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WIKIS: A FAST TRACK TO EFFECTIVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION?
Is contemporary theory for internal communication still apt in the digital age?
Thesis
by
David Gerrits [408489] 4ICM-B
Graduation coach: Jaap Jansen
May 22nd, 2008
INHOLLAND University – Rotterdam
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Table of Contents
Preface ........................................................................................................................................................... 4
Summary ........................................................................................................................................................ 5
Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 9
1.1 Choosing a graduation subject ............................................................................................................. 9
1.2 Formulating the assignment ..............................................................................................................10
1.3.1 Theoretical research ........................................................................................................................11
1.3.2 Scope and limitations ......................................................................................................................11
1.3.3 Main and sub questions ..................................................................................................................11
1.3.4 Purpose and motivation ..................................................................................................................12
Chapter 2: Setting the Scene ........................................................................................................................13
2.1 Thoughts on sources ..........................................................................................................................13
2.2.1 Contemporary internal communication models .............................................................................13
2.2.2 SMMR model ...................................................................................................................................14
2.2.3 The communication junction ..........................................................................................................15
2.2.4 Creating communication policy ......................................................................................................18
2.2.5 Looping-model ................................................................................................................................18
2.2.6 Two-way symmetrical: public affairs-model ...................................................................................20
2.3 The importance of Internal Communication ......................................................................................20
2.4 Communication structures .................................................................................................................22
2.5 Reflection ...........................................................................................................................................23
Chapter 3: Changes and Trends ...................................................................................................................24
3.1.1 Social and economical change ........................................................................................................24
3.1.2 Individualisation ..............................................................................................................................24
3.2 Digital technology...............................................................................................................................25
3.3. Knowing how to participate ..............................................................................................................26
3.4 Implications for Internal Communication ..........................................................................................27
3.5 Reflection ...........................................................................................................................................28
Chapter 4: Digital Natives .............................................................................................................................30
4.1 Digital natives, digital IC .....................................................................................................................30
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4.2 Connectivism ......................................................................................................................................32
4.3.1 What we like best ............................................................................................................................33
4.3.2 Popular social software ...................................................................................................................34
4.3.3 What do managers think? ...............................................................................................................35
4.4 Reflection ...........................................................................................................................................37
Chapter 5: What Are Wikis? .........................................................................................................................40
5.1 WikiWiki .............................................................................................................................................40
5.2.1 Let’s meet up! .................................................................................................................................42
5.2.2 Practical reasons .............................................................................................................................43
5.2.3 Processes of change ........................................................................................................................43
5.2.4 Motivation .......................................................................................................................................43
5.3 Reflection ...........................................................................................................................................44
Chapter 6: Reflections ..................................................................................................................................46
6.1 Conclusions.........................................................................................................................................46
6.2 Does the theory need to change? ......................................................................................................49
6.3 Recommendations .............................................................................................................................51
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................54
Appendix A: The Hierarchy of Web 2.0 Applications ...................................................................................58
Appendix B: Research Plan ...........................................................................................................................59
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Preface
The thesis in front of you is one of two components of my graduation project. In this thesis I investigate
the aptitude of contemporary theory for internal communication in the digital age. The second part is a
comparative case study, developed under commission of the INHOLLAND lectureship eLearning and
entitled: Wikis: a fast track to effective internal communication? - How can wikis be implemented in
communication, knowledge and information processes within professional environments?
The thesis and case study report (delivered as separate documents) should be considered as a whole and
read together.
In spirit of the research topic I have created an online wiki of the graduation project as well. You can find
the wiki at the following address: www.research-wiki.nl. I leave it up to you, the reader, to decide if you
prefer to read the physical document or the digital edition.
I am satisfied with the results of this project and consider the research a fitting conclusion of four years
of study. I would like to thank my coaches Jaap Jansen, and Pieter Swager (Centre for eLearning), for
their cooperative, enthusiastic involvement with supportive and valuable advice, in developing and
completing my graduation project.
David Gerrits
Rotterdam, May 2008.
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Summary
Many technological and sociological developments have impact on the way in which organisations
operate. This research looks into the use of wikis for internal communications by asking two questions:
“Is contemporary theory for internal communication still apt in the digital age?” and “How can wikis be
implemented in communication, knowledge and information processes within professional
environments?” The first question is answered in this thesis, the second in a comparative case study
(separate report).
Contemporary theory. An overview is made of available theory and models such as the communication
junction model of Van Ruler where in the ‘multidirectional vision’; communication is seen as an
interactive process where information is being exchanged, or as a means to negotiate between various
parties. Most of the models and theory promote sharing, dialoguing and collaboration within
organisations. We looked at the various functions of communication: the support of the primary process,
the promotion of involvement and supporting processes of change. The organisational dimensions
(structure, culture and leadership style, communicative skills, information systems and strategy) are
inextricably connected to internal communication.
Changes and Trends. Social and economical developments are central driving factors in the changing
reality of IC. The process of globalisation and the shift towards service-oriented businesses results in an
increasing need for communication. The process of individualisation has implications for the manner in
which people operate and what their expectations are. The rapid, ongoing developments and trends in
technology come together in a concept called the ‘participative web’ (or ‘web 2.0’). These web 2.0 tools
can be used individually, but also by organisations for both internal and external communication
activities.
Digital Natives. People of the digital age are found to operate differently with regard to how they
process information and communicate. Marc Prensky’s learning theory (Prensky, Digital Natives, Digital
Immigrants, 2001) gives insight in what these changes exactly are. The digital natives have developed
various skills that enable them to multi-task, find and produce information and work at ‘twitch speed’.
The parallel from education to the professional world is easily drawn as the students from today are
tomorrow’s professionals. Organisations need acknowledge and understand these skills, and be creative
in order to engage these people and maximise their potential. Social software offers two important
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functionalities to an organisation: the practical functionality (e.g. knowledge management and
communication), and the functionality as a facilitator of engagement (e.g. encouraging collaboration
among employees).
In George Siemens connectivism view (Siemens, Digital natives and immigrants: A concept beyond its
best before date, 2007) it is not so much about age but about a mindset, concerning the increasing
complexity of society and globalisation. Learning is a process of connecting specialised nodes or
information sources, Siemens argues. Educators and communication policy makers in organisations need
to acknowledge the importance of nurturing these connections.
It is important to address the question how to harness the enthusiasm and dedication that young people
show in collaborating and connecting privately (MSN, YouTube etc.), and find out what elements of
social software can be taken to the professional field.
What Are Wikis? The wiki is a very powerful knowledge and information medium. It is an ideal tool to
collaborate, co-create and acknowledges the needs of employees in the digital age. A major benefit of
the wiki is that it brings together a wide variety of functions that previously needed separate applications
(with obvious incompatibility issues).There are many practical advantages of using wikis such as: reduced
e-mail traffic, integration of functions, user collaboration, increase in productivity and so on.
Professionals view the wiki as a potential means to fulfil communication objectives such as the
dissemination of competencies, core values, ambition, and facilitation of empowerment and employee
satisfaction. From a theoretical standpoint there is potential in (and no real objection against) using a
wiki for processes of change (in the form of engagement and inclusion). Yet, there are other factors to
consider here, such as the organisational structure and culture.
Conclusions and recommendations. Reflecting the theory it was found that wikis can fulfil certain tasks
and objectives of internal communication and are appropriate for an IC policy with a multidirectional
view (Van Ruler). They acknowledge the importance of feedback loops and direct communication
between all layers of the organisation. When the wiki is used in its true sense, the co-worker becomes
the expert. This process ties in with the connectivism concept.
Social software requires and thrives on user participation, and thus motivation. In contemporary models
this participation is represented in the form of assumed motivation. Two-way communication streams
appear great but are without obligations. When using social software as a serious tool for
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communication and knowledge policy, employee participation cannot be without engagement. It is in my
view that active involvement, and participation should be mandatory for a communication policy to
function properly in this context.
Another issue that needs addressing is the nature of digital communication. This way of communicating
is highly flexible, and the individual’s attitude towards it is different with respect to traditional media.
Maybe we can adapt the models and theory to better deal with (and make use of) this notion?
With social software there is a paradigm shift where content is owned by the collective, not the
individual. Management is primarily taking on the role as a facilitator and aim the organisation. Is there a
way in which theoretical models for IC can incorporate this relatively new concept of redefining power?
The idea of using social software as a means for IC is too fundamental to assess only on the
characteristics of that software. Using a wiki requires a specific kind of organisational culture and
structure: open, non-hierarchical organisations that encourage bottom-up processes, innovation and
development. It would be too simplistic to just change IC models to acknowledge social software without
thinking about the organisational culture and structure.
Perhaps when experts start addressing the characteristics and implications of social software and digital
natives, in addition to already explored fields such as organisational structure, culture and network
communication (connectivism), new theory for IC can eventually arise.
Almost all wikis start as a bottom-up initiative, they do not involve a management decision. Only when
the wiki has grown to substantial proportions (and success) is some form of formalisation and facilitation
of the management necessary.
As with all innovations there are rules. The innovation needs to solve a specific problem, hide
complexity, and do something new (Reep, 2006). Without these prerequisites the innovation will fail. It is
therefore important that organisations understand better why, and not just how, they should start using
wikis. Hopefully research such as this thesis can help here.
Enterprises invest more and more in social software, yet, do they truly understand the implications of
web 2.0 technologies for their organisation, or are they just following buzz? This question too requires
perhaps further research.
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“By all means let's be open-minded, but not so open-minded that our brains drop out.”
