WHY DO WE HAVE THEORIES?

WHAT IS A THEORY?

Many things to many people Ragin: ‘an attempt of specify as clearly as possible, a set of

ideas that pertain to a particular phenomenon’ (1994: 25)

‘social research [is] a dialogue between ideas and evidence’ (1994: 60) Ragin, Charles C. (1994). Constructing Social Research: The

Unity and Diversity of Method. London: Pine Forge Press. Part I: "Elements of Social Research" (Chapters 1-3).

Cooper: ‘broad frameworks which shape our view of the world

(2001: 2) Cooper, Geoff (2001). "Conceptualising Social Life," in Nigel

Gilbert, ed. Researching Social Life, 2nd edition. London: Sage, Chapter 1.

PARTS OF A THEORY….

What?

set of factors – concepts – under examination How?

Causality; OR links among concepts What + How = theoretical statement of model Why?

Assumptions

Explaining the causality or the links Who, Where, When?

The context

Although some students want “right answers” and to know which theory I recommend, in reality, we all know that when it comes to theories, there are no completely right theories.

In general, a “theory” is an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains and predicts behavior.

For an example, a good theory of infant-caregiver attachment would (1) describe the behaviors that lead up to babies’ strong desire to seek the affection and comfort of a familiar adult around 6 to 8 months of age, (2) explain why infants have such a strong desire, (3) predict what might happen if babies do not develop this close emotional bond.

Theories are influenced directly by cultural values and belief systems of their times.

Theories are vital: they guide and give meaning to what we see.

Valid theories are verified by research and serve as a sound basis for practical action.

The existence of multiple theories propels the advancement of knowledge; researchers are trying continually to support, contradict and integrate these diverse points of view.

LOOKING AT A THEORY FROM 4 BASIC ANGLES…..

All theories can be easily organized under 4 basic issues: 1. Continuous or Discontinuous2. One course of development or many3. Nature or Nurture4. The Individual: Stable or Open to

changeGroup Work…. What is your

understanding about the basic issues?

BASIC ISSUES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES…..

1. Continuous or Discontinuous Development? Cumulative adding on skills and behaviors, or Qualitative, stage-wise changes Some theorist believe that development is a smooth,

continuous process. Children gradually add more of the same types of skills.

Other theorists think that development takes place in discontinuous stages. Children change rapidly as they step up to a new level of development and then change very little for a while. With each new step, the child interprets and responds to the world in a qualitatively different way. Stages are qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize particular time periods of development.

Ex of discontinuous: Piaget’s cognitive development Ex. Of continuous: Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory

2. One course of development or many? Stage theorist assume that children everywhere follow

the same sequence of development. The field of child development is becoming increasingly

aware that different children grow up in distinct contexts; that is, children experience unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances.

These unique circumstances can result in markedly different cognitive capacities, social skills, and feelings about the self, and other people.

Ex. of one course of development: Piaget’s cognitive development theory, psychoanalytic perspective

Ex. Of many: Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory, dynamic systems perspectives

3. Nature vs. Nurture Are genetic or environmental factors more important? Nature – inborn biological given Nurture – complex forces of the physical and social world

that influence children’s biological makeup and psychological experiences before and after birth.

Ex of Nurture: behaviorism Ex of nature: maturationist Ex of both: Piaget, Vygotsky and many more Student Debate: Nature vs. Nurture

4. The Individual as Stable or Open to change Extent of nature and nurture on lifelong patterns of

behaviors Can later experiences overcome early negative effects? Impact of early versus later experiences varying across

domains of development Ex of stable: psychoanalytic theory Ex of open to change: Piaget, Vygotsky and many more

BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION… Interest in the care and education of young children goes back thousands of years. Our

Western tradition is traced to ancient Greece, where the writings of philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle reflect a keen sensitivity to the needs of children and the importance of appropriate education in shaping their character.

The Greeks saw human development as a transformation from the imperfect state of childhood to the ideal of adulthood. The Greek tradition, including education for girls as well as boys, was carried on for several hundred years into the height of Roman times.

Many of the early, enlightened ideas about children were lost, however, during the Middle Ages, when even the concept of childhood seemed to have been misplaced. Children became little more than property and were put to work, for instance, in the fields or tending animals just as soon as they were big enough. “The typical man or woman emerged straight out of his babyhood into a sort of junior adult status.

Schools and formal education as a way of passing on cultural traditions had virtually disappeared in Europe except in a few places, particularly in Islamic Spain, where learning was highly valued.

Various religious, political, economic forces provided impetus for the move out of these Dark Ages, often improving the treatment of children, but at other times exploiting them. Martin Luther, for example, advocated public education for all children in sixteenth-century Germany as a way of promoting religious salvation.

In other parts of Europe, some social and political reformers, angered by the injustices that provided an opulent life-style for the nobility at the expense of the starving peasants, developed ideas that focused on children and their education as one way of overcoming such inequities.

