigrationwasnotevenmentionedinthereviewofdemographictrends

in the region over the previous decade (UNDESA, 1972). Today, however, it exerts a significant

influence on the economic, social and demographic development of all AsiaPacific nations.

Internationalmigrationisnowanestablishedstructuralfeatureoftheregionbutsomeintheregion

argue that international population mobility between AsiaPacific nations remains constrained in

contrastto

afreeing

up

of

regulations

that

have

facilitated

flows

of

capital

and

goods

between

countries (Hugo and Young, 2008). International migration policy in the region remains

underdevelopedandthisisabarriertothedeliveryofthedevelopmentdividendsthatinternational

migrationcanfacilitate(UNDESA,2006).

Thispaperdiscussesthefutureof internationalmigrationpolicy intheAsiaPacificregion.Itbegins

with a brief examination of emerging trends in international migration in the region and of the

forces driving them. It then assesses the contemporary development of international migration

policyintheregionand,finally,considerssomeofthemajorissuesrelatingtomigrationpolicyinthe

future.


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6

TRENDS IN MIGRATION IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION

The lastdecadehasseenan increasenotonly in thenumbersofAsianandPacificpeoplemoving

betweennationsbutalso in the typesofmobility,whichhavebecomemorecomplex,and in the

movement,whichhasbecome lessselective.Theforcesresponsibleforthis increase inmovement

are

associated

with

rapid

economic

development

in

the

region,

globalization,

increased

levels

of

education, proliferation of international media, improved transport systems and the

internationalizationofbusinessand labourmarkets.Twoelementshavebeenespecially influential

in facilitating migration within, intoand out of the region. The first is the proliferation of social

networks.Mostmigrantsmovetoaplacewheretheyhavesocialcapitalintheformofrelativesor

friendsalreadylivingthere.Thesenetworksnotonlyencourageandfacilitatemobilitybutalsoassist

themigrant inadjusting to thenew location. Thegrowingnumbers of Asians living outside their

countryofbirthserveasanchorsinarapidlyspreadingnetworkofconnectionsfacilitatingmigration.

Thesecondfacilitator isthevastmigration industrycomprisingmigrationagents,recruiters,travel

providers, immigration officials, etc. who form chains linking Asian communities with overseas

destinationsandarecrucialelementsinthemigrationsystem.

TheUnitedNations (UNDESA,2009)estimatesthat30millionofthe191millionpeopleworldwide

wholiveoutsidetheircountryoforiginarefromAsia.Whilethisisequivalenttoonly0.8percentof

the total Asian population, it is a significant understatement of the impact of international migration.

This ispartlybecause itseverelyunderestimatesthemovement,since itexcludesmuchtemporary

andundocumentedmigrationandmanycountries inthe regiondonotcollect informationonthe

stocksorflowsofmigrantsinfluencingthem.Moreover,migrantsaredrawnfrom,andconcentrate

in, particular countries and particular areas within those countries so their impact is

disproportionatelylargeinthoseparticularAsiancountriesandareas.

Itisclearthat,overthelasttwodecades,internationalmobilityofonekindoranotherhasbecome

the choice of a much larger proportion of the population when consider their options and

opportunities in life. Less obvious, though, is the fact that international movement has become

muchmorediverse,both intermsoftheformsthatittakesandintermsofthepeoplewhomove.

TherehasbeenasignificantincreaseinthemovementbetweenAsiaPacificnationsbutalsooutof

and into the region. Movement is both forced and unforced, documented and undocumented,

permanentandtemporary,workrelatedandnonworkrelated.

Whilethedata inFigure1refertoall internationalmovementandnotjustmigrationoutofChina,

theyare indicativeoftheexponential increase in internationalmobility intheregion.Someofthe

major elements in the increased international migration include the following (Hugo and Young,

2008;Jones

and

Douglass,

2008):

increased southnorth movement to OECD (Association for Economic Cooperation and

Development)countries, involvingboth settlementand temporarymigration, thebulkof it

madeupofskilledworkers;

substantial labourmigration(involving largely lowskilledworkers)betweenthecountriesof

the region, especially from lowincome economies with labour surpluses to highincome

countrieswithlabourshortages;


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substantialmigrationofstudents,particularlytoOECDnationsinEurope,NorthAmericaand

Oceania,butincreasinglywithintheAsiaPacificregion;

refugeemigrationwithintheregionbutalsotodestinationsinOECDcountries;

marriagemigration,asaresultofyoungpeoplemovingbetweencountriesmuchmorethanin

thepast,andalsoduetoacommodifiedinternationalmarriageindustryfacilitatingmigration,

predominantly

of

women

from

poorer

countries

to

nations

experiencing

a

shortage

of

women

duetomalepreferenceselectiveabortion;

increasinginvolvementofwomeninallflowssothattheyaredominantinseveralflowsand,

overall,areasmobileasmen;

increasingundocumentedmigration,withsomeofthelargestundocumentedmigrationflows

in the worldfor example, migration from Bangladesh to India, which may be the largest

singlecontemporaryinternationalmigrationflow,involvingupto17millionpeople.

Eachoftheseelementsisincreasing,notonlyintermsofthenumbersinvolvedbutalsointermsof

economicandsocialimpact.

Figure 1: Number of Chinese travelling abroad for business and tourism in 1981

2003 and total number of outbound trips from China (in millions), 19972008

Sources: Far Eastern Economic Review, 24 June 2004: 30; Asia Times Online, 9 February 2006;

Knowledge @W.P. Carey, 21 June 2006, Special Section, Chinas New Consumers,

http://knowledge.wpcarey.asu.edu/index.cfm?fa=SpecialSection@specialId=46; Public Diplomacy

Watch,16November2006;EmbassyofthePeoplesRepublicofChina inAustralia,http://au.China

embassy.org/eng/xw/t354774.htm;YaoXu,2008,ChineseOutboundTourismSoars,USChinaToday.


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8

CONTEMPORARY INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

POLICY IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Writing a decade ago, Castles (2003:6) identified a number of characteristics that he believed

typifiedthedominantpolicymodelfordealingwithmigrationandethnicdiversity inAsianmigrant

destinationcountries,

which

can

be

summed

up

in

the

following

principles:

immigrantsshouldnotbeallowedtosettle;

foreignresidentsshouldnotbeofferedcitizenshipexceptinexceptionalcircumstances;

nationalcultureandidentityshouldnotbemodifiedinresponsetoexternalinfluences.

Whileitisdifficulttogeneralizeinsuchavastandcomplexregion,anumberofotherelementsthat

have characterized the traditional approach to dealing with migration in the region should be

listed.

Therewaslittleregionalcooperationorevendiscussionaboutmigrationissues.Indeed,inthe

Associationof

Southeast

Asian

Nations

(ASEAN),

despite

the

fact

that

all

nations1

have

been

stronglyinfluencedbymigrationsinceitsformation,thesensitivityoftheissueintheStateof

Singaporepreventeditfromevenbeingdiscussed,untilrecently.

Governmentsandcommunitiesinbothoriginanddestinationcountriesconsideredmigration

tobeanunwelcomebutnecessaryfixforshorttermproblemsoflabourexcessandlabour

shortage.Fewhaveseen itasastructural,necessaryand longtermelement innationaland

regionaleconomies.

In sending countries,permanentand temporarymovementwas viewedoverwhelminglyas

having a negative impact on national development. In the Philippines, for example, in the

1980s and early 1990s, the growing outflow of labourmigrants was viewed as a national

shame

(Aguilar,

1996).

Despitethehistorical immigrantoriginsofmanyofthecountriesoftheregion,therewasa

widespread fear that migration would disturb national, cultural and ethnic homogeneity,

which resulted in largely negative political, media and press discourse on migration and

stigmatizationandnegativestereotypingofmigrants.