(Richard Dawkins, in "Science, Delusion and the Appetite for Wonder," BBC1, November 1996)
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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Choosing a graduation subject
Finding a graduation assignment and selecting an appropriate topic to do your research on is by far not
the easiest task in the career of a student International Communication Management (ICM). During the
second part of year three, and the thirst terms of year four of my studies, I evaluated on the various
subjects I was taught over the years, and realised I had a firm interest in the field of Internal
Communication (IC), business processes and information management. The fourth year minor Visual
Communication and Knowledge Building (VCKB) introduced me to various trends in society including the
impact of the digital age on the way in which we learn, live and work. It became apparent to me that the
rapid developments in ICT, and the change in attitude and behaviour of people, create exciting
opportunities and chances for the way in which communication processes, and information can be
managed and experienced. There is an enormous level of enthusiasm for all these trends such as the use
of social software and web 2.0, and I believe we should indeed be as open-minded as Richard Dawkins
says, but let us also take a look at the adoption of such concepts on a professional level. Once you start
some desktop research on these topics and trends, pretty soon you will be overwhelmed by a seemingly
endless stream of articles, blogs, reports and visions of experts, researchers and people in the
professional field. Indeed, web 2.0 and social software (subjects that I will discuss further on) is
considered to have great potential for a variety of communication, marketing and management
problems in professional organisations. See for example the publications of Harvard Business School
Associate Professor Andrew McAfee (McAfee, 2008). However, all potential left aside, what does reality
look like? Do companies and organisations adopt social software and are they successful in doing so? In
an attempt to shed some light on these questions I decided to undertake research on one specific tool
available to organisations: the wiki. Because of my interest in internal communication and information
management, I focussed on the use of wikis in relation to these internal processes. What is a wiki? Ward
Cunningham, developer of the first wiki software formulated it plainly: "a wiki is the simplest online
database that could possibly work” (Cunningham, 1995). More precisely, a wiki is a software program
that brings users together and enables them to create and edit pages within the wiki database freely. It is
designed to capture and retain knowledge, and to encourage co-creation and collaboration.
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1.2 Formulating the assignment
The idea of undertaking research on the use of wikis for internal communication in professional
organisations was further developed in cooperation with Pieter Swager of the Centre for eLearning
(INHOLLAND lectureship eLearning: www.inholland.nl/elearning); hence the Centre for eLearning became
the client of my graduation assignment.
Within the comparative case study, I will look at the possibilities and implications of working with wikis in
professional environments. Central here is the main research question which I formulated as follows:
"How can wikis be implemented in communication, knowledge and information processes within
professional environments?”
In order to answer this question I defined the following sub-questions:
Which communication functions can wikis potentially fulfil?
How are wikis currently used within organisations?
What implications of the usage of wikis are conceivable in communication, knowledge and
information processes?
What do managers and professionals think of:
The competencies and skills of young workers/digital natives (Prensky, Digital Natives,
Digital Immigrants, 2001)) in relation to ‘web 2.0’;
The feasibility and usefulness of implementation of wikis in communication processes.
The nature of these questions and the aspired results of the research (I want to gain insight and
understanding of real life experiences with wikis), require a focused and specific research method. I
decided the ideal approach to this would be to conduct a comparative case study based on interviews
and desktop research. The practical assignment is tightly interwoven with my theoretical research
(thesis) which forms the body of this report. I worked independently on the case study which ultimately
resulted in a report as a final product for my client. By the means of interviews I analysed cases of
professional organisations where wikis are being used now, such as the largest internet
developer/consultancy in the Netherlands: Lost Boys, and the TU Delft. The complete case study report is
delivered as a separate report and entitled: Wikis: a fast track to effective internal communication? -
How can wikis be implemented in communication, knowledge and information processes within
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professional environments? The report is furthermore used as a source of reference in related topics
within this thesis.
1.3.1 Theoretical research My theoretical research revolves around the question:
“Is contemporary theory for internal communication still apt in the digital age?”
My intention is to create a strong synergy between the theoretical and practical research that I will
undertake. The thesis will give a theoretical point of view on IC processes, and the case study an insight
in the reality within organisations. With this research I want to reflect on the theory and current
understanding of:
Contemporary IC-management;
The impact and implications of the digital age on our life;
The use of social software as an IC tool (specifically the wiki).
My primary sources for this analysis will consist of communication theory books and publications,
practical guides, articles, previous studies on digital trends and publications around the theme social
software (web 2.0) and wikis.
1.3.2 Scope and limitations The main research question explicitly mentions ‘the digital age’. In order to be able to deal with this topic
in a realistic manner (considering available time and capacity), and to create a strong connection with my
practical assignment, I choose to use the term wiki as a representative for ‘the digital age’. For me the
philosophy of wikis is one of the best symbols for the developments as a result of our digital society,
where sharing and collaboration seems to be of high importance. In theory it is an ideal example of how
collaboration, involvement, access to information and the move to a paperless desktop come together.
The research will be limited to the IC processes as they are found within professional organisations (e.g.
commercial, non-commercial, education and governmental).
1.3.3 Main and sub questions As mentioned previously the main question in this theoretical research is the following: “Is
contemporary theory for internal communication still apt in the digital age?” In order to answer this
question I formulate the following sub-questions:
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Which theory for (digital) internal communication processes is currently dominant? (Chapter 2).
What developments can be seen in relation to internal communication processes with the coming
of the digital age? (Chapter 3).
What are the characteristics, skills and habits, emphasising on work-approach, information and
media usage, of the next generation of communication experts (digital natives)?
Based on which existing research, which applications are favoured and established for use by
forthcoming communication professionals? (Chapter 4).
What are wikis?
Can wikis be of use in internal communication, knowledge and information processes? (Chapter
5).
Where do theory and wikis meet?
Is there a need for change in internal communication theory, and if so, how should this change
look like? (Chapter 6).
1.3.4 Purpose and motivation The goal of this research is to address the relation between IC and wikis by answering the research
questions, and to deepen my insight and understanding of IC, as it is one of my favourite fields of
communication. Secondly it gives me the opportunity to explore the developments and trends in ICT and
the connection with the communication and information arena. Another important motivation factor is
that even though people are often very enthusiastic on new ICT trends (and the possibilities are
perceived to be almost endless), we do not always see this enthusiasm translated into real life practice. I
hope that this research, together with the case study I am undertaking, will shed some light on this.
So what is the expected outcome of this thesis? I want to deliver a condensed summary of popular
theory and reflect that theory on the digital trends. This will cumulate in an overview where I point out
what the most effective communication theories are for digital IC. I will further assess whether there are
changes needed in the theory or not, and deliver recommendations.
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Chapter 2: Setting the Scene
2.1 Thoughts on sources
The available sources and theory for IC are respectably numerous and found as much as in print as in
digital form. I have selected books based on what is now commonly available in libraries and stores, and
used in the curriculum of ICM (2004-2008) at INHOLLAND University. Furthermore I followed up on
personal advice of experts and cited sources in articles and publications. I have not been extremely
conservative with regard to the use of information available online. It is inherent to the topics of my
research, that I incorporate online sources to analyse the aptitude of contemporary IC theory in the
digital age. Especially with regard to the subject of wikis as there is yet hardly any printed literature
available.
In line with the development in this field, discussions and publications on communication theory are
more and more held and shared online. As information ‘from the internet’ is sometimes (and I believe
rightfully) distrusted, I made certain that I was very rigorous in which sources to use, and which not to
use. The selected online sources (often retrieved through databases such as EBSCO’s Business Source
Premier) are articles of frequently referred to experts and opinion formers in the field of communication
and web 2.0.
2.2.1 Contemporary internal communication models So, is contemporary theory for internal communication still apt in the digital age? In this chapter I will
answer the following question: “Which communication theory for (digital) internal communication
processes is currently dominant?”
What is the definition of IC? “By internal communication, we mean: communication aimed at the groups
of the public in the internal environment of the organisation” (Vos & Schoemaker, 2005). A more
detailed way of describing it is possible by looking at the role of IC. Effective internal communications is
all about enabling us to do our jobs to the best of our ability and ensuring that all of us are working
together towards the same organisational goals (Hayward, 2005). A series of communication channels
and tools are used by the organisation to keep the employees informed and give them the chance to
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share their opinions with each other and the management. In a time of outsourcing and telecommuting
it is often difficult to distinguish between internal and external publics. When an organisation thinks
about which communication tools to apply it is important to acknowledge both audiences. You need to
think about how you can effective supply the necessary information to (and facilitate exchange for)
these audiences, in order for them to operate properly.
There are many models and frameworks available that deal with (or are related to) IC. Some are
designed to analyse the organisation’s performance (SWOT analysis, Humprey, A., 1960’s), or show the
forces that have impact on the organisation (stakeholder analysis); or the position of communication
within the marketing mix (5 P’s), and the Ansoff matrix (Ansoff, I., 1957). Even Maslow's
hierarchy of needs (Maslow, A., 1943) relates in some way to the
characteristics and purpose of communication within groups of
people: the need for acknowledgement, respect and self-
development. In this research I will primarily look at the most
referred to models in popular literature and articles that clearly deal
with design of and policy for IC.
It is often said that models are limited and slightly dangerous. The reality of management is more
obstinate and unpredictable than a model could possibly do justice too, and requires a good amount
creative problem solving and intuition. “A model can constrict one’s vision, as if watching a wide-screen
television through a straw” (Berenschot Communicatie, 2003). These arguments are tackled when
models are no longer viewed as a goal but as a means. The means to help you structure your thoughts
and encourage your creativity (Venetië, E., 2003).
2.2.2 SMMR model An overview of the theory on IC would not be complete without the ‘mother of all communication
models’, the Sender-Message-Medium-Receiver-Model (SMMR-model). This very basic communication
model was introduced in 1923 and almost all following communication models are based on it (Fiske,
1990).
Figure 2 - Basic SMMR Model
Sender Medium
Message
Medium
Receiver
Figure 1 - Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
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Within this model the sender intents to achieve understanding on the receivers end by communication.
It is with this purpose that he encodes the information. That is, he translates his thoughts into words.
The receiver decodes these words and interprets them. The communication is successful when the ideas
of the sender match with the interpretation of the receiver. By adjusting the message to the frame of
reference of the receiver as much as possible, the likelihood of understanding is increased.
Naturally this is also the first communication model that I was taught during my studies. It is a simple, yet
elegant model that clearly demonstrates how the medium and the message should be tailored correctly
in order to successfully reach the receiver. It does not however, deal with the complexity of the
relationship between the receiver and the sender. Other well-known points of criticism are that the
model does not really acknowledge the subjectivity of the process of encoding and decoding the
message, and the influence of noise (or distortion) is not being dealt with. Future models would tackle
these issues by adding so-called feedback loops.