By the 18th century, as the industrial revolution swept both Europe and America, the economic search for cheap labour led to the abuse of many children in factories. They were kept at spindles or levers up to many as 16 hours a day, while being fed and housed minimally. Such as blatant exploitation also led to reforms, eventually including universal public education and laws prohibiting child labour.

Oliver Twist is notable for Dickens' unromantic portrayal of criminals and their sordid lives. The book also exposed the cruel treatment of many a waif-child in London, which increased international concern in what is sometimes known as "The Great London Waif Crisis". This was the astounding number of orphans in London in the Dickens era. The book's subtitle, The Parish Boy's Progress alludes to Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress and also to a pair of popular 18th-century caricature series by William Hogarth, "A Rake's Progress" and "A Harlot's Progress".

An early example of the social novel, the book calls the public's attention to various contemporary evils, including the Poor Law that stated that poor people should work in workhouses/poorhouses, child labour and the recruitment of children as criminals. Dickens mocks the hypocrisies of the time by surrounding the novel's serious themes with sarcasm and dark humour. The novel may have been inspired by the story of Robert Blincoe, an orphan whose account of his hardships as a child labourer in a cotton mill was widely read in the 1830s. Obviously, Dickens' own early youth—he was vulnerable, and a child labourer—must have also entered.

Oliver Twist has been the subject of numerous film and television adaptations, and is the basis for a highly successful musical play and the multi Academy Award winning motion picture Oliver!

The 20th Century, while a relatively short period in history represents an active time in the formation of early childhood education. For one thing, education for all children came to be increasingly accepted, reinforcing the idea that childhood is a separate and important period

Education in the United States of America, in the eyes of such progressive educators as John Dewey, was a training ground for democracy, a way of equalizing social inequities by imbuing children from a young age with democratic ideals.

Philosophers and Scientists, who proclaimed the early years as a specially relevant, also contributed to the field. Among these, Sigmund Freud focused unprecedented on earliest experiences as the foundation of personality.

A third strand was the development of scientific methods of observation that led to the child study movement, out of which grew many university preschool laboratory programs designed to facilitate the careful study of young children.

Child study movement – occurred earlier in the 20th century in the United States when many university preschools were established to develop scientific methods for studying children.

Still another contributions to today’s field is the notion of early childhood education as a means to social reform. Important programs were developed throughout this century with the idea of rescuing the poor from poverty.

A common purpose motivated those who helped move young children out of factories into schools at the turn of the century and those who developed the Head Start philosophy of the 1960s.

Finally, another change that has profoundly affected early childhood education today is the rising need for child care arrangements. Although recent changes in the economy and family life have brought the proliferation of child care programs available are not new.

During WW2, many women were required to work and needed arrangements for care of their young children, which were often publicly subsidized.

History and the context of each period have generally determined how children are viewed. Because children are vulnerable and dependent, their image and treatment have been shaped by the needs of the times and by influential thinkers and writers.

Today’s view of children is based to a great extent on theory and research rather than on the religious or political ideas that, in part, dictated the image of children in the past.

WHO IS WHO IN ECE?“GIVE YOUR PUPIL NO KIND OF VERBAL INSTRUCTION; HE SHOULD RECEIVE NONE BUT FROM EXPERIENCE.”

Who? Jean-Jacques Rousseau

When? Born: June 28th 1712 Died: July 2nd 1778

Where? Born: Geneva, Switzerland Died: Paris

What? Highlighted the importance of childhood. Saw the child as a “noble

savage”, purely, in tune with nature. This philosophy was introduced in his novel, Emile. His ideas strongly influenced Pestalozzi, Froebel, Piaget, Skinner, Montessori, and others.

What was he like? Described as a brilliant yet self-centered, undisciplined, neurotic.

Profoundly affected by the death of his mother soon after his birth. Raised until age 10 by his father (a watchmaker and a dance teacher), then apprenticed at age 13 to an engraver. In adulthood, abandoned his own 5 children to orphanages.

“THE FIRST DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT IN THE CHILD IS VERY MUCH DISTURBED BY A WORDY SYSTEM OF TEACHING.”

Who? Johann Pestalozzi

When? Born: January 12, 1746 Died: February 17, 1827

Where? Born: Zurich, Switzerland Died: Brugg, Switzerland

What? Set the model for what a teacher of young children should be. Much

admired for his teaching methods and his concern for poor children. Espoused the need for active learning and education for the whole child. Influenced many contemporaries, especially Froebel, and later educators, even to today.

What was he like? Considered to be kind, caring, highly sensitive, charismatic, arousing

devotion from others. A sickly and awkward child, others made fun of him. He did not get along with his peers or his teachers. From an early age, he believed that teaching should be more kind and humane, a belief that was affirmed when he read Rousseau’s Emile

“PLAY IS THE HIGHEST PHASE OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT.”

Who? Friedrich Froebel

When? Born: April 21, 1782 Died: June 21, 1852

Where? Born: Oberweissbach, Germany Died: near Marienthal, Germany

What? Created kindergarten, literally “garden for children,” where play was

promoted as the way children learn. Developed early childhood materials, including blocks; materials and activities called “gifts for play”.