Accordingly, migration policy in the Asian region remained underdeveloped and, again, while

generalizationisdifficult,anumberofgeneralizationscanbemadeaboutpastmigrationpolicyand

governanceintheregion.

The issue of migration was marginalized by governments, even in countries suffering

significant

labour

shortages

due

to

low

fertility,

ageing

and

rapid

economic

growth.

Migration

wasnotontheradarscreenofmanyadministrations.

A policing model of stopping or severely controlling migration tended to dominate, rather

thanamanagementapproachthatrecognizedthesignificanceand inevitabilityofmigration

andsoughttoregulateandchannelmovement.

Migrantsrightswereneglectedandevenabused.

1 Brunei,Burma,Cambodia,Indonesia,Laos,Malaysia,Philippines,Singapore,ThailandandVietNam.


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9

A migration industry thrived in theprivate sector, someof itoperatingoutside the legal

systemandinvolvedinexcessiverenttakingandexploitationofmigrants.

There was a lack of capacity within government to develop and operationalize effective

migrationpoliciesandpractice.Indeed,corruptionandinvolvementofgovernmentofficersin

theexploitationofmigrantswassignificant,insomecountries.

There

was

a

lack

of

coherence

in

migration

policy.

Migrationpolicywasnotlinkedwithdevelopment,therebydilutingthepotentialformigrants

todeliverdevelopmentdividends totheircountryoforigin, todestinationcountriesandto

migrantsthemselves.

The bulk of Asian and Middle Eastern nations that are destinations for migrants adopted

policies that attempt to ensure that the stay of migrant workers was temporary. Where

migrantswereabletoenterundertemporaryimmigrationcriteria,theirrightsweregenerally

severelycurtailed incomparisontocitizens.Thedestinationcountryput inplacearangeof

measuresdesignedtoensurethereturnoftheunskilledmigrantworker,suchas:

disallowingfamilytoaccompanyorvisittheworker

limitingthetraveloftheworkerwithinthecountry

tying

them

to

asingle

employer

disallowingthemtomarrycitizens

enforcingotherrestrictionsonrightsandmovement

However, inrecentyears,oneof thedefiningcharacteristicsof internationalmigration inAsiahas

beentheincreasinginvolvementofgovernmentsinseekingtoinfluencethepatternofimmigration

oremigrationaffecting theircountries.TheUnitedNations regularlyconducts surveysofnational

governments to assess their population policies and Table 1 indicates the responses regarding

immigration.Itisinterestingtonotethatonly5ofthe40AsiaPacificcountriesrespondingtotheUN

surveyindicatedthatcurrentimmigrationwastoohighin2007,comparedwith8in1996.Moreover,

thenumberofnationswithpoliciesaimedat loweringexisting levelsof immigrationfellfrom13 in

1996to10in2007,andthenumberseekingtoraisemigrationincreasedfrom2to6overtheperiod.

This isperhaps indicativeofapost9/11realizationofthesignificanceofmigration inseveralAsian

destinationsandofthefactthatitisneededfornationalprosperity2.ThesurveyalsorecordedAsian

and Pacific government attitudes toward outmovement and these are presented in Table 2.

Table 1: Views and policies of Asia-Pacific governments regarding immigration,

19762007

Too Low Satisfactory Too High

Total

Number of

Countries Raise

Maintain or

No

Intervention Lower1976 2 26 2 30 2 25 2

1986 0 30 5 35 0 30 4

1996 1 31 8 40 2 24 13

2007 5 30 5 40 6 24 10

39

Views on Level of Immigration Goal of Policies on Immigration

Total Number of

Countries29

34

40

Source:UNDESA,2008a

2 It isarguedelsewhere (Hugo2008) that theeventsof9/11 led toa significantchange in theAsiaPacific, resulting in

countriesintheregioncomingtogethertodiscussthesecuritydimensionsofinternationalmigration.Thishasopenedthe

doortowiderdiscussionsbetweencountriesonmigrationrelatedissuesotherthansecurity.


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Table 2: Views and policies of Asia-Pacific governments regarding emigration, 1976

2007

Maintain or

NoIntervention

1976 2 28 0 30 2 28 0 30

1986 2 29 4 35 4 26 5 35

1996 2 30 7 39 2 31 7 40

2007 6 24 10 40 8 25 7 40

Views on Level of Emigration Goal of Policies on Emigration

Raise Lower

Total

Number ofCountriesToo Low Satisfactory Too High

Total

Number ofCountries

Source:UNDESA,2008a

Thisindicatestherehasbeenanincreaseinthenumberofcountrieswhoconsideremigrationtobe

too high, although the number with policies that attempt to lower outmigration has remained

stable. This is partly a function of brain drain concerns, which are mainly related to the more

permanentmigrationtoEurope,NorthAmericaandAustralia.Therearealsosomeconcernsabout

the

negative

effects

of

labour

migration.

However,

it

is

also

interesting

that

the

number

of

countries

consideringthe levelofemigrationtobe lowtrebledandthenumberseekingtoraisethe levelof

emigrationthroughpolicyincreasedfrom2to8.

Whilethesenumbers indicateasignificantshift inmigrationpolicythinking inAsiaandthePacific

overthelastdecade,theyrepresentthetipoftheicebergintermsoftheincreasedinvolvementof

governmentsinmigrationintheregionandagrowingawarenessoftherolethatmigrationcanplay

in enhancing economic development at national, regional and local levels. Among the changes

observedoverthelastdecade,thefollowingaremostevident:

1)Severaldestinationnationsacceptedthatmigrationisanimportantcontinuingstructuralfeature

oftheireconomiesandbegantoputinplacecomprehensiveimmigrationpoliciesandprograms.As

was indicatedearlier,thenew immigrationeconomiesofAsiahavetraditionallyadoptedmigration

policiesthatarefocussedontemporarymigration,restrictingtherightsofmigrantworkersandthe

lengthoftimetheycanspendinthedestination.Thisattituderemainsinplaceforunskilledworkers

but some Asian economies are now encouraging the permanent settlement of skilled foreigners.

Thereisacleardifferenceintheimmigrationavenuesopentohighlyskilledandlowskilledworkers.

This ismost apparent in Singapore,where lowskilledworkers gain entryon a strictly temporary

basisandhavelimitedrightswhereashighlyskilledworkershavethesameflexibilityasSingaporeans

andcanapplyforpermanentresidency.SouthKorea,likeJapan,hastraditionallyhadaverycautious

approach to international migration based on an emphasis on ethnic homogeneity. Accordingly,

whendemographicandeconomicfactorsforcedKoreaintolaunchingaforeignworkersprogramme

in1990,

there

were

very

strict

conditions

to

ensure

that

workers

left

the

country

at

the

end

of

their

contracts. In recent years, however, there have been major changes. The forming of the Korean

ImmigrationService(KIS),theintroductionofpermanentsettlementvisasforskilledandsemiskilled

workers(inJanuary2008),thedevelopmentofbilateralagreementswithmorethan10countriesin

Asia to supply lowskilled workers (making some government jobs open to foreigners), the

modificationofcitizenshiprequirementsandtheintroductionofamoreflexibleimmigrationsystem

forethnicKoreans inChina, the formerSovietUnionandelsewherearejustsomeof theways in

whichtheSouthKoreanGovernmentsattitudetowardsmigrationhasbeentransformed.Thereare


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overamillionforeignersinSouthKorea(AsianMigrationNews,115November2007),excludingan

estimated200,000 irregularmigrantsoraround2percentofthetotalpopulation.It isanticipated

bytheKISthat,by2030,thenumberofforeigners isexpectedto increaseto3.6millionor7.2per

centofthepopulation(AsianMigrationNews,1530June2007).Moreover,asPark(2007:1)points

out: Now multiculturalism and multiethnicity have become fashionable buzzwords within

academiesandgovernment.Park(2007:5)goesontoexplainthattherehasbeenaparadigmshift

inKorea:

Until recently, Korean immigrationpolicy has beenmainly a tool to dealwith labour

market throughforeignworkerprograms.So itviewedthe immigrationadministration

asamoreorlesstemporarymeasure.