2.2.3 The communication junction The Dutch professor of Communication Sciences at the University of Amsterdam A.A. van Ruler
developed a widely accepted model on four basic communication strategies (Ruler, Strategisch
management van communicatie. Introductie van het Communicatiekruispunt, 1998).
Figure 3 - The Communication Junction (Ruler, van, 1998)
Ann
The model can be applied to both external and internal communication processes. The communication
junction defines four possible intentions or basic strategies of communication: informing, persuasion,
dialoguing and formation. These four intentions are based on two dilemmas: one-way traffic versus two-
way traffic and announcement versus influence. Van Ruler (1998) argues that in communication, contact
plays the central role. The purpose of this contact can be either to announce or to influence.
Announcement Influence
Controlled one-way
traffic
Two-way traffic
Informing Persuasion
Dialoguing Formation
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Furthermore is there the division in nature of that contact: controlled one-way traffic or (uncontrolled)
two-way traffic.
In order to better understand the communication junction model, Van Ruler (1998) distinguishes three
visions on communication:
1. Communication as a unilateral process. When information is just announced there is no proper
selection of a receiver. The sole purpose of this vision is to express information. The receiving
end is not taken into consideration. When the purpose of communication is to influence, a
receiving party is selected, though not very specifically. The communication worker that is
functioning within this vision is often working in a low position within the organisation. This
results in the following communication problems:
Without insight on the strategic and organisational level of the organisation, the
communication expert is forced to develop tools and means without a proper
understanding of their purpose.
The communication expert is only included in the execution phase, when policies are
already established.
2. The instrumental view. In this vision communication is seen as controlled, one-way traffic.
Communication is a means to manipulate situations. Target groups are selected in advance and
the sender wants to check whether the communication was successful or not. This verification is
established by adding a feed-back/forward loop. Now the sender has more control on what
happens to the message. The goal of this type of communication could be for example to share
knowledge or to influence the attitude and behaviour of the target group. For the
communication expert this view on communication is more ‘sales’ oriented. His role is different
from the worker in the unilateral vision; communication targets are defined and need to be
attained. Secondly, the communication expert is much closer to the management which enables
him to translate organisational policy into communication policy. A problem that arises using this
vision on communication is that the organisation divides its environment in groups of people to
manipulate. However, not all target groups are necessarily open to communication
(manipulation) from the organisation.
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3. The multidirectional vision on communication. In this vision communication is seen as an
interactive process where information is being exchanged, or as a means to negotiate between
various parties. All parties are now participating actively by sending and receiving. This vision
deals with the problem from the instrumental view, namely the willingness of groups to receive
communication. It is about achieving exchange and fine-tuning between participants. The
communication expert assumes the position as an intermediary that facilitates contact. Doing so,
he is able to serve the needs and interests of the organisation and all of its stakeholders. For the
communication expert it requires a balanced view and insightful understanding of the
environment, as he meanders between organisational and stakeholders’ interests.
Let us take a closer look at the four strategies of the junction model:
Informing: the strategy of the sender to influence knowledge, in order to urge someone
to think and formulate an opinion and decision on a specific subject.
Persuasion: the strategy to persuade someone of your rightfulness.
Dialoguing: to work together with stakeholders to develop policy.
Formation: to influence the target groups using communication in a two-way traffic
sense. (E.g. lobbying and the formation of coalitions). The dialogue will eventually lead
to decision making, this process is called formation (Berenschot Communicatie, 2003).
So the choice for one of these strategies is depending on the organisational vision on communication
and/or communication issue. In order to fully apply the communication junction model, a policy where
communication is positioned as an intermediary has to be assumed. Now the expert’s task is two-fold: to
guide, steer and build-up communication from the organisation to the stakeholders and environment,
but also the other way around, from stakeholders to the management, and from the environment to the
management (Ruler, van, 1998).
Only the expert with a multidirectional vision on communication is able to deploy all
four strategies. Van Ruler (1998) views her model as a toolkit for
communication management. Depending on the nature of the
communication problem one or more strategies can be used. The expert with a
unilateral or instrumental vision will therefore not be able to solve all issues, as not all
strategies are available to him.
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2.2.4 Creating communication policy This model (Berenschot Communicatie, 2003) is designed to show us the process of developing a new
work approach, new policies or rules. This is useful in an environment with many players that all want to
be included in the coming-about of policy. The ‘old’ situation described here is nowadays not found
anymore; it does however show us how communication plays a role from the start in internal processes.
Figure 4 - Creating communication policy (Berenschot Communicatie, 2003)
Before
Communication
Process
Content
Time
Now
Communication
Process
Content
Time
Traditionally the policymaking process was sequential, first content, then process, then communication.
As the number of players and turbulence in the policy arena increases, we need to reflect this in our
communication policy. In this era of openness it is essential to incorporate all stakeholders throughout
the decision making process. The goal of communication is to strongly connect all the stakeholders in a
relation network, committed to the success of the process, an optimal result and afterwards a good
implementation and the right amount of publicity (Berenschot Communicatie, 2003). This model ties in
with Van Ruler’s (chapter 2.2.2) multidirectional vision, where all players actively participate and the
communication expert acts as a facilitator.
2.2.5 Looping-model The looping-model (Delden, 1999) connects all the layers in the organisation. Management is able to
provide insight on strategic decisions to all levels of the organisation. Employees are given means to
deliver ideas and criticism to the top of the organisation. Within the looping-model IC is practiced
through dialogue: listening, explaining and feedback. Well structured consultation on all management
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levels and personal attention from managers to their employees is essential to make this work. This
model makes certain that information streams float freely through the whole organisation: top-down
and bottom-up. The manager that uses this model consequently understands that ‘his people are his
company’ (Delden, 1999). However, in times of distress, the different sections of the organisation tend
to withdraw to their ‘layer’.
Not like this: But like this:
Figure 5 - Looping Model (Delden, van, 1999)
This system is indeed very appealing considering the need for a multidirectional communication flow;
nonetheless there are two major factors (Hattersley & McJannet, 1997) to be taken into consideration
that disturb both downward and upward feedback in many business communication situations:
First, nobody really likes bad news. Everyone loves praise but might respond (somewhat)
negatively to criticism. These (perhaps nonverbal) responses might eventually lead to a situation
where colleagues become reluctant to say anything at all.
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Secondly, hierarchical organisations have a tendency to become less and less receptive to both
downward and upward feedback. There are several factors that cause this:
human being prefer to command rather than confer;
Managers like to stash information because it gives them a sense of power;
Everyone is inclined to tell the boss what she wants to hear. (Listing takes time!)
2.2.6 Two-way symmetrical: public affairs-model A final model that I view of importance in relation to IC is Grunig’s two-way symmetrical: public affairs-
model (Grunig, 1992). Within this model communication is used to manage conflict situations and to
improve the mutual understanding of groups within the organisation, and the organisation and her
strategic target groups. Equality and mutual respect are of utmost importance here. The model itself and
its ongoing critique are very detailed and cover much more than what is relevant within the scope of this
research (IC and wikis). The reason why I mention it is that it is a popular management model which
illustrates a strong and very visible trend to promote sharing, dialoguing and collaboration in
organisations.
2.3 The importance of Internal Communication
The professional organisation’s operational success is highly depending on the efficiency and excellence
of its IC. Organisations are built around the ability of all segments within those organisations to
collaborate and exchange information. In the process of motivating employees communication plays an
important role, and in processes of change well-thought out communication is vital.
In the book Integrated Communication (Vos & Schoemaker, 2005) the following tasks for communication
(as an illustration of the importance of IC) are defined:
a. Employees have to be better aware of activities of the organisation.
In our society the importance of services continues to increase. Service is an added value by
means of which organisations can distinguish themselves from the competition. Many
employees have contacts with customers and they should propagate the company philosophy in
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these contacts. Secondly, when employees are better aware of activities outside of their section
they will be able to work more efficiently and flexible.
b. Employees should be more attentive to changing needs and circumstances.
Organisations should anticipate the wishes of the customers with flexibility. Technological
developments and shorter product life cycles also demand a capability to adjust. Employees
should pick up signals from the outside world and pass them on to the management, which the
latter then incorporates in its policy and in communication with employees.
c. Employees have a higher information need.
The increased involvement of the staff results in a need to be heard. Furthermore, changes in
the organisation cause uncertainty and thus a demand for information. In order to achieve
organisational targets, simple one-way traffic cannot be relied on. We need to facilitate dialogue
(the communication junction model) and implement looping-model based policies.
It is important to understand that problems in IC cannot be seen separately from the internal
organisation itself. The quality of IC is related to the various dimensions of organisations (Jurgens, 1988):
Organisational structure;
Organisational culture and leadership style;
Communicative skills;
Information systems;
Organisation strategy.
In most books IC is considered to have several functions. The most significant functions are (Vos &
Schoemaker, 2005):
The support of the primary process. In order for the organisation to operate properly the
exchange of information is needed.
The promotion of involvement. Knowledge about the organisation as a whole may increase the
involvement of employees, and their motivation to work.
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Supporting processes of change. In times of change it is vital to communicate properly as
changes can lead to insecurity and resistance. It has to be clear why changes are necessary and
what will be required of those involved.
Other important functions are: the optimal use of knowledge, to motivate and connect employees and
to direct the organisation (Koeleman, De rol van communicatie bij verandering, 2002).
2.4 Communication structures
Depending on the type of organisation different communication structures (figure 5) can be used. In a
time where the importance of exchange and sharing throughout the whole organisation is essential,
‘open circle’ structures are probably the most appropriate. This also applies when you look specifically at
digital communication means. These means have powerful qualities such as the ability to instantly share
information with all layers of the organisation and the facilitation of collaboration and exchange. These
means can
understandably
play a key-role in
the quest for
employee
involvement and
awareness.
IC is of such vital importance for an organisation to function, that ideally IC management should be
under the responsibility of the complete management team (Rooij & Grefte, 2000). Whether it is a line,
staff or a project manager, all are responsible and need to make sure that all people within the
organisation (or section) work well together and communicate. Each manager is therefore also a
communication manager. The top level management defines the direction and framework within which
communication in the lower levels should be managed (think for example of the importance of
leadership style as discussed previously in section 2.3).