Twice visited Pestalozzi’s schools; had great influenced on the early American Kindergarten movement.

What was he like? Described as a dreamy and restless child; an idealist as a man,

hardworking, dedicated, deeply religious. A unhappy childhood, caused by a distant father and uncaring step-mother, led to his resolve to devote his life to making children happy. A bright spot was working in the garden with his father, reflected as a central feature of the kindergarten.

“THE GREATEST CRIME THAT SOCIETY IS COMMITTING… WASTING MONEY IT SHOULD SPEND FOR ITS CHILDREN”

Who? Maria Montessori

When? Born: August 31, 1870 Died: May 6, 1952

Where? Born: Chiaravelle, Italy Died: Noordwijk-on-Sea, Holland

What? Developed the Casa dei Bambini, Children’s House, for slum children in

Rome; developed comprehensive program, including theoretical formulation, materials, curriculum, and child-sized furnishings.

Influenced by Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel; has had lasting impact through world-wide Montessori Schools

What was she like? Strong-willed, persistent, ambitious; first woman doctor in Italy; had a

mesmerizing personality. Even as a child, she had a strong sense of the dignity of every person. A

teacher commented disparagingly about the expression in her eyes; from that day on she never looked this teacher in the eyes. One of her most important lessons is that every human being, even the smallest child, must be treated with respect.

“IT IS HUMAN TO HAVE A LONG CHILDHOOD; IT IS CIVILIZED TO HAVE AN EVEN LONGER CHILDHOOD”

Who? Erik H. Erikson

When? Born: June 15, 1902 Died: May 12, 1994

Where? Born: Frankfurt, Germany Died: Harwich, Massachusetts

What? PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY Identifies needs of children at different age/stages, beginning with a need for

trust for infants, autonomy for toddlers, initiative for preschoolers, and industry for school-aged children; highlights the importance of social interactions in development.

Application: Bank Street Model What was he like?

Described as thoughtful, energetic, magnetic; a scholarly thinker and prolific writer.

At 18 wandered through Europe as an artist; stumbled on a job as a teacher in a progressive school in Vienna run by Anna Freud. This proved to be the turning point, his introduction to Freud’s work and his life-long involvement with psychoanalytic theory. Later his writings were likened to “works of art,” paintings of word pictures with intricate detail and attention.

“WE SHOULD NOT ALLOW CHILDREN A COMPLETELY FREE REIN ON THE ONE HAND, NOR CHANNEL THEM TOO NARROWLY ON THE OTHER HAND.”

Who? Jean Piaget

When? Born: August 9, 1896 Died: September 17, 1980

Where? Born: Neuchatel, Switzerland Died: Geneva, Switzerland

What? COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY Intelligence is adaptation to the environment. Thinking is qualitatively different at

each stage: infants and toddlers learn through movement and the senses; preschoolers use symbols to organize ideas; school-agers acquire logical structures of thought.

Application: High/Scope, Reggio Emilia, Bank Street What was he like?

Precocious, with his first publication at 10, and Ph.D. by 22; constantly searching for answers; always ingenious and inventive in his approach.

Perhaps because his mother was in poor mental health, he developed an interesting psychoanalysis. This soon turned into his life-long fascination with normal development, especially in the thinking of children. Much of his theory was developed by careful observation of his own three children.

“ TEACHING IS THE EXPEDITING OF LEARNING: A PERSON WHO IS TAUGHT LEARNS MORE QUICKLY THAN ONE WHO IS NOT.”

Who? B(urrhus) F(rederick) Skinner

When? Born: March 20, 1904 Died: August 18, 1990

Where? Born: Susquehanna, Pennsylvania Died: Cambridge, Massachusetts

What? BEHAVIORISM Environment is important in shaping all aspects of behavior. Consistent,

positive consequences (positive reinforcement) ensure that behavior will be repeated; behavior modification is a application of behaviorism.

What was he like? Ambitious, goal-driven, persistent; seen as the “Darth Vader” of psychology

by some, as a brilliant innovator by others. “Fred” Skinner experienced a calm an nurturing childhood. Perhaps his later

theory was shaped by childhood experiences, since his grandmother Burrhus reinforced good behavior with pie, candy, and letting him win at dominoes.

“THE MATURATION OF A CHILD’S HIGHER MENTAL FUNCTIONS OCCURS…THROUGH THE ADULT’S ASSISTANCE AND PARTICIPATION.”

Who? Lev Vygotsky

When? Born: November 5th, 1896 Died: June 11th, 1934

Where? Born: Orsha, Russia Died: Moscow, Russia

What? SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY Believed social and cultural forces shape intellectual ability; we are the product of

our times. Thus, his cognitive theory reflects that Language is a primary tool for conveying society’s values.

Application: Reggio Emilia What was he like?

An intense yet very social person with capacity to inspire others; deeply interested in a variety of fields and topics, many of which he mastered.

His childhood friends called him “little professor” because of his academic pursuits; at age 15 he organized stimulating intellectual discussions for his peers his ability to structure the environment so others could learn contributed to formulation of his ideas about the zone of proximal development.