The trend now is towardsan immigration strategy thatnotonly includes temporary workersbut

offersemploymentresidencetoabroaderrangeofworkersand includespatternstofacilitatethe

integrationofmigrants.Itisclearthatthismarkedshiftinpolicyhasbeeninfluencedbythemarked

increaseininternationalmarriageinKorea.Thenumberofimmigrantsnaturalizedthroughmarriage

was75,011in2005but109,564in2007(AsianMigrationNews,January2008).AsPark(2007:5)has

pointedout:

The change in paradigm has been brought about by the phenomenal increase of

international marriages, the visual presence of phenotypically different residents in

neighbourhoodandschools,theeconomicdependenceonforeignworkers,thegrowing

influenceoftheKoreantransnationalcommunitiesandglobalizationingeneral.

Even in Japan, where the dominant discourse has been of mono ethnicity that has opposed

immigration, there isachange (Tai,2009).Somehaveargued that,with2.15million legal foreign

residentsrepresenting1.7percentofthetotalpopulation,Japanhasdefactomovedtobecoming

an immigrant country (Tsuda, 2006; Iguchi, 2008).Tai (2009) argues that Japanese immigration

policyisataturningpoint,withtheinterplaybetweenproponentsofmulticulturalismandinclusion

offoreigners,

on

the

one

hand,

and

exclusion

and

heightened

control

of

foreigners,

on

the

other.

One category of permanent migrants becoming increasingly important in Japan, Korea, Chinese

TaipeiandSingaporeisforeignspouses(mostlyfemale).Suchmigrationisoftencommoditizedwith

the increasing gender imbalance in younger ages, in some cases. In Chinese Taipei, for example,

383,204foreignspousesimmigratedbetween1990and2006.

2) There have been changes in some migrantsending countries as well. In the Philippines, the

national dialogue on migration has been transformed. The high level of emigration of contract

labour and permanent settlers was described in national discourse in the 1970s and 1980s as a

nationalshame (Aguilar,1996).Migrationwasseenasatemporaryphenomenonthathadtobe

endured while the Philippines made the transition to a more developed economy. The fact that

millionsofFilipinoswereforcedtoseektheirdestinyinothernationswasperceivedasanational

failure. However, in the last decade, Filipinos overseas have been hailed as national heroes

(Rosales, 1999) who are making a crucial and important contribution to national prosperity. This

representsamajorturnaroundandthePhilippines.Withrespecttointernational labourmigration,

the Philippines has implemented best practice through regulation of migrant worker recruitment

and protection of migrant workers at home and abroad (Martin etal., 2004; Hugo, 2009a). The

Philippineshasalsodevelopedcomprehensivepoliciesandprogrammestargetingtemporarylabour


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such flows but to protect the migrants and maximize the development dividend to India. An

independentauditofthesuccessoftheMinistryinitsfirstfewyearsofoperationwouldbeofvalue.

4)Therearevery fewexamples in theAsiaPacific regionofdevelopmentconsiderations inorigin

countriesbeingfactoredintomigrationpolicyindestinationcountries.Australiahasbeensuccessful

indevelopingcoherentandeffectivemigrationpoliciesoveralongperiodbutthefirstindicationofa

change inAustralianmigrationpolicythat includesmigrationanddevelopmentconsiderationswas

theintroductionin2009ofapilotschemetobringinsmallnumbersofPacificIslandersasseasonal

agricultural workers. While there have been a number of proposals for Australia to open up to

temporarymigrant lowskilledworkers from thePacific (Millbank,2006), theywere resisteduntil

September 2008. The new Australian Labor Government introduced regulations expanding an

existing visa category (416) to enable Pacific Islanders to come to Australia as seasonal guest

workers.Thisrepresentedasignificantshiftinpolicy,althoughitwasonlytobeapilotprogramme

involvingupto2,500seasonalworkersfromKiribati,PapuaNewGuinea,TongaandVanuatutowork

in thehorticultural industry in regionalAustralia forup tosevenmonthseachyear (Evans,2008).

Thisdecisionundoubtedlywasinfluencedbythefactthat,in2006,NewZealandintroducedasimilar

schemethat

has

been

closely

monitored,

assessed

and

found

to

be

successful

(Ramasamy

et

al.,

2008).While theNewZealandand theplannedAustralianprogrammesareexpresslydesigned to

meet perceived labour shortages in the destination economies, they also have a dimension of

seeking to facilitate development in origin countries. To this end, the design of New Zealands

RecognisedSeasonalEmployer (RSE)schemehasexpresslyattemptedtomaximizethebenefitsto

origincommunitiesandhasbuilt inevaluationprocedurestomeasurethe impactondevelopment

andpovertyinthePacificorigincountries.Theearlyfindingsfromtheevaluation(Ramasamyetal.,

2008) of 5,079 RSE workers, while indicating some problems, have been cautiously optimistic

(HammondandConnell,2008;MacLellan,2008).IntheNewZealandcase,everyaspectoftheRSE

programmehas involvedcooperationbetweentheDepartmentofLabour(whichhasresponsibility

for international migration) and Development Assistance, Agricultural, Labour and Foreign Affairs

Ministries(BedfordandHugo,2008).InAustralia,too,adialogue isopeningupbetweenmigration

anddevelopmentassistancegovernmentagencies.

5) In the AsiaPacific region, there has been little dialogue on migration between pairs of

origin/destinationcountriesorataregionalorsubregional level.Regionalgovernanceofmigration

remainsweakandisinitsearlystages.Infact,adecadeago,therewerevirtuallynoregionalforums

fordiscussionofmigration issues,letalonedevelopmentofcoherentregionalmigrationpoliciesor

institutionswithintheAsiaPacificregion. InAsiaandthePacific,theglobaltrendtowardsregional

organization development and regional cooperation is in evidence in the development of

organizations suchasAPEC (AsiaPacific EconomicCooperation),ASEAN (Associationof Southeast

AsianNations)

and

the

Pacific

Islands

Forum

(PIF).

However,

little

has

been

achieved

with

respect

to

regional agreement on international migration issues. Indeed, in ASEAN, despite the fact that all

membershavebeenstronglyinfluencedbymigrationsinceitsformation,thesensitivitytotheissue

prevented the issueevenbeingdiscusseduntil relatively recently. Itwouldappear,however, that

there isan increased readiness inASEANtodiscussmigration issues.The1995ASEANFramework

Agreement on Services (AFAS) provides, inter alia, for regulatory convergence and regulatory

harmonization, includingMutualRecognitionAgreements (MRAs).ASEANmembersmayrecognize

theeducationorexperienceobtained, requirementsmetand licensingorcertificationgrantedby


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16

The steepening of demographic and economic gradients

TheGlobalCommissiononInternationalMigration(2005:12)concludedthat:

Inthecontemporaryworld,theprincipalforcesthataredriving internationalmigration

are due to the 3Ds: differences in development, demography and democracy

becausethe

differentials

are

widening,

the

number

of

people

seeking

to

migrate

will

continuetoincreaseinthefuture.