Figure 6 - Communication Structures (Keuning, 1993)
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2.5 Reflection
In this chapter I looked at prominent theory for (digital) internal communication processes. It was argued
that the role of IC is to enable people to do their job to the best of their abilities, and to ensure everyone
is working together towards the same organisational goal. IC is vital in order to create awareness of the
organisation’s activities, attention for changing needs and circumstances, and to meet the growing
information need of employees. Models help to structure our thoughts on policy. From an introduction
to the most basic communication model (SMMR) which proved to be a bit too simplistic, I moved on to
the ‘communication junction’ model of Van Ruler. I learned that in the ‘multidirectional vision’,
communication is seen as an interactive process where information is being exchanged, or as a means to
negotiate between various parties. Within this vision, two-way, open communication is ensured and all
players are participating actively by sending and receiving. The multidirectional view enables people to
deploy all four communication strategies: informing, persuasion, dialoguing and formation. In this view
we need to be carefully thinking about how to tailor messages (positive versus negative), and consider
the less receptive attitude towards communication between layers in hierarchical organisations. The
importance of feedback/forward loops was discussed. Most of the selected models and theory promote
sharing, dialoguing and collaboration within organisations. Then I looked at the various functions of
communication: the support of the primary process, the promotion of involvement and supporting
processes of change. In line with the changing realities of our society it is important to understand that
communication is becoming a responsibility of the complete management team, not just the
communication manager. The organisational dimensions (structure, culture and leadership style,
communicative skills, information systems and strategy) are inextricably connected to IC.
Now we have a basic comprehension of contemporary theory for IC, we should also have some
understanding of how managers deal with IC and digital media. The next piece of the puzzle lays in the
changes and trends that affect people and organisations in the digital age.
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Chapter 3: Changes and Trends
3.1.1 Social and economical change
“What developments can be seen in relation to internal communication processes with the coming of the
digital age?”
The implications of the ‘digital age’ (or ‘information age’ if you like) are profound and complex and form
enough fuel for much research on its own. Allow me to focus on some essential developments and
emerging technologies.
A central driving factor in the changing reality of (internal) communication is the impact of social and
economical developments. During the last centuries there have been strong waves of change in our
western society. The central and dominant role of agriculture has been systematically replaced by
succeeding industries. This was the result of quickly growing markets and even faster developing
technologies (Hetebrij, 2000), a process that is still ongoing today. Our society is more and more service
oriented which increases the dependency on good communication.
The trend of globalisation strongly affects how professional organisations (need to) operate. A society
with no economic borders, global competition, plenty of opportunities and potential, forces
organisations to deal with communication efficiently and innovatively. In addition many business
processes are outsourced to countries with cheap labour or specific expertise. There is a high
information need within organisations, and sections have to communicate and co-operate more and
more in order to maximise the organisation’s potential (Castells M. , 1996).
3.1.2 Individualisation Not only organisations and society as a whole have been
affected by these processes of change. The psychological
functioning of the individual has changed a well. It is not
that long ago that people could easily judge someone’s
thoughts and ideas on a variety of subjects, based on his
background and appearance. A lot of answers were
Figure 7 - Individualisation
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predefined and self-evident (Hetebrij, 2000). A society, such as found here in the Netherlands, is now
becoming a melting pot of all kinds of ideas, lifestyles, believes and convictions. Individuals are more and
more encouraged to decide for themselves what kind of person they want to be, which lifestyle to have,
which profession to choose and so on. With this notion in the back of our minds it becomes apparent
that the access to information and the ability to communicate and exchange in order to develop your
own principals and ideas is essential in our contemporary society. This process is not limited to the
individual’s private life, but needs acknowledgement in work environments as well.
3.2 Digital technology
The implications of the information age are also seen in practical context; technological advancements of
the last decennia have influenced and forever changed the way in which both individuals and
organisations operate. Think of the impact of telephony, the facsimile machine, computers, the internet,
e-mail, social software and so on. In addition to this is it an interesting discussion to see whether
technology drives the society, or society the technology. “Values and structures of different societies
often define what is technologically desirable and sometimes even what is
technologically permissible, witness the current debate on
genetic engineering” (Papp & Alberts, 1997).
All these technological developments in the end deal to
some extent with information storage and transmission. The
tools and means that are a result of this, changed the way in
which organisations function in relation to their business
processes and the dynamics of their internal environment.
In a report for the UNDP on the information age, the following characteristics of digital technology are
defined (Lallana, 2003):
Integrity: digital data does not suffer deterioration with reproduction;
Media integration: one of the major limitations of many conventional technologies is their
inability to combine media types. With digital data it is easy to combine media such as phones
with video or interactive sound with pictures (multimedia);
Figure 8 - Digital Technology
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Flexible interaction: the digital domain supports a great variety of interactions, including one-on-
one conferences, one-to-many broadcasts, and everything in between. In addition, these
interactions can be synchronous and in real time;
Transactions: the ability to combine the transactional capability of computers and computer
networks with digital media is another interactive advantage of the digital domain. Placing an
order and finalising a transaction becomes as easy as filling out an electronic form and clicking a
button;
Tailoring: software developed for digital communications and interaction is designed so that
users may tailor their use of the tool and the media;
Editing: the conventional alternatives for manipulating text, sound, images, and video are almost
always more cumbersome or limited than the new digital tools. We can now film and edit our
own movies and put them online in a blink of an eye.
3.3. Knowing how to participate
Next to capital, labour and raw materials; communication is often viewed as the fourth production factor
(Ruler & Lange, Het profiel van de IC-manager, 2002). This makes it all the more important to know how
communication works. Communication can be seen as a moment in a basically continuous, complex and
interactive process, within which involved individuals can - sometimes passive, and sometimes active -
each play a part (Ruler & Lange, Het profiel van de IC-manager, 2002). In view of this notion (where
communication is regarded a production factor) it becomes all the more apparent that organisations
need to invest and innovate in their communication strategy. Social and economical change, the process
of individualisation, and development of digital means all manifest (and quite logically so) in a concept
called the ‘participative web’ or ‘web 2.0’.
“The concept of the participative web is based on an internet increasingly influenced by intelligent web
services that empower users to contribute to developing, rating, collaborating and distributing internet
content and customising internet applications. As the internet is more embedded in people’s lives users
draw on new internet applications to express themselves through user-created content” (Vickery &
Wunsch-Vincent, 2007).
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The concept of the participative web is coined ‘web 2.0’, and the term is often accredited to Tim O'Reilly,
internet guru and supporter of free software and open source. It basically means using traditional -one-
way traffic- internet applications (web 1.0) in an interactive sense. Even though there is no official
definition of ‘web 2.0’, there is a hierarchical overview of currently popular tools and their level of ‘web
2.0-ness’ which clarifies the meaning effectively. This hierarchy is attached as Appendix A of this thesis
and includes examples of web 1.0 versus web
2.0 applications. While the discussions on the
meaning, functionality and applications of web
2.0 are far from over, internet gurus are
already debating on the future: web 3.0 (also
known as the semantic web). In this future
perspective, artificial intelligence and the
combination of diverse web 2.0 programs are
at the centre. “Web 3.0 will be about mining
‘meaning’, rather than just data, from the
web” (Carr, 2006).
3.4 Implications for Internal Communication
Let us not stray too far away from the scope of this research. What does all this imply for IC?
We have looked at the transitions in society, individuals and technology and seen major shifts from
traditional habits, values, attitudes and behaviour. By now it becomes clear that these shifts change the
way in which individuals (and organisations, which are no more than groups of individuals working
together on a common goal) communicate fundamentally. When an organisation wants to retain,
motivate and include its employees, it cannot ignore the realities and expectations of these people. The
participative web has many applications that can be run and used by an organisation internally: blogs,
wikis, RSS (Really Simple Syndication) and IRC (chat) are just a few examples. Some of these applications
can be used for internal processes, some external and others both ways around. I will focus on internal
usage only.
Figure 9 - What is Web 2.0?
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Implementing systems that encourage and require user-created content (UCC), can have many beneficial
results within an organisation: the empowerment of employees, the decentralisation of decision-making
and the freedom of knowledge to evolve, improve and be shared. It can result in higher involvement and
feeling of acknowledgement of employees, as the (perceived) ‘power’ of information and collaboration is
no longer a process solely coordinated top-down.
The ability to produce UCC and to be able to improve and influence information and policy on, for
example organisational processes, gives the member of the organisation a higher degree of involvement
and perhaps a stronger feeling of satisfaction (the feeling of being valued). This contributes to a policy
that acknowledges a society where individualisation (chapter 3.1.2) is a dominant development.
3.5 Reflection
The second question I looked at was what developments can be seen in relation to internal
communication processes with the coming of the digital age. Strong social and economical developments
transformed the landscape for organisations and their communication forever. These developments are
central driving factors in the changing reality of IC. The process of globalisation and the shift towards
service-oriented businesses results in an increasing need for communication. The process of
individualisation has implications for the manner in which people operate and what their expectations
are (self development and awareness). This process is not limited to the individual’s private life, but
needs acknowledgement in work environments as well. The third factor I considered were the rapid,
ongoing developments and trends in technology; and how all these changes and trends come together in
a concept called the ‘participative web’ (or ‘web 2.0’), where users contribute to developing, rating,
collaborating and distributing content and customising internet applications. These web 2.0 tools can be
used individually, but also by organisations for both internal and external communication activities.
Logically, these digital developments strongly change the way in which individuals and organisations
function. I learned that communication can be seen as a moment in a basically continuous, complex and
interactive process, within which involved individuals can - sometimes passive, and sometimes active -
each play a part. In light of all these changes organisations need to invest and innovate in their
communication strategy.
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When an organisation wants to retain, motivate and include its employees, it cannot ignore the realities
and expectations of these people, I found that the use of social software and the ability to produce UCC
helps to engage and motivate employees. This contributes to a policy that acknowledges a society where
individualisation (chapter 3.1.2) is a dominant development.
Now that we understand what changes and trends have impact on the functioning of organisations, it is
important to refine the implications of these developments on individuals. Organisations are groups of
people that work together, so what are the skills and characteristics of people in the digital age?
Answering this question will further help in understanding how theory relates to reality (and how to
adapt to this as an organisation).
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Chapter 4: Digital Natives
4.1 Digital natives, digital IC
In chapter 3 we looked at changes and trends in society and technology, and what these changes mend
for individuals and organisations. People are indeed evolving. In order to better understand the way in
which people of this age operate and perceive the world, and thus how to tailor your organisations’ IC
strategy most effectively, it is important to take a look at what it specifically means to be a member of
the digital age. What are the characteristics, skills and habits, emphasising on work-approach,
information and media usage, of the next generation of communication experts (digital natives)?
One of the leaders in this debate is Marc Prensky. Prensky argues for reformation of educational systems
in order to better deal with what he calls ‘digital natives’. The digital natives are those who are growing
up in the age of readily available digital technology. They think and process information differently in
comparison to ‘digital immigrants’ (those who did not grow up in a digital world and at some point had
to adapt to new technologies). Prensky’s main goal is to reform the way in which we educate our
children. So, considering that the digital natives operate much differently than the immigrants, the
parallel from education to professional life is
easily drawn. I will look at some ideas of
Prensky and relate them to
organisational/communication policy.
“Engagement comes before content”
(Prensky, 'Engage Me or Enrage Me':
Educating Today's 'Digital Native' Learners,
2005). Young people are accustomed to
being connected, to interact, and to work at
‘twitch speed’.
The overview in figure 6 gives us a brief
insight into the significant differences
between digital immigrants and natives. “Our Figure 10 - Digital Immigrants vs. Digital Natives (Prensky, 2001)
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students have changed radically. Today’s students are no longer the people our educational system was
designed to teach.” (Prensky, Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants, 2001). In order to keep the natives’
attention and facilitate for them to learn and work professionally, we need to understand and take
advantage of these differences.
Prensky (2005) explains that digital natives have a need to continuously learn, but lack motivation
(within the traditional systems); we need to enable ourselves to grab their attention.
When students finish their schools and universities they arrive at the working place. Just as the
educational systems needs to, perhaps the organisations need to rethink themselves as well. Digital
natives need to be challenged. Understanding how to do this and adjusting policy accordingly will
ultimately lead to better performance for both the organisation and the individual. It becomes essential
to acknowledge and utilise the specific skill sets, habits, demands and abilities of the digital native.
The natives are accustomed to do many things at the same time (parallel processing), they operate as
individuals but are constantly connected (phone, internet, chat etc.) They are visually oriented and very
skilled in finding information, and know that this information is at their fingertips (the internet).
Information needs to be presented, quickly and in compact chunks. They collaborate, co-create, share
and look for information and content online, and all the time.
“Digital natives are looking for 21 century skills: programming, knowledge filtering, using their
connectivity and maximising their hardware. They want it powerful, customisable and they want it to be
their own” (Prensky, 'Engage Me or Enrage Me': Educating Today's 'Digital Native' Learners, 2005). If this
is true, it is important to consider how to meet these needs in order to engage this generation.
In his keynote speech at the Scottish learning Festival (SETT) 2005, Prensky promotes the use of complex
game design for education. The following arguments are in my opinion as valid for communication policy
as they are for education:
Complex game design as a guide for IC:
Focus on user engagement;
Involves frequent, important decisions;
Encourage and teaches self assessment;
Quick feedback;
Achievements;
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Allows engaging themselves.
When an organisation implements means that encourage and facilitate (some of) these elements, it can
start to fully use the potential of the digital natives. These means are found in collaborative software.
Tools such as blogs, RSS, chat, podcasts and wikis (which I will elaborate on in chapter 5), can be used by
organisations to challenge and engage employees, but has many other functions too (e.g. information
management).
4.2 Connectivism
The digital natives/digital immigrants concept of Marc Prensky harvests a lot of attention and is often
referred to in articles and publications on the issue of the ‘digital age’. However there are also critics
such as George Siemens who offer alternatives. Siemens developed a learning theory for today’s learner:
connectivism.
Connectivism is the idea that "the connections that enable
us to learn are more important than our current state of
knowing" (Siemens, Connectivism: A Learning Theory for
the Digital Age, 2004). Connectivism deals with the
question how new media has affected our way of
processing information and how people use such systems
in knowledge creation.
Siemens (2004) explains that: “connectivism is driven by
the understanding that decisions are based on rapidly
altering foundations. New information is continually being
acquired. The ability to draw distinctions between important and unimportant information is vital”.
Some important principles of connectivism are:
Learning is a process of connecting specialised nodes or information sources;
Learning may reside in non-human appliances;
Nurturing and maintaining connections is needed to facilitate continual learning;
Figure 11 - Connectivism (Siemens, 2004)
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Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill;
Decision-making in itself is a learning process. Choosing what to learn and the meaning of
incoming information is seen through the lens of a shifting reality. While there is a right
answer now, it may be wrong tomorrow due to alterations in the information climate
affecting the decision.
Siemens (Siemens, Digital natives and immigrants: A concept beyond its best before date, 2007) argues
that educational institutes indeed need to change but not because of the digital natives/immigrants
argument but because of the increasing complexity of society and globalisation. It is not a matter of age
says Siemens (2007): “It is a function of attitude... a mindset of experimentation... experience with
technology. Secondly, education plays a role in society that goes beyond reacting to emerging trends”.
The differences in Siemens’ ideas with regard to Prensky’s vision are compelling. During the case studies
I found out that the distinction between digital natives and immigrants from Prensky’s perspective is
indeed somewhat simplistic. The experiences with digital technology are, considered by the experts I
have interviewed, of far greater importance than age. Siemens and Prensky do both acknowledge and
focus on the importance and power of connectivity. Young people are almost constantly connected and
seek to use their network (and networking skills) to educate themselves, process information and
communicate. They are looking for collaboration, instant access to information, active involvement and
pay-off. They combine all sorts of media imaginable to find (and produce!) information. These
competencies and characteristics have strong potential and implications for internal management of
organisations. Especially now that education is being reconsidered and customised to this reality,
organisations can not fall behind. In the next section I will look at some specific examples of applications
that young people prefer and use frequently.
4.3.1 What we like best Based on which existing research, which applications are favoured and established for use by forthcoming
communication professionals?
As we will find out in this chapter much research has, and is being done to find out what (internet)
applications young people use and prefer. As soon as we understand what these programs are, we can
further study what characterises them. We can ask ourselves the question if these characteristics are
useable in a professional context. Perhaps some applications can be implemented within an organisation
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and be of added value. Or maybe, we can use these characteristics and technology to improve, or
change, our existing systems for communication and knowledge processes.
4.3.2 Popular social software A research project undertaken in 2007 among 300 Dutch students at University INHOLLAND Rotterdam
(Leander & Rahiminejad, 2007) provided some interesting results:
About 60 percent of all students are online for 1-3 hours a day; of all the sites they visit around 50-70
percent of the students use websites with an educational, administrative (e.g. online banking), news or
entertainment nature. A remarkable 96 percent of the students visits interactive and/or profile sites.
Once presented a list, they had to choose which of the
internet programs they use frequently. The highest
rated programs were: MSN Messenger (94,3%),
Hyves/eBuddies (Dutch networking sites, 68,7%),
YouTube (59,3%) and Wikipedia (59,7%). Furthermore
they are all highly accustomed to the use of e-mail,
blackboard and digital information sources. Research
among Dutch children (age group 9-15) provided
similar results (Wijngaards, Fransen, & Swager, 2006);
they are online for many hours a week and use that
time primarily to connect to others (e.g. MSN and
profile sites).
In the United States researchers found that: “internet users (age 12 to 28 years old) have embraced the
online applications that enable communicative, creative, and social uses. Teens and Generation Y (age
18-28) are significantly more likely than older users to send and receive instant messages, play online
games, create blogs, download music, and search for school information”. A relatively large percentage
(about 20%) of the people creates and actively uses blogs (Fox & Madden, 2005).
Related research found that a staggering 57 percent (approximately 12 million youth) of US teens create
content for the internet. The researchers summarise that the most popular content creating activities
are sharing self-authored content and working on websites for others (Lenhart & Madden, 2005).
It is crystal clear students (and thus the future professionals), want to connect, collaborate and create
content in their private life. And they want to actively share their knowledge and ideas. Competencies
Figure 12 - Highest rated programs (Leander & Rahiminejad)
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and skills to do this are being learned and developed, and this trend only seems to increase when we
look at the younger generation (teenagers). Perhaps it is possible to harness these skills also in a
professional context?
4.3.3 What do managers think? As we will find out in this section, research is being done about the adoption of social software and
communication means within professional organisations. A problem with the use of these
communication means is that they are often viewed as just another way to spread information. It is
therefore that many organisations do not see the promised advantages of new network technologies
delivered in real life (Slevin, 2000).
However things are looking up. The McKinsey Quarterly conducted a survey on how businesses are using
web 2.0 in January 2007 and received responses from 2,847 executives worldwide. One of their findings
was that more than three-fourths of executives who responded say they plan to maintain or increase
their investments in technology trends that encourage user collaboration, such as peer-to-peer
networking, social networks, and web services (Bughin & Manyika, 2007). Let us take a closer look at the
results:
Figure 13 - Investments in web 2.0 (McKinsey, 2007)
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Figure 14 - Using web 2.0 (McKinsey, 2007)
Figure 15 - Satisfaction in web 2.0 investments (McKinsey, 2007)
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These results show us that the adoption process of web 2.0 (in this research not only limited to IC) is
indeed speeding up. Managers seem increasingly aware of the potential and advantages of using these
tools for their organisation. Yet, do they truly understand the implications of web 2.0 technologies for
their organisation, or are they just following buzz? This question requires perhaps further research.
ChangeWave, a USA based research group for business experts, published results in January 2008 of a
survey under 2081 members of its network on corporate usage of web 2.0. About 39 percent of the
respondents (who are business people with a variety of positions in companies) said that their
organisation is willing to use social software; and 24 percent said their company already uses Web 2.0.