Thewideningofthesedifferenceswillexacerbate labourshortages inhighincomenations,as the

WorldBank(2006:29)haspointedout:

Akeydriverinthedemandforinternationalmigrationoverthenext20yearswillbethe

slowingdown,andthenthedecline,ofthelabourforceinhighincomecountries.Theage

group that supplies thebulkof the labourforce (1565yearsold) isexpected topeak

near500millionin2010andthenfalltoaround474millionby2025.

On the one hand, highincome economies are experiencing low (and, in a few cases, negative)

naturalincreases

in

population

because

of

an

extended

period

of

low

fertility.

This

is

resulting

in

slow natural growth and projected declines of their workforceage population as aging becomes

morepronounced.Ontheotherhand, in lowincomeeconomiesoftheregion,fertilitydeclinehas

beenmorerecentalthough,inmostcountries,ithasalsobeendramatic.Indeed,intheAsiaPacific

region,theTotalFertilityRatefellfrom5.4childrenperwomanin1970to2.3in2007.Theaverage

lifeexpectancyhas increasedbyaround15years. Theseshiftshavewroughtsignificantchanges in

agestructure.Table4depictsthechangesthathaveoccurredorareanticipatedtooccuramong15

34yearoldsintheregionbetween1960and2040.

Thisdepicts thepassageofwhathasbeencalled theAsianyouthbulge (FullerandHoch,1998;

WestleyandChoe,2002).AsWestleyandChoe (2002:57)pointout,thisbulgeis the resultofa

transitionfrom

high

to

low

fertility

about

15

years

earlier.

The

youth

bulge

consists

of

large

numbers

of adolescents and young adults who were born when fertility was high, followed by declining

numbersof childrenbornafter fertilitydeclined.Table4 indicates that, in1960, theAsiaPacific

youthand youngadultpopulationnumbered 521 millionand comprised32per centof the total

population.However,over thenext twodecades, theygrew very rapidly and,by 1990, theyhad

almostdoubledinnumberandreachedapeakof21percentofthetotalpopulation.Subsequently,

thegrowthoftheagegrouphasbeenlowerastheeffectsofthedeclineinfertilityhavebeenfelt.

Hence, in2000, theAsiaPacific youthand youngadultpopulationhad reached1,230millionbut

theirproportionofthepopulationhaddroppedto18percent.Theoutlookforthefutureisforthe

youth and young adult population to increase slowly to 1,313 million in 2040, when they would

make

up

27

per

cent

of

the

total

population.

This,

of

course,

has

implications

for

migration,

since

youngpeoplearethemostmobile.


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17

Table 4: Asia-Pacific population aged 1534 (thousands), 19602000 and projections

for 2020 and 2040

Number

(000) Percent

1960 520,599 31.691980 862,327 34.10 2.56

1985 995,148 35.79 2.91

1990 1,093,404 35.81 1.90

2000 1,230,447 34.77 2.39

2020 1,379,512 31.62 0.572040 1,318,338 27.30 -0.23

Year

Population Aged 15-34

% Growth Per

Annum

Source:UNDESA,2008Projections

Note:ExcludesWesternAsia

TheAsianyouthbulgecanproduceademographicdividend (WangandMason,2007;Mason

andLee,

2006;

Mason,

2007)

of

economic

growth

when

the

workforce

grows

faster

than

the

overall

population especially when it grows faster than the dependent segments of the population

(children and the elderly). In Asia, the rapid and sustained declines in fertility that followed the

boom generation have created a special demographic situation: the ratio of the workingage

populationtothenonworkingagepopulation isthehighest ithaseverbeen.Whilethisdoesnot

automatically confer a dividend of enhanced economic growth if there is an unfavourable policy

environment, theexistenceofsuchadividendhasbeenconfirmedbyseveralempiricalstudiesof

Asiancountries.


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18

Table 5: Annual growth of the population aged 1534 in Asia and the Pacific,

projections for 200510, 201020 and 202030

20052010 20102020 20202030Declining Japan 4.17 RepublicofKorea 1.56 Macau,China 3.11

RepublicofKorea 1.18 Iran 1.29 Singapore 2.27

China

0.94

Macau,China

1.20

Mongolia

2.23

Thailand 0.82 SriLanka 1.04 RepublicofKorea 2.12

Dem.PeoplesRep.ofKorea 0.23 Kazakhstan 0.96 Bhutan 1.39

HongKongSAR 0.19 Thailand 0.74 China 1.27

HongKongSAR 0.73 Dem.PeoplesRep.ofKorea 1.26

Japan 0.69 SriLanka 1.11

Mongolia 0.62 Japan 1.02

China 0.46 Iran 0.86

Myanmar 0.40 HongKongSAR 0.84

VietNam 0.07 Myanmar 0.81

Bhutan 0.04 VietNam 0.73

Turkmenistan 0.66

Thailand 0.52

Kyrgyzstan 0.47

Uzbekistan 0.42

Maldives 0.37

Samoa 0.27

Kazakhstan 0.25

FrenchPolynesia 0.21

Fiji

0.20

NewZealand 0.17

Indonesia 0.16

Growth Myanmar 0.25 Indonesia 0.01 Micronesia 0.0000.99% Indonesia 0.33 Kyrgyzstan 0.09 NewCaledonia 0.00peryear SriLanka 0.34 Fiji 0.13 Tonga 0.00

Kazakhstan 0.42 Turkmenistan 0.21 Australia 0.08

FrenchPolynesia 0.45 Maldives 0.29 Laos 0.10

Macau,China 0.54 Dem.PeoplesRep.ofKorea 0.32 Tajikistan 0.15

Tonga 0.55 Australia 0.36 Brunei 0.19

NewZealand 0.59 Singapore 0.41 Cambodia 0.19

Australia 0.61 NewZealand 0.43 India 0.24

Mongolia 0.82 Uzbekistan 0.54 Malaysia 0.27

FrenchPolynesia 0.64 Guam 0.31

Tonga 0.78 Pakistan 0.40

NewCaledonia 0.83 Bangladesh 0.54

Malaysia 0.93 Nepal 0.99

Growth Micronesia 1.01 India 1.01 PapuaNewGuinea 1.1511.99% NewCaledonia 1.02 Philippines 1.17 Philippines 1.15peryear Samoa 1.03 Bangladesh 1.19 Vanuatu 1.22

Fiji 1.10 Brunei 1.24 SolomonIslands 1.35

Singapore 1.33 Cambodia 1.24

VietNam 1.35 Pakistan 1.36

Kyrgyzstan 1.44 Micronesia 1.38

Guam 1.55 Laos 1.55

Malaysia 1.66 Guam 1.55

India 1.71 Tajikistan 1.85

Bangladesh 1.81 Nepal 1.91

Iran 1.84

Philippines 1.88

Growth Turkmenistan 2.02 SolomonIslands 2.08 Afghanistan 2.8322.99% Uzbekistan 2.09 Samoa 2.26peryear PapuaNewGuinea 2.16 Vanuatu 2.28

SolomonIslands 2.22 PapuaNewGuinea 2.46

Maldives 2.40

Tajikistan 2.62

Nepal 2.80

Bhutan 2.83

Pakistan

2.91

Laos 2.98

Growth Vanuatu 3.01 Afghanistan 3.31 EastTimor 3.333% Brunei 3.37 EastTimor 3.44peryearandup Cambodia 3.37

EastTimor 3.86

Afghanistan 4.34

Source:Hugo,2009b

Note: Polynesia includes American Samoa, Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Futuna Islands, Niue,

Pitcairn,Samoa,Tokelau,Tonga,TuvaluandWallis.


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19

Oneofthemostuniversalfindingsofmigrationresearch inallcontextshasbeen itsageselectivity.

Moreover, the current Asian young adult generation is the first to have experienced universal

educationandexposuretoglobalmassmedia,whichhasenhancedtheirabilityanddesiretomove

(Hugo,2005).

IntheAsiaPacificregionasawhole,the factthatthisagegroupcontinuesto increase,albeitata

slowerrate,willensurethattheregioncontinuestobeamajorsourceofmigrantstoNorthAmerica,

EuropeandOceania.However, thewidedifferentialsbetweencountries in theAsiaPacific region

are of particular significance with respect to the future growth of their young adult and youth

population,as shown in Table 5 (Hugo, 2009b). Thesewideningdifferences are crucial drivers of

international migration and national governments in both high and lowincome countries are

increasinglyawareofthem.Therecanbenodoubtthatthisrealizationhasbeencrucialinchanging

attitudestowardsmigrationincountriessuchasJapan,SingaporeandSouthKorea(Tai,2009).Their

saliencewill increaseover thenext twodecades, promptinggovernmentsof several countries to

turntomigration.

The global security dialogue

Theterroristattacksof11September2001andthebombinginBaliraisedconsciousnessintheAsia

Pacificregionofthe importanceofmigration fornationalsecurity,resulting inaseriesof regional

meetingstoconsidermigration issues,beginningwiththeBaliProcess(BaliMinisterialConference

onPeopleSmuggling,Trafficking inPersonsandRelatedTransnationalCrime,February2002).The

involvementofmigrantsinterrorismmadepolicymakersawareofthefollowingissues:

Migrantscanpresentathreattonationalsecurityandeffectivemanagementofmigration is

anessentialcomponentofmaintainingnationalsecurity.

EffectivemanagementofmigrationcannotbeachievedbyasinglenationStatewithoutthe

cooperationof

other

nations.

Peoplesmuggling,traffickingandillegalmigrationposeathreattonationalsecurity.

Hence,whiletherewasvirtuallyno internationaldialoguewithinAsiaandthePacificonmigration

issues inthe1990s, therehasbeena flurryofactivity inthepost9/11environment.Someofthe

earliest,most inclusiveandsignificant initiativeshavebeenthemeetingsconvenedbytheForeign

MinistersofIndonesiaandAustraliainBalion2628February2002and2830April2003,andthe

MinisterialConferencesonPeopleSmuggling,TraffickinginPersonsandRelatedTransnationalCrime

(MCPSTPRTC).ThishascometobereferredtoastheBaliProcess,whichisintendedtocomplement

andstrengthenbilateralandregionalcooperation inthisarea.4The initialmeeting involvedalmost

allcountriesoftheregion,aswellasanumberofobservercountriesandorganizations,5reflecting

4 Thisprocesshasinvolvedthefollowingcountriesandorganizations,inadditiontoIndonesiaandAustralia:Afghanistan,

Bangladesh,Bhutan,BruneiDarussalam,Cambodia,China,DemocraticRepublicofKorea,Fiji,France,India,Iran,Japan,

Jordan,Kiribati,Laos,Malaysia,Mongolia,Myanmar,Nauru,Nepal,NewZealand,Pakistan,Palau,PapuaNewGuinea,

Philippines,RepublicofKorea,Samoa,Singapore,Solomon Islands,SriLanka,SyrianArabRepublic,Thailand,UNTAET

TimorLeste,Turkey,Vanuatu,VietNam,IOMandUNHCR.5 Austria,Belgium,Canada,Denmark,Finland,Germany, Italy,Netherlands,Norway,RussianFederation,Spain,Sweden,

Switzerland,UnitedKingdom,UnitedStates,ASEANSecretariat,PacificIslandsForumSecretariat,EuropeanUnion(EU),

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), World Bank, Asian Development Bank, Intergovernmental


22/43


23/43

21

TheBaliConcord II in2003called forcompletionofMRAs forqualifications inmajorprofessional

services by 2008, to facilitate free movement of professionals and skilled labour within ASEAN.

Cooperationisstilllimitedoncoremigrationissues,suchasorderlyrecruitmentofmigrantworkers;

protection of the rights of migrant workers; facilitating circular migration; facilitating remittance

flows;andharmonizingthecollectionofmigrationdata.

Security concerns were crucial in initiating dialogue between AsiaPacific nations on migration

issues; such concerns remain important but it is apparent that discussions on migration have

extendedbeyondthe initialsecurityfocus.Whilethesedialogueshavenotyetgonemuchbeyond

thediscussionstage,theyhavecreatedanenvironmentforconstructiveengagementonmigration

issues (MartinandLowell,2008).Theprovisionofabasis for intercountrydiscussiononmigration

issues isan importantbyproductoftheengagement intheAsiaPacificregioncreatedbysecurity

concerns(Hugo,2004).Bringingkeyimmigrationofficialstogetherinanonthreateningatmosphere

todiscuss issuesofcommon interestcanbuildupmutual trustandconfidence thatcan form the

basis formorecomplexanddetailednegotiations inthefuture.Italso iseffective inbuildingtrust

between individualsand institutions,whichcanset the stage for futurecooperationonmigration

issues.

Capacity-building issues

OneofthemajorconstraintsongovernmentsintheAsiaPacificregion,intermsofcreatingefficient

andequitablemigrationsystemsthatbenefitdevelopmentincountriesoforiginanddestinationas

wellasthemigrants, isa lackofcapacityboth in institutionsandhumanresources. Institutional

capacityinmigrationpolicymakingandmanagementisdissipatedbybeingspreadacrossarangeof

governmentministries,agenciesandinstrumentalities.InIndonesia,forexample,theDepartmentof

Labourhas,untilrecently,beenresponsibleformanaging labourmigration,which isthemainform

of

international

migration

influencing

development.

(This

responsibility

was

recently

transferred

to

the Presidents ministry because of dissatisfaction over the way it was being administered.)

However,othermajormigrationresponsibilitiesareheldbytheImmigrationDirectorate,Customs,

Police,ForeignAffairsandsecurityorganizations.Moreover,thereisnoarticulationbetweenanyof

theseagenciesandtheMinistryofDevelopmentandPlanning.Insuchacontext,thereisnotonlya

lack of coherence in policy, butalso a lack of skilled, experienced public officials todevelop and

administer migration policy and practice because officials are often transferred into and out of

immigrationrelated positions. Effective development and management of migration and

developmentpolicyrequireconsiderablecapacityandinfrastructure,includingthefollowing:

A welltrained cadre of migration officials who are not general public servants but have a

specificbackgroundandexperienceacrossthefullrangeofmigrationactivities.Establishing

such a group is fundamentally important to the settingup and running of an effective

migration management system as well as the development of migration and development

policies.

Integrationandharmonizationofallofthegovernmentactivitiesconcernedwithmigration

customs,police,labour,borderofficials.


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22

Appropriatemigrationmanagementsystems:appropriatehardwareandsoftwarehavebeen

developedatarapidrate,especiallysince11September2001,and it is importantthatthey

beadoptedandused.

Settingupanappropriateinformationsystem:effectivemigrationmanagementisimpossible

withouttimelyandrelevantmeasurementofthescaleandcompositionofmigrationinto,and

out

of,

the

country.

Abodyofpolicyrelevantresearch,whichisessentialnotonlyforthecontinuingsurveillance

of the impact of migration and to make evidencebased recommendations for migration

policy and practice, but also for the development of policies to maximize the beneficial

impactsofmigrationondevelopment.

Capacityforcompetentnationalresearchtoinformpolicydevelopmentonmigrationaswell

asmigrationanddevelopmentissues.