Another 8 percent said they will begin using it in the next 12 months. The researchers found that wikis
(20%), blogs (18%) and social networking (15%) are attracting the most attention (Levine, 2008). Besides
external factors, one of the top reasons to invest in web 2.0 found was the ability to improve internal
employee collaboration. Furthermore, of the companies currently using web 2.0 the most used
applications are: wikis (26%), blogs (15%) and social networks (13%).
In the Netherlands the specialist magazine iC (Interne Communicatie) recently published the results of a
survey among 370 internal communicators from the Dutch business world (Mooij & Lammers, 2008). 45
percent of the respondents claimed to use modern media professionally, of which: blogs (27%), MSN
(15%), podcast (5%), social networks (21%), wikis (15%) and 24 percent also uses other applications.
Some of the trends found were that 23 percent felt that IC is playing an increasingly important role in
policy, and even 40 percent said that the use of new media is very important. It was not all good news:
one out of three respondents rates their organisation’s policy on IC as insufficient.
The results of all these surveys show us that social software is indeed taken seriously and is being
implemented increasingly (or at least thought about). Perhaps when even more organisations realise
that social software is so much more than just another means to spread information, web 2.0 will really
take-off in the enterprise world.
4.4 Reflection
In this chapter I looked at the characteristics, skills and habits, emphasising on work-approach,
information and media usage, of the next generation of communication experts (digital natives). People
WIKIS: A FAST TRACK TO EFFECTIVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION?
38
of the digital age are found to operate differently with regard to how they process information and
communicate. Prensky’s learning theory gives insight in what these changes exactly are. The digital
natives have developed various skills that enable them to multi-task, find and produce information and
work at ‘twitch speed’. The parallel from education to the professional world is easily drawn as the
students from today are tomorrow’s professionals. Organisations need acknowledge and understand
these skills, and be creative in order to engage these people and maximise their potential (engagement
comes before content, says Prensky). Additionally I came to the understanding that digital natives have a
powerful need to connect (connectivism), and use their connections to learn. They want to participate,
collaborate and need to be challenged and engaged; the natives expect direct access to information.
What comes to them naturally can be benefited of by professional organisations in means of, for
example, social software and the appropriate IC policy. Just as the educational systems needs to, I
argued that organisations need to rethink themselves as well. Prensky suggests the use of complex game
design for education; some of his points are applicable to professional work as well. Applications
designed in this way to facilitate engagement, decision-making, quick feedback and achievements can
lead to engagement of the native.
Social software offers two important functionalities to an organisation: the practical functionality (e.g.
knowledge management and communication), and functionality as a facilitator of engagement (e.g.
encouraging collaboration among employees).
Siemens’ connectivism approaches the topic of how new media affects our way of processing
information differently. In his view it is not about age but about a mindset, about the increasing
complexity of society and globalisation. Learning is a process of connecting specialised nodes or
information sources, Siemens argues. Educators and communication policy makers in organisations need
to acknowledge the importance of nurturing these connections.
I also looked at which applications are favoured among the younger generation and found that they
spend more and more time on connecting with others, sharing information and creating UCC. Also
organisations are increasingly investing in social software for their communication and information
processes, and knowledge management. The trend clearly shows that there is an increased
understanding of the advantages of web 2.0 in a professional context. Research (ChangeWave) showed
that one of the top reasons to invest in web 2.0 is to improve internal employee collaboration. On the
other hand there is still a lot to learn as not all transition processes are that smooth and successful, it
WIKIS: A FAST TRACK TO EFFECTIVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION?
39
requires more insight into the underlying principles of social software and the digital age. Social software
is not just another means to spread information.
Organisations need to address the question how to harness the enthusiasm and dedication that young
people show in collaborating and connecting privately (MSN, YouTube etc.), and find out what elements
of social software can be taken to the professional field.
There are many web 2.0 tools that show promising characteristics for professional use. In the next
chapter I will focus on a very powerful web 2.0 application in relation to IC: the wiki. What can it
specifically do for the organisation and what are the major advantages?
WIKIS: A FAST TRACK TO EFFECTIVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION?
40
Chapter 5: What Are Wikis?
5.1 WikiWiki
What are wikis? A general answer to this question was already given in the introduction of this report (‘a
wiki is a software program that brings users together and enables them to create and edit pages within
the wiki database freely. It is designed to capture and retain knowledge and to encourage co-creation
and collaboration’). The term wiki is used to refer to both wiki sites and the software used to maintain
them. “Wikis are collections of interlinked documents and files accessible and editable, by web browser”
(Klobas, 2006).
The name wiki is derived from Hawaiian, where wikiwiki means fast. ‘Fast’ is quite symbolic for the core
principles of a wiki. Most wikis are fairly plain and presented with no-nonsense. Information is primarily
delivered and retrieved through text and also quickly edited if necessary. When you change information
on a lemma in a wiki, these changes are shown in real-time. If there is no article on the topic you seek,
you can start building it by one click of the mouse button.
Of all the wikis in the world Wikipedia is clearly the most well-known. In fact, a lot of people do know
Wikipedia but have no idea what a wiki really is! The basic operation and functionality of all wikis is more
or less the same. The software package you choose will determine how your wiki will look like and
Figure 16 - Example of a wiki page (taken from the digital edition of this thesis: www.research-wiki.nl)
WIKIS: A FAST TRACK TO EFFECTIVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION?
41
function, and what its level of customisation is. Most popular wiki packages are open-source which
means they are being developed for (and by) the community, and are free to use and alter. Some
popular wikis are: WikiMedia (which is used for Wikipedia), PBWiki and Twiki. These and many others
can be found at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_wiki_software. In my case study you can
read about some examples of which wikis organisations use.
Wikis could be used for a variety of purposes: online or offline, individually and collectively, through
public or restricted access. You can use it to create a database about camping in France, or to build a
repository for all the knowledge in the world in the form of an online encyclopaedia.
Some of the more popular wikis are highly customisable (especially the open-source variety) by the
means of lay-out, functionality, plug-ins or extensions, security and the integration of other tools.
In her book on wikis Jane Klobas defines some common features of wikis (Klobas, 2006):
Wikis consist of pages accessible from a web browser;
Pages can be edited with ease;
Links can be added with ease;
Pages can be updated in real time;
Wikis are collectively edited;
Wikis keep a history of changes;
Recent changes can be viewed;
Users can be alerted to change (RSS feeds and email);
Search and navigation;
Simple permissions structure (who can do what).
Wikis can be used for may-to-many communication and focus on content. For each topic a specific page
can be created and all information will be put there. There are however no pre-defined rules on how a
wiki should be structured, this is ultimately decided by the community. Some wiki developers started to
address this issue by offering an alternative: the structured wiki. “A structured wiki combines the
benefits of - as it seems like - contradicting worlds of wikis and databases. When you do that you get
something very powerful: A collaborative database environment where knowledge can be shared freely,
and where structure can be added as needed” (Thoeny, 2006). The structured wiki can be helpful for
enterprise users. I will take a closer look at these professional users in the next section.
WIKIS: A FAST TRACK TO EFFECTIVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION?
42
5.2.1 Let’s meet up! Can wikis be of use in internal communication, knowledge and information processes?
There are a number of arguments why wikis could be used for IC, knowledge and information processes.
Its direct opponent, the corporate intranet offers a lot of functionality but is static; wikis are dynamic and
centre on employee participation. As I also found in the cases certain tasks of internal communication
are deemed suitable for the wiki, however not as a prime and formal means from management or
communication departments. The successful use of the wiki is strongly connected with the corporate
culture. In section 4.3 of the case study report I formulated the following about possible uses of wikis:
“The nature of the wiki is aimed at user participation and collaboration and can be used in this way to
share certain pieces of information but in a bottom-up style. The feasibility and usefulness of
implementation of wikis in communication processes is
therefore not very strong from a management point of view.
Only under limited conditions, and when it matches the
corporate structure and culture can the wiki be used as one of
the means to communicate internally. The interviewees
mentioned a variety of internal communication objectives that a
wiki could play a part in such as competencies, core values,
ambition, empowerment and satisfaction. Yet it is important to
realise that in the true wiki form there can be no continuous
control over top-down communication, and the medium should therefore preferably be viewed as a
reference point and a facilitator of debate. As Martens (Sonologic) argues, technical solutions cannot
resolve social problems.
The wiki invites users to collaborate, share and grow awareness of each other’s activities, but this is not
always necessarily the result. All these activities require time and motivation and will not start by
themselves. The interviewees agree that some formalisation in policy could be beneficial to the success
of the wiki” (Gerrits, 2008).
Communication can be used to increase the involvement and understanding within, and between
segments of the organisation. It can play a role in the re-humanisation of organisational divisions and
functions (Reesink, 2000). Wikis are a possible means for this task. The importance of IC for organisations
and multinationals will only increase in the future. Where business environments are becoming more
Figure 17 - Collaboration
WIKIS: A FAST TRACK TO EFFECTIVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION?
43
dynamic and competitive, the ability to think global and local at the same time becomes crucial. To
facilitate this, a rapid spread of knowledge and information is necessary (Reesink, 2000).
5.2.2 Practical reasons The (structured) wiki could be an effective means to run projects and operational processes. All relevant
information (e.g. reports, best-practice features, work documents, work processes, contact details and
history, planning, project information etc.) can be collectively stored, and easily retrieved or edited
through tagging, search systems, and hyper-linking.
The wiki’s collaborative nature allows users to develop consensus interactively on any given topic. Many
advantages can be seen in the use of wikis for information and communication processes: the freedom
to create and edit, the integration of knowledge from different sources and angles, flexible hyper-linking,
the use of plug-ins, time/space independency, history, RSS, tagging, statistics and personalisation.
5.2.3 Processes of change There is another process where wikis might play a role within organisations, the process of change.
Communication is vital here in order to create support and understanding among the employees.
Perhaps staff can even be included in the decision making process, after all, they will be the ones who
will have to materialise the plans. In processes of change there are various phases (Koeleman, Een
veranderaanpak in zes fasen, 2002):
To notice a problem or opportunity;
Diagnose;
Strategy of change;
Intervention plan;
Interventions;
Evaluation.