ThecountriesoftheAsiaPacificregionvaryconsiderablyacrosseachofthesecriteriabutmosthave

shortcomingsineach.CountriessuchasAustralia,Canada,NewZealandandtheUnitedStateshave

manydecadesofexperienceintheseareasandtheiraccumulatedexpertiseandexperiencecouldbe

fasttracked

to

Asia

Pacific

countries,

for

the

following

reasons:

Theyhavedevelopedconsiderablecapacityandexperiencewithintheirnationalgovernments

regarding the development of migration policies that maximize the positive development

outcomes for the country and they efficiently and equitably manage a diverse range of

migration programmes. Migration is integrated into their national economies and is an

acceptedstructuralelement,economicallyandsocially.

Thecountrieshavelongtraditionsofevidencebasedmigrationpolicydevelopmentandhave

developedwithintheirgovernmentandresearchsectorsagreatdealofcapacitytoundertake

andapplypolicybasedresearch.

Theyhavedevelopedandadoptedglobalbestpracticeswithrespecttothedevelopmentand

maintenanceof

migration

management

systems.

They have longstanding and strong migration connections with each of the AsiaPacific

countriesand substantialcommunitiesofexpatriatesofeachof thesenations livingwithin

them.

There have wellestablished training infrastructures within their public service and in their

universitiestoeffectivelydelivertheappropriateassistanceincapacitybuildingtoAsiaPacific

nations.

If migration policyandgovernance are to develop in the AsiaPacific region, it is crucial that the

transfer of experience regarding institutional mechanisms, management systems, bureaucratic

processes,

cross

ministry

articulation

and

cooperation

etc.

be

transferred

quickly.

Training

of

personnelwouldbeanimportantpartofthattransfer.

Marriage migration

OneofthefactorsincontemporaryinternationalmigrationintheAsiaPacificregionthatisexerting

an influence on the development of policy on immigration to, and integration in, destination

countriesistheexponentialincreaseincrossnationalmarriageintheregion. Thiselementisoften


25/43

23

ignored inmigrationassessments intheregionbut it isnotonlyoccurringonan increasingly large

scalebutalsohavinganinfluenceinchangingentrenchedperceptionsofmonoethnicityandethnic

homogeneityinsomecountries.Crossnationalmarriageisincreasingforthefollowingreasons:

With the expansion of international visiting, student migration and international labour

migration,moreyoungpeoplefromtheAsiaPacificarespendingtimeinaforeigncountryat

thestage

in

life

when

they

actively

socialize

and

form

partnerships.

There is a burgeoning commodified marriage migration industry in Asia and the Pacific,

whereby people (usually men) from higherincome countries are introduced to potential

partners (usuallywomen) in lowerincomecountries.Thishasbeenassistedbyperceptions

amongsomemen intraditionalpatriarchalsocieties,suchasJapan,SouthKoreaandTaiwan

Province of China, that local women do not conform to traditional gender roles and also

because,insomesocieties,sonpreferenceandselectiveabortionhavecombinedtoincrease

theratioofmaletofemalebirths.

The evidence is that the increasing presence of foreign spouses and the increasing number of

children inschoolsofmixedbackground isshiftingattitudesand, indeed,policytowardsmigration

andmulticulturalism incountriessuchasJapan,SouthKoreaandTaiwanProvinceofChina.These

trendswillundoubtedlybecomestrongerinthefuture.

An increasing role for civil society

Whilethereare importantdifferencesbetweencountries, it isapparentthatcivilsociety isplaying

an increasingly significant role in internationalmigration in the region, especially with respect to

protectionofworkersrights.Mostnongovernmental(NGO)activityinthisareaisnationallybased

butsomeemergingregionalNGOscoverseveralnations. It isparticularly importanttohaveNGOs

thatareactive inpairsoforiginanddestinationcountries.Thereareseveralexamplesofeffective

NGOactivity

in

improving

the

protection

of

migrants,

providing

support

for

migrants

and

also

advocating for therightsofmigrantsand lobbyingtochangepolicy inbothoriginanddestination

countries. In terms of origin countries, the Philippines has the best developed and most

comprehensive NGO presence, which has undoubtedly improved the lot of overseas contract

workersfromthatcountry.Inparticular,thewayinwhichthemigrationofrefugeesisorganizedand

influenced by NGOs can demonstrate best practice. With respect to destination countries, NGO

activitieshavebeenespecially important inTaiwanProvince ofChina in improvingprotection for

bothmigrantworkersandtheforeignbridesofTaiwanesemen.NGOshavethepotentialtoplayan

importantroleintheprotectionofmigrants,especiallymigrantworkersandbridesofcommodified

arranged international marriages; while governments are constrained in their ability to help

nationals

in

foreign

countries

by

diplomatic

convention,

NGOs

are

much

more

flexible

in

the

types

of

supporttheycanprovide.

Internationalagencieshavebecomemuchmoreactive inmigration in theAsiaPacific region.The

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has played an important role with

mandated refugees since the exodus of IndoChinese refugees, beginning in the mid1970s. It is,

however,restricted in itsmandatetodealonlywithmandatedrefugeesandnotothermigrants

internationalor internal. It is limited, forexample, in itsabilitytoprovideassistance for Internally


26/43


27/43

25

This shifthas seen renewed activity,bothwithin theAsiaPacific region and outsideof it,on the

potentialpositivebenefitstobegainedfrommigrationforpovertyreductionandbettermentofthe

lives of people inpoor countries. The arguments are well summarized in the World Banks 2006

Global Economic Prospects, and in DFIDs 2007 report entitledMovingOut of Poverty Making

MigrationWorkBetterforPoorPeople.

Whilethere isconsiderablevariationbetweennations,therehasbeenheightened interestboth in

originanddestinationcountries inthepotential formigrationtodeliverdevelopmentdividends in

poor,destinationcountries.Inorigincountries,thisglobaldiscoursehasincreasinglyfocusedonthe

developmentofpoliciesto facilitatethepositive impactsthatmigrationcanhaveondevelopment

andameliorate those that impinge negatively. Despite this increase in activity, the achievements

thusfarhavebeenlimitedandthedevelopmentandoperationofeffectivepolicyandpracticeinthe

areasofmigrationanddevelopmentisurgentlyneeded.Inorigincountries,thesepolicieswillneed

torevolvearoundReducingandcompensating forbraindraineffects.Anet lossofskilledpersons

fromlessdevelopednationsinAsiaandanetgaininthemoredevelopedcountriesoftheOECDwas

recognized as long ago as the 1960s (Adams, 1968). More recent analyses (e.g. Carrington and

Detragiache,1998;

Dumont

and

Lemaitre,

2005)

have

confirmed

that

emigration

rates

in

less

developedcountries inAsiaandthePacificarehigherforskilledgroupsandthatmanyAsiaPacific

countriesexperienceasignificantbraindrain.Moreover,inrecenttimes,OECDnationshaveplaced

greater emphasis on skill in their selection of immigrants and this, together with the increasing

globalcompetitionfortalented,skilledworkers(Abella,2005),hasexacerbatedthesetendencies.A

recent comprehensiveanalysisby theOECD (Dumontand Lemaitre,2005) yieldeddata from 227

sending nations and 29 OECD receiving nations and calculated the emigration rates of all highly

qualifiedworkers (thosewithauniversityeducation) fornonOECDnations.The ratesare low for

large nations such as Indonesia (1.9%), Thailand (1.9%) Bangladesh (2%), India (3.1%) and China

(3.2%) but much higher for small nations. Hence, of the 10 nonOECD nations with the lowest

percentage of their highly skilled population who were overseas, seven are Asian. On the other

hand,amongthe10countrieswiththehighestpercentages,FijiwastheonlycountryfromtheAsia

Pacificregion.

Despite thesenumbers, itwouldbe incorrect toassume thatbraindrain doesnothavenegative

impactsinAsiaandthattherearenetlossesofthehumanresourcesnecessarytofoster longterm

developmentinAsia.Figure3showsthatAsiancountriesareamongthosewiththelargestnumbers

of theirdoctorsoutside thecountry.ThePhilippines (withapopulationof84.8million in2005) is

oneofthenationsmost influencedbyemigrationand it isestimatedthat, in2000,18percentof

Filipinos with college degrees were in the United States alone (Migration News, July 2004),

suggestingthatatleastoneinthreeFilipinouniversitygraduatesarelosttothenation.


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26

Figure 3: Countries from which physicians have emigrated (in thousands), 2000

Source:WorldBank,2008

Moreover,thereisevidencethatitisthemostskilled,mosteducatedandmostentrepreneurialwho

emigrate from poor Asian countries. As Carrington and Detragiache (1998:24) conclude: These

numbers suggest that in several countries the outflow of highly skilled individuals is a

phenomenonthatcannotbeignoredbypolicymakers.Itcannotbedisputedthatthelossofskillsin

particular areas can negatively affect the wellbeing of origin populations and development

potential. Particularly significant here is the net loss of doctors, nurses and other healthcare

personnel from southern countries. With population ageing in OECD nations, there have been

shortages of medical workers and consequent recruitment of people with these skills from

developingcountries.

Enhancing inflowsofremittancesandchannellingremittanceflowstomaximizetheirdevelopment

impact. The World Bank (2009) estimated global remittances in 2008 to be USD 397billion and

developingcountriesaccountedfor305billion(76.9%)ofthis.Moreover,remittancestodeveloping

nationsincreasedby8.8percentin200708andby164.2percentbetween2002and2008(ibid.).

SomeUSD339billionwere received inAsiaand thePacificover17percentof theglobal total

(Figure4). As Figure5 shows, official remittances to lessdeveloped countriesarenowmore than

twiceasgreatasofficialdevelopmentassistanceandalmostaslargeasforeigndirectinvestment.In

consideringthesefigures,thefollowingmustbeborneinmind:

Thisamount,

however,

reflects

only

transfers

through

official

channels.

Econometricanalysisandavailablehouseholdsurveyssuggestthatunrecorded

flowsthroughinformalchannelsmayadd50percentormoretorecordedflows.

(WorldBank,2007:1)

HenceremittancesarethelargestsourceofexternalfundinginseveralAsianandPacificcountries.


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27

Figure 4: Remittance flows by region, 2002-2008: The Rise of Asia

Source:Fix,2009

Figure 5: Remittances and capital flows to developing countries (USD billions)

Source:WorldBank,2007

Note:Datafor2006areestimates


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28

However, the transfercostsassociatedwith remittancesarehigher in theAsiaPacific region than

elsewhere andneed tobe reduced.Moreover, integrating remittances intonational and regional

developmentplanningisneedediftheirdevelopmentpotentialistoberealized.

Enhancing engagement of the diaspora in development activity at home

Table 6 shows that AsiaPacific countries have some of the worlds largest diaspora, and the

developmentofpoliciesthatharnesstheirabilitiesandresourcestothebenefitoforigincountries

could,therefore,havepotentiallysignificantpositiveimpactsinoriginareas. Inparticular,thereisa

needtoconsiderthefollowing:

encouragementofforeigndirectinvestmentthroughthediaspora;

assessment of how the diaspora can be used as a bridgehead for export penetration of

marketsinhighincomecountries;

promotion of appropriate knowledge transfer and import training to people in origin

countries.

Table 6: National diaspora in relation to resident national populations (% of national

population)

Australia: 900,0004.3%

NewZealand: 850,00021.9%

Philippines: 7.5million9.0%

India: 20million1.9%

Pakistan: 4million2.8%

China: 30to40million2.9%

Japan: 873,6410.7%

SouthKorea:

6.4

million

13.2%

VietNam: 2.6million3.2%

Singapore: 100150,0003.5%

CookIslands: 52,60034%

Niue: 5,884294.2%

Tokelau: 2,019138.5%

Samoa: 78,25344.5%

Fiji: 128,28415.8%

Sources: Southern Cross, 2002; Bedford, 2001; Ministry of External Affairs, India,

http://indiandiaspora.nic.in; Naseem, 1998; Sahoo, 2002; Iguchi, 2004; Philippines Overseas

EmploymentService;AsianMigrationNews,1531January2006;OECDdatabaseonimmigrantsandexpatriates;NguyenAnh,2005; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/korean_diaspora

Themainway inwhichnetemigrationcountrieshaveattempted to recoup thehuman capitalof

skilled emigrants is through return migration programmes. Some of the major attempts to

encourageexpatriatestoreturnhavebeenmadebyAsiancountries.KoreaandtheTaiwanProvince

ofChina(Englesberg,1995),forexample,initiatedprogrammestoencourageareversebraindrain

(Chang,1992;Hugo,1996),withsomesuccess(Yoon,1992),althoughitisnotclearhowmuchofthis


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29

wasdue to theprogrammesandhowmuchwasa resultof rapideconomicdevelopment (Lucas,

2001,41).Saxenian(1999:59)pointsoutthatsomeoftheadvantagesflowingfromtheseactivities

was an increase in interaction between Taiwanese and Korean scientists and engineers, with

expatriatecolleagues intheUnitedStatesfacilitatingknowledgetransfer, investmentandbusiness

cooperation(Lucas,2001:42).TheTaiwanProvinceofChinahashadoneofthemostcomprehensive

reversebraindrainprogrammesamongAsiancountries. In recent times, ithasbeen realized that

origin countries encourage nonpermanent returns by their diaspora for example, China has

becomeveryactiveinusingitsskilleddiasporaasasourceofexpertisetoassistinitsdevelopment

efforts.

How should undocumented migration be tackled?

BattistellaandAsis (2003:5)estimate that, in theSouthEastAsianregionalone,therearearound

2million irregular migrants. Undocumented and documented systems are not totally separate,

although they are often portrayed as such. Usually, undocumented flows duplicate documented

flows, some middlemen and officials are involved in both types of movement, and the networks

establishedby

documented

migrants

are

often

utilized

by

subsequent

undocumented

migrants.

UndocumentedlabourmigrationinAsiaandthePacificcanbedifferentiatedalongawidespectrum,

ranging from totally voluntary movement, whereby the mover controls the migration process,

through tokidnappingand trafficking.While there isagreatdealofconcern in the regionabout

trafficking of workers, there is an array of other undocumented migration types and a more

meaningfuldifferentiationofundocumentedlabourmigrationisdepictedinFigure6.

Figure 6: A continuum of undocumented international labour migration in Asia

Individually

controlled movement

Movement under the

auspices of middlemen

Misleading

promises

Bonded

labour

Kidnapping

Voluntary movement Trafficking

The workers arrange all of their own travel and move along familiar, wellestablished routes.

However,inmanyundocumentedmoves,middlemenofvarioustypesareinvolvedandtheircontrol

overthemigrantworkersvariesconsiderably.Insomesituations,thechainofmiddlemen involved

reachesbacktothehomevillageand theyhavestrongaccountability tothehomecommunity. In

others,theycontroltheinformationthatpotentialworkersreceiveaboutthemigrationprocessand

destination,determining

when

they

move,

how

much

it

costs,

where

they

go

and

what

job

they

obtain. These movements grade into trafficking, whereby workers are forced to move and find

themselves in indenturedsituations inthecountryofdestination.Insomecases,potentialmigrant

workers are purposely misled about the type of work at the destination, the conditions,

remuneration etc., and are trapped at the destination. In others, workers (often women and

children)are sold intobonded situations,oftenby relatives,or theyarekidnappedand trafficked

across borders against their will. In all cases, their unauthorized status exposes them to the


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30

possibility of exploitation and prevents them from seeking the protection of authorities at the

destination.Thiscanaddtothemarginalizationexperiencedbymanymigrantgroups.