By using a wiki in the strategy for change, interventions and evaluation, the employee can be engaged
(Prensky), and the multidirectional view on communication of Van Ruler (Chapter 2.2.3) is realised.
5.2.4 Motivation An additional purpose of communication is often mentioned in articles: the ability to increase motivation
and involvement of staff. Traditional motivation campaigns often lead to bad experiences. This is caused
in the first place by a wrong point of departure. These types of campaigns are insufficiently based on the
WIKIS: A FAST TRACK TO EFFECTIVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION?
44
real motivation and de-motivation factors; they are mostly characterised by conditioning and
stimulation, of which the effect will disappear over time (Vollenhoven & Jaspers, 2000). Wikis can be
viewed as a management tool for motivation as a permanent process, not just as a campaign.
A clear, consistent and recognisable identity is of major importance for an organisation and its
communication. Wikis can be used to communicate (and saturate) this identity throughout the
organisation. Employees can be included, and together think about what the organisation stands for,
wants to achieve, and what they want to achieve individually. The rewarding and interactive nature of
the wiki can potentially lead to more engaged and motivated employees.
5.3 Reflection
We know understand what wikis exactly are and how they can be used in internal communication,
knowledge and information processes. Wikis are designed to capture and retain knowledge, and to
encourage co-creation and collaboration. I found that wikis are highly customisable, and that the
structured wiki can be especially helpful for enterprise users. The wiki is a very powerful knowledge and
information medium. It is an ideal tool to collaborate, co-create and acknowledges the needs of
employees in the digital age. A major benefit of the wiki is that it brings together a wide variety of
functions that previously needed separate applications (with obvious incompatibility issues).
Some argue that there are many risks of using a wiki as a database and knowledge system within an
organisation. Yet, their arguments are primarily built on experiences with Wikipedia, they do not really
apply to a corporate wiki. A wiki can be administrated with restricted access, user registrations (and thus
the rights to create, edit and customise) can be controlled and limited. Each change to the wiki is
recorded in the history of the database and can be traced back (and reversed) to the individual user. One
or more administrator can be placed to supervise all activity on the wiki. There is therefore hardly any
risk (no more than in other systems) for abuse or misinformation. When the system is fully adopted and
actively used, the internal community will improve any incorrect information that may still appear.
I further elaborated on the many practical advantages of using wikis (reduced e-mail traffic, integration
of functions, user collaboration and so on). The German weblog Seibert Media defined a compelling top
ten list of (potential) reasons why each intranet should integrate a wiki (Rauer, 2007):
WIKIS: A FAST TRACK TO EFFECTIVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION?
45
1. Slow down e-mail flood.
2. Topicality, up to date.
3. Open structure.
4. Powerful tools.
5. Flexibility.
6. Operability.
7. Transparency.
8. Certainty.
9. Preservation of resources.
10. Cost-saving.
I would add two more reason to this list: a decrease in document production and an increase in
productivity.
From my case studies I learned that professionals view the wiki as a potential means to fulfil
communication objectives such as the dissemination of competencies, core values, ambition, and
facilitation of empowerment and employee satisfaction. In non-hierarchical, open organisations with a
bottom-up structure, wikis can be seen as a potential fast track to effective internal communication, and
all research (chapter 4.3.3) shows there is an undeniable trend to implement these systems in the
professional field. There is much attention for web 2.0 also in Europe. For example the 2008 Web 2.0
Expo that is being organised in Berlin (Germany) is a major event with big sponsors (e.g. Nokia, Sun and
Adobe). Not only large enterprises such as Google, Intel, Motorola, Yahoo, IBM, Microsoft, Disney, BT,
ING and ABN-AMRO already integrated the use of wiki in their business processes, small and medium
sized companies are doing the same.
I furthermore discussed the use of wikis in processes of change. From a theoretical standpoint there is
potential (engagement and inclusion) in, and no real objection against using a wiki for processes of
change. Yet, as you will find out when reading the case study report, there are other factors to consider
here, such as the organisational structure and culture.
Wikis can be viewed as a management tool for increasing employee motivation as a permanent process,
not just as a campaign.
WIKIS: A FAST TRACK TO EFFECTIVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION?
46
Chapter 6: Reflections
6.1 Conclusions
Let me first recapitulate the conclusions of each chapter.
Which theory for (digital) internal communication processes is currently dominant?
In chapter 2 – Setting the Scene I looked at prominent theory for (digital) internal communication
processes. It was argued that the role of IC is to enable people to do their job to the best of their
abilities, and to ensure everyone is working together towards the same organisational goal. IC is vital in
order to create awareness of the organisation’s activities, attention for changing needs and
circumstances, and to meet the growing information need of employees. From an introduction to the
most basic communication model (SMMR) which proved to be a bit too simplistic, I moved on to the
‘communication junction’ model of Van Ruler. I learned that in the ‘multidirectional vision’,
communication is seen as an interactive process where information is being exchanged, or as a means to
negotiate between various parties. The multidirectional view enables people to deploy all four
communication strategies: informing, persuasion, dialoguing and formation. In this view we need to be
carefully thinking about how to tailor messages (positive versus negative), and consider the less
receptive attitude towards communication between layers in hierarchical organisations. The importance
of feedback/forward loops was discussed. Most of the selected models and theory promote sharing,
dialoguing and collaboration within organisations. In line with the changing realities of our society it is
important to understand that communication is becoming a responsibility of the complete management
team, not just the communication manager. The organisational dimensions (structure, culture and
leadership style, communicative skills, information systems and strategy) are inextricably connected to
IC.
What developments can be seen in relation to internal communication processes with the
coming of the digital age?
In chapter 3 – Changes and Trends I looked at was what developments can be seen in relation to internal
communication processes with the coming of the digital age. Social and economical developments are
central driving factors in the changing reality of IC. The process of globalisation and the shift towards
WIKIS: A FAST TRACK TO EFFECTIVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION?
47
service-oriented businesses results in an increasing need for communication. The process of
individualisation has implications for the manner in which people operate and what their expectations
are (self development and awareness). This process is not limited to the individual’s private life, but
needs acknowledgement in work environments as well. The third factor I considered were the rapid,
ongoing developments and trends in technology; and how all these changes and trends come together in
a concept called the ‘participative web’ (or ‘web 2.0’), where users contribute to developing, rating,
collaborating and distributing content and customising internet applications. These web 2.0 tools can be
used individually, but also by organisations for both internal and external communication activities.
Logically, these digital developments strongly change the way in which individuals and organisations
function. In light of all these changes organisations need to invest and innovate in their communication
strategy.
When an organisation wants to retain, motivate and include its employees, it cannot ignore the realities
and expectations of these people, I found that the use of social software and the ability to produce UCC
helps to engage and motivate employees. This contributes to a policy that acknowledges a society where
individualisation (chapter 3.1.2) is a dominant development.
What are the characteristics, skills and habits, emphasising on work-approach, information
and media usage, of the next generation of communication experts (digital natives)?
Based on which existing research, which applications are favoured and established for use by
forthcoming communication professionals?
In chapter 4 – Digital Natives I looked at the characteristics, skills and habits, emphasising on work-
approach, information and media usage, of the next generation of communication experts (digital
natives). People of the digital age are found to operate differently with regard to how they process
information and communicate. Prensky’s learning theory gives insight in what these changes exactly are.
The digital natives have developed various skills that enable them to multi-task, find and produce
information and work at ‘twitch speed’. The parallel from education to the professional world is easily
drawn as the students from today are tomorrow’s professionals. Organisations need acknowledge and
understand these skills, and be creative in order to engage these people and maximise their potential
(engagement comes before content, says Prensky). Additionally I came to the understanding that digital
natives have a powerful need to connect (connectivism), and use their connections to learn. They want
to participate, collaborate and need to be challenged and engaged; the natives expect direct access to
WIKIS: A FAST TRACK TO EFFECTIVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION?
48
information. What comes to them naturally can be benefited of by professional organisations in means
of, for example, social software and the appropriate IC policy. Just as the educational systems needs to, I
argued that organisations need to rethink themselves as well. Prensky suggests the use of complex game
design for education; some of his points are applicable to professional work as well. Applications
designed in this way to facilitate engagement, decision-making, quick feedback and achievements can
lead to engagement of the native.
Siemens’ connectivism approaches the topic of how new media affects our way of processing
information differently. In his view it is not about age but about a mindset, about the increasing
complexity of society and globalisation. Learning is a process of connecting specialised nodes or
information sources, Siemens argues. Educators and communication policy makers in organisations need
to acknowledge the importance of nurturing these connections.
I also looked at which applications are favoured among the younger generation and found that they
spend more and more time on connecting with others, sharing information and creating UCC. Also
organisations are increasingly investing in social software for their communication and information
processes, and knowledge management. Research (ChangeWave) showed that one of the top reasons to
invest in web 2.0 is to improve internal employee collaboration. On the other hand there is still a lot to
learn as not all transition processes are that smooth and successful, it requires more insight into the
underlying principles of social software and the digital age. Social software is not just another means to
spread information.
Organisations need to address the question how to harness the enthusiasm and dedication that young
people show in collaborating and connecting privately (MSN, YouTube etc.), and find out what elements
of social software can be taken to the professional field.
What are wikis?
Can wikis be of use in internal communication, knowledge and information processes?
Chapter 5 – What Are Wikis? We know understand what wikis exactly are and how they can be used in
internal communication, knowledge and information processes. Wikis are designed to capture and retain
knowledge, and to encourage co-creation and collaboration. I found that wikis are highly customisable,
and that the structured wiki can be especially helpful for enterprise users. The wiki is a very powerful
knowledge and information medium. It is an ideal tool to collaborate, co-create and acknowledges the
WIKIS: A FAST TRACK TO EFFECTIVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION?
49
needs of employees in the digital age. A major benefit of the wiki is that it brings together a wide variety
of functions that previously needed separate applications (with obvious incompatibility issues).