There issomeevidence that there is increasingactivity indestinationcountries tocrackdownon

undocumented migrants. More emphasis than ever before is being placed on compliance with

immigration regulations, including massive investments in policing and compliance measures.

Sanctions on employers of undocumented migrant workers, incarceration of detected

undocumentedmigrantworkers,physicalabuseetc.,arebecomingmoreprevalent.Suchactivities

havenotnecessarilyreducedflowsand,insomecases,haveforcedthemintodifferent,oftenmore

dangerous,avenues.

Wherecountrieshaveattemptedtolegalizemigrationsofworkers,illegaloperatorshavebecomeso

entrenchedthat it isdifficulttopersuadeundocumentedworkerstoreplacetheir illegalstrategies

with legalones. Indeed, insomecountries, theundocumentedapproachesaretrustedmorethan

thegovernmentavenuesformigration,whicharemoreexpensiveandmoretimeconsuming.There

is a tendency to associate all undocumented migration with the insidious practice of trafficking,

whichis

doubly

unfortunate

because:

muchundocumentedmigrationisnotcriminal;

the bulk of policy and research effort is put into trafficking, when there are also highly

exploitative, corrupt and venal practices occurring in legal migration that need to be the

targetofpolicy.

There are clearly no simple solutions to the undocumented migration and its most insidious

subcomponent, trafficking. What does seem clear in Asia and the Pacific is that undocumented

migration will continue to occur for as long as there is a manifest demand for migrant labour.

Policingalone isnotthesolution. It isalsoclearthatthese issuescanrarelybeeffectivelytackled

unilaterally.The

process

occurs

across

countries

and

cooperation

between

origin,

destination

and

transitcountrieswillbenecessary.

Climate change

NoregionoftheworldisexpectedtobemoreaffectedbyclimatechangethanAsiaandthePacific

(Prestonetal.,2006;Hugoetal.,2009).Arecentreport(Hugoetal.,2009)examinedtheavailable

modellingofclimatechangeinAsiaandthePacificinordertoestablishwhichareasintheregionare

anticipatedtoexperiencesubstantialimpactsfrom:

highersealevelsandstormsurges

increasedintensity

and

frequency

of

cyclone

activity

increasedriparianflooding,especiallyduetoglaciermelt

reduced intensity, frequency and reliability of rainfall in many areas of low and moderate

rainfall.

While therearesome regionsandcountries inAsiaand thePacificwhere theanticipatedclimate

change impactswillhave favourable impacts (e.g.NewZealand), theareaswhere theeffectsare

expectedtobenegativearemoreextensiveandhavemuchlargerpopulations.Areaswhereclimate


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ThisdiffersfromtheviewofBlack(2001:1)who,inalsorecognizingtheweaknessesoftheconcept

ofenvironmentalrefugees,maintainsthat:

... although environmental degradation and catastrophe may be important

factorsinthedecisiontomigrate,andissuesofconcernintheirownright,their

conceptualisationas aprimary cause offorced displacement is unhelpfuland

unsoundintellectually

and

unnecessary

in

practical

terms.

Whichever sideof the argumentholds true in lightof climate change remainsuncertain,but the

environmentwill,almostcertainly,haveagreaterinfluenceonmigrationpatternsinthefuture.

The impact of climate change on population movement in Asia and the Pacific is difficult to

anticipatebutanumberofpointscanbemade(Hugoetal.,2009).

Most responses to the impactofclimatechangewill involve in situadjustment rather than

mobility.

Mobility responses will involve both adaptation responses and, as a last resort, forced

resettlement.

Thebulk

of

environmentally

induced

mobility

will

occur

within

nations.

Climate change impacts will become an increasingly significant factor in international

migration, albeit usually in combination with other push factors. International migration is

especiallysignificantwhereclimatechange impactsthreatenentirenationalspaces,asthey

doinsomePacificcountries.

Theimpactsofclimatechangewillbecomeincreasinglyevidentoverthenextthreeorfourdecades,

whichmeansthatthere istimetodevelopappropriatepolicies toadapttothem.However,these

policiesarelikelytorequiresubstantialleadtimetoformulateandoperationalizesincetheyinvolve

dealingwithentrenchedsensitivitiesandwillrequiresignificantinternationaltransfersoffundingto

lowincomecountries,aswellasstrongcooperationbetweencountries.Hence,thereisanurgency

tobeginconsideringthemigrationpolicyimplicationsofclimatechangeimpactsassoonaspossible.

The global financial crisis

Theonsetoftheglobalfinancialcrisisin2008hashadasignificantimpactinAsiaandthePacific.The

ChiefoftheAsianDevelopmentBankhasarguedthattheregionhasbeenespeciallyhardhitdueto

inadequatesafetynets,with60millionpeoplebeingkeptbelowthepovertylineofUSD1.25perday

(AsianMigrationNews,130September2009).The impactsofthecrisisonmobility intheregion

are not entirely clear and have varied considerably from one country to another, but a few

generalizationscanbemade(Hugo,2009c).

The flowofmigrants seems tohavebeenmoreaffected than themigrant stock,with little

evidenceofreturnmovementofmigrantsestablishedatdestinations.

The impact has varied greatly between different types of migrants. Those involved in

construction, manufacturing, financial services and travelrelated services have suffered

becauseofjoblosses,whileothers,suchasdomesticworkers,careworkersandhealthcare

workers,havenotbeenaffected.


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While previous research has shown that remittance flows tend to be countercyclical and

representawayofadjustingtoacrisis,remittancesseemtohavebeen lessaffectedbythe

crisis inAsiaandthePacificthantheyhavebeen inLatinAmerica(WorldBank,2009).They

havenotdecreasedbuttheyarenotincreasingatprecrisisrates(WorldBank,2009).

Withthecontinuationoftheglobalfinancialcrisis,countries intheAsiaPacificregionmayneedto

considerdevelopingpoliciestocopewiththeimpactofthecrisisonmigration(Fixetal.,2009).Such

policiesmightincludethefollowing:

Inorigincountries:- seekingalternativedestinations

- safetynetprogrammes

- assistancewithrepatriationandresettlement

- programmesforabsorbingofreturnmigrants.

Indestinationcountries:- reducinginflowsofmigrants

- assistingunemployedmigrants

- repatriationprogrammes.

Akeypolicyissuerelatedtothecontinuing impactoftheglobalfinancialcrisis,however,relatesto

thedampeningeffectsthatthecrisismayhaveonthegreenshootsofmore liberalandrealistic

migrationpoliciesbeingdevelopedintheAsiaPacificregion.Asdiscussedearlierinthispaper,there

havebeensomesmallbutsignificantdevelopmentsintheregioninthelastdecade:

An increased recognition by destination countries that migration is a continuing and

importantstructuralelementintheireconomies.

Introductionofprogrammesofmigrantsettlement indestinationcountries,albeitonavery

selectivebasis.

Recognitioninorigincountriesthatmigrationcanhaveapositiveinfluenceondevelopment.

Enhancedregionaldialogueandbilateralcooperationonmigrationissues

Enhancedinstitutionaldevelopmentwithincountrieswithrespecttomigration.

There isarealdanger thatthecrisiscouldderail thosedevelopmentsandpromptareturnto the

highlyprotectionist,antimigrantpoliciesofthetwentiethcenturyintheAsiaPacificregion.


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