Some argue that there are many risks of using a wiki as a database and knowledge system within an
organisation. Yet, their arguments are primarily built on experiences with Wikipedia, they do not really
apply to a corporate wiki.
I further elaborated on the many practical advantages of using wikis (reduced e-mail traffic, integration
of functions, user collaboration and so on).
From my case studies I learned that professionals view the wiki as a potential means to fulfil
communication objectives such as the dissemination of competencies, core values, ambition, and
facilitation of empowerment and employee satisfaction. In non-hierarchical, open organisations with a
bottom-up structure, wikis can be seen as a potential fast track to effective internal communication, and
all research (chapter 4.3.3) shows there is an undeniable trend to implement these systems in the
professional field. I furthermore discussed the use of wikis in processes of change. From a theoretical
standpoint there is potential (engagement and inclusion) in, and no real objection against using a wiki for
processes of change. Yet, as you will find out when reading the case study report, there are other factors
to consider here, such as the organisational structure and culture.
Wikis can be viewed as a management tool for increasing employee motivation as a permanent process,
not just as a campaign.
6.2 Does the theory need to change?
In this section I will formulate an answer to the main research question of this thesis: Is contemporary
theory for internal communication still apt in the digital age? I will do so by looking at the connections
between theory and wiki and assessing whether change in IC theory is needed.
Where do theory and wikis meet? Wikis can be used to increase the involvement and understanding
within, and between segments of the organisation. An intranet offers a lot of functionality but is static;
wikis are dynamic and centre on employee participation. When the wiki is used in its true sense, the co-
worker becomes the expert. This process ties in with the connectivism concept of George Siemens
WIKIS: A FAST TRACK TO EFFECTIVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION?
50
(Chapter 4.2). The wiki is a bottom-up knowledge creation tool where everyone can contribute to. In
addition it acknowledges and anticipates the needs, expectations, habits and skills of the ‘digital native’.
There is even a way in which the wiki system can challenge the users in the sense of pay-off. There could
be for example statistical reports of who the most active contributors/users of the wiki are. Also the
process of adding something valuable to the organisation in itself is very rewarding. To empower
employees in this way should ultimately lead to maximised performance of the organisation itself.
So, in theory wikis can fulfil certain tasks and objectives of internal communication and are appropriate
for an IC policy with a multidirectional view (Van Ruler). They acknowledge the importance of feedback
loops and direct communication between all layers of the organisation (though the case studies will
show that the wiki is not suitable for all types of organisations).
There is one more question left to answer: is there a need for change in internal communication theory,
and if so, how should this change look like? During the writing process of this thesis I found much theory
and models on IC policy. At first sight a dominant model such as the ‘communication junction’ seems to
fit with the use of social software and wikis. There are however, a view issues that are perhaps not
considered enough in such models.
Social software requires and thrives on user participation, and thus motivation. In contemporary models
this participation is represented in the form of assumed motivation. Two-way communication streams
appear great but are without obligations. When using social software as a serious tool for
communication and knowledge policy, employee participation cannot be without engagement. It is in my
view that active involvement, and participation should be mandatory for a communication policy to
function properly in this context. In order for wikis (and other social software) to work, we cannot
assume that people will ‘just like it’; a clear ambition and goal should be well defined and incorporated in
the communication model of the organisation. This formalisation concept of the wiki is furthermore
found in the case studies I undertook.
Another issue that needs addressing is the nature of digital communication. This kind of communication
has unique qualities in comparison with other media. Digital connections are not depending on time,
place and manner. This way of communicating is highly flexible, and the individual’s attitude towards it is
different with respect to traditional media. Maybe we can adapt the models and theory to better deal
with (and make use of) this notion?
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51
There is a final core principle of social software that is not considered enough in communication theory.
In this software there is a paradigm shift where content is owned by the collective, not the individual.
The power is distributed differently, and applied bottom-up (somewhat democratically). This does not
mean there are no rules in communication policy, but these rules will for a large part depend on the
organisational culture, and what the users decide over time. Management is primarily taking on the role
as a facilitator and aim the organisation. Is there a way in which theoretical models for IC can
incorporate this relatively new concept of redefining power?
These questions are not that easy to answer, the idea of using social software as a means for IC is too
fundamental to assess only on the characteristics of that software. I believe that my research clearly
shows what potential functions the wiki could fulfil and what the missing elements are in existing
models, however... As the case studies also revealed, using a wiki requires a specific kind of
organisational culture and structure: open, non-hierarchical organisations that encourage bottom-up
processes, innovation and development. It would be too simplistic to just change IC models to
acknowledge social software without thinking about the organisational culture and structure.
And indeed, there are leading experts and scientist such as Manuel Castells (professor of
communication, technology and society at the University of Southern California) that are developing
theory that assume network communication and horizontal distribution of power (Castells M. , 2007).
Perhaps when experts start addressing the characteristics and implications of social software and digital
natives, in addition to already explored fields such as organisational structure, culture and network
communication (connectivism), new theory for IC can eventually arise.
6.3 Recommendations
Wikis are not just for ICT related organisations, they are for everyone. “It would be wrong, says Philippe
Borremans media lead in Europe for IBM Communications, to assume that this is simply a by-product of
IBM being a leading-edge technology company. ‘It helps, of course, but that is not what it is about,’ he
insists. It reflects the very way IBM does business, rather than the type of business it does” (Melcrum,
2007).
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52
One of the most important lessons of the case studies was that almost all wikis start as a bottom-up
initiative, they do not involve a management decision. Only when the wiki has grown to substantial
proportions (and success) is some form of formalisation and facilitation of the management necessary.
When thinking about the implementation of social software, remember that the characteristics of a
medium play an important role in the choice for that medium. User friendliness, and the understanding
of a medium, increases the chance that a system will be accepted (and thus used), and with that the
chance for change in the organisation.
In general, comparative international data on digital content products (wikis) and industries is not
available (Vickery & Wunsch-Vincent, 2007). The nature of these products makes it difficult to quantify
and measure economical and social results. Yet, organisations should not feel deterred because of this as
wiki initiatives are usually bottom-up initiatives that will proof their own success (or failure) in the
organisation.
In order to better match theory (and organisational policies) with social software and the digital age we
need to ask ourselves how theory should be improved (chapter 6.2). This will likely be a gradual process
as social and technological developments in society are very dynamic and will continue to influence
organisations.
Continue to have an open mind for new developments. Wikis are not perfect, nor the final stage of
development. The advantage of web 2.0 for knowledge management is not limited to wikis.
Remember that in order to make a wiki successful, it cannot just be a playground; you have to work to
take away ‘cold feet’ and make active participation mandatory throughout the organisation. A so called
‘wiki champion’ can be of great help to pave the road.
Additionally I collected a few insightful recommendations that anyone starting a wiki should follow:
Do not try to make your contributions near "perfect", it is more effective to post content early
and let the team provide feedback and revise it iteratively;
The right culture for wikis is the talking, negotiating kind;
Think of some practical, compelling reasons to collaborate and share, to encourage others;
Wikis can be intimidating; the wiki pages appear "official" and corporate. Overcome your
own internal resistance to edit existing content;
Offer training and promotion for wiki in your organisation;
WIKIS: A FAST TRACK TO EFFECTIVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION?
53
Switch on RSS to encourage users.
Enterprises invest more and more in social software, yet, do they truly understand the
implications of web 2.0 technologies for their organisation, or are they just following
buzz? This question too requires perhaps further research.
As with all innovations there are rules. The innovation needs to solve a specific problem, hide
complexity, and do something new (Reep, 2006). Without these prerequisites the innovation will fail. It is
therefore important that organisations understand better why, and not just how, they should start using
wikis. Hopefully reports such as this thesis can help here.
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54
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Appendix A: The Hierarchy of Web 2.0 Applications
The hierarchy of web 2.0 applications consists of four levels (O'Reilly T. , 2006):
Level 3: The application could ONLY exist on the net, and draws its essential power from the network and
the connections it makes possible between people or applications. These are applications that harness
network effects to get better the more people use them. eBay, craigslist, Wikipedia, del.icio.us, Skype,
(and yes, Dodgeball) meet this test. They are fundamentally driven by shared online activity.
Level 2: The application could exist offline, but it is uniquely advantaged by being online. Flickr is a great
example. You can have a local photo management application (like iPhoto) but the application gains
remarkable power by leveraging an online community. In fact, the shared photo database, the online
community, and the artefacts it creates (like the tag database) is central to what distinguishes Flickr from
its offline counterparts.
Level 1: The application can and does exist successfully offline, but it gains additional features by being
online. Writely is a great example. If you want to do collaborative editing, its online component is terrific,
but if you want to write alone, as Fallows did, it gives you little benefit.
Level 0: The application has primarily taken hold online, but it would work just as well offline if you had
all the data in a local cache. MapQuest, Yahoo! Local, and Google Maps are all in this category. To the
extent that online mapping applications harness user contributions, they jump to Level 2.
O’Reilly further illustrates the concept of web 2.0 by giving examples of web 1.0 versus 2.0 (O'Reilly T. ,
2005):
Web 1.0 Web 2.0
DoubleClick --> Google AdSense Ofoto --> Flickr Akamai --> BitTorrent mp3.com --> Napster Britannica Online --> Wikipedia personal websites --> blogging domain name speculation --> search engine optimisation page views --> cost per click screen scraping --> web services publishing --> participation content management systems --> wikis directories (taxonomy) --> tagging ("folksonomy") stickiness --> syndication.
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Appendix B: Research Plan
In order to be able to answer the thesis questions I need to undertake the following activities:
Qualitative literature research (books, articles and research reports);
Analyse communication models and trends;
Analyse wikis;
Undertake research among experts with regard to their view on ‘web 2.0’ implementations;
Reflect on outcomes of this research and formulate conclusions, recommendations and ideas for
future research/training.
In order to be able to answer the practical research questions I need to undertake the following
activities:
Qualitative literature research (books, articles and research reports);
Document and summarise current state of affairs in the working field;
Formulating framework based on qualitative research;
Undertake qualitative research based on acquired knowledge of previous actions among
communication professionals;
Reflect on outcomes of this research and formulate conclusions, recommendations and ideas for
future research/training.