WHGCEs Middle School SeriesSession 9 Craig Benjamin

W3.2 Growth and Development of World Religions

W3.2 Growth and Development of World Religions (p60)

Explain how world religions or belief systems of - Hinduism- Judaism- Buddhism- Christianity- Confucianism (Covered in Session 8, Part I)- and Islam grew and their significance.

(Islam is included here even though it came after 300 C.E./A.D.)

Six of the world’s major faiths and ethical systems emerged establishing institutions, systems of thought, and cultural styles that would influence neighboring peoples and

endure for centuries.

7 – W3.2.1 Identify and describe the beliefs of the five major world religions.7 – W3.2.2 Locate the geographical center of major religions and map the spread through the 3rd century C.E./A.D.7 – W3.2.3 Identify and describe the ways that religions unified people’s perceptions of the world and contributed to cultural integration of large regions of Afro-Eurasia.

To Include:• Part One: Buddhism

and Hinduism

• Part Two: Judaism and Christianity

• Part Three: Islam

PART ONE:Buddhism

and Hinduism

• Buddhism still popular in India, and has spread to all of Asia. Continues to expand around the world

• Shares some beliefs with Jainism. Both derived from the teachings of a great man; both stress the humanity of their teacher (rather than his divinity); both teach non-violence; both developed monastic traditions of celibacy and asceticism

• But Buddhism has a more modern appeal and remains popular all over the world in the 21st Century – 2nd fastest growing religion in the world today

• Buddha means ‘someone who has awakened from sleep’• It was the Buddha’s ‘Great Awakening’ that resulted in the

discovery of the eternal secret of the meaning of life

www.mahindarama.com www.physics.adelaide.edu

Siddhartha Gautama: Early Life• Founder of Buddhism came from

a kshatriya family, and he gave up his privileged position to seek enlightenment

• He was born Siddhartha Gautama in c. 563 BCE in a small state in the foothills of the Himalayas

• His wealthy father kept his son in a sheltered life of luxury, determined that he would never know misery

• Siddhartha married his cousin and excelled in his studies; he was being groomed to succeed his father as governor

Humans and

Suffering• Became dissatisfied with his comfortable life, and on short

journeys in his chariot around the palace he became aware for the first time of the frailty and mortality of humans

• Witnessed more and more misery and suffering amongst the ordinary people, and learned of monks who have withdrawn from the world to lead holy lives and perfect their souls

• Became determined to take up the ascetic life himself, and wander the land in the hope it would give him insight into suffering

pagecount.burningbird.net

Search for Enlightenment• About 524 BCE Siddhartha left his

wife, family and luxurious home to lead the life of a holy man (inspired by a Jainist monk he had met)

• Wandered the Ganges Valley seeking enlightenment about the apparent inevitability of suffering

• Lived the life of an extreme ascetic, practicing virtual starvation and intense meditation

• However, none of these tactics gave him the answers he was seeking

www.exoticindiaart.com

Siddhartha as Meditating Ascetic – Gandharan 2nd C BCE

Enlightenment Under the Banyan Tree• Eventually abandoned asceticism

as leading nowhere• According to legend he sat down

under a huge banyan (bo) tree to meditate upon a better path

• Determined to stay seated until he understood the problem of human suffering

• For 49 days he sat in meditation, tempted by demons with the pleasures of the flesh

• Just before dawn on the 50th day he gained the insights he sought into the elimination of suffering

• At that point he became the Buddha – ‘the enlightened one’

www.acay.com.au/~silkroad/buddha Banyan Tree Buddhist Shrine

Buddha and the ‘Turning of the Wheel’

• Buddha publicly announced his doctrine in c. 528, near the holy city of Banaras (modern Varanasi)

• Buddhists refer to this sermon as the ‘Turning of the Wheel of Law’ because it was the beginning of his quest to promulgate the laws of righteousness

Disciples and Death

• Quickly attracted disciples from all over the Ganges valley• Organized them into a monastic order who wore yellow robes and traveled the land preaching Buddhism, living off donations• For more than 40 years the Buddha himself led his disciples all over northern India• Around 438 BCE he died at the age of 80, leaving his disciples with a final message:• ‘Decay is inherent in all component things! Work out your salvation with diligence’

Death of the Buddha. Gandharan 2nd C CE

The Middle Way • Buddhism called the ‘Middle

Way’ because it lies between normal human life and desire, and extreme asceticism

• Demands only a moderate form of renunciation and asceticism

• Philosophy is called Dharma (‘religious good deeds leading to a good afterlife’) and is based on ‘Four Noble Truths’

• The Four Noble Truths are:1. Suffering dominates our experience2. The cause of suffering is desire3. Suffering can be extinguished by extinguishing desire, thereby attaining nirvana the ‘going out of the fire’ of desire) 4. There is an 8-fold path that leads out of suffering to nirvana

The Noble Eight-Fold Path to Nirvana

• Eight-fold path calls for humans to lead balanced and moderate lives, rejecting both the devotion to luxury found in so many human societies, and the extreme asceticism of hermits and Jains

• Noble Eight-fold path means pursuing ‘right’ views, right resolve, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration – i.e. leading a decent, ethical, meditative life

• If they pursue the right path of personal effort and redemption, each individual (whatever their status) could escape the cycle of reincarnation and achieve the state of nirvana (perfect spiritual independence)

• Buddhism not originally a religion. Buddha criticized all earlier religions; he was an agnostic with no knowledge of God or gods

Social Appeal of Buddhism

• Like the Jains, Buddhism offered escape from the

cycle of incarnation without the help of brahmin priests, and also rejected the caste system

• Message of Buddhism thus appealed strongly to the lower classes

• Because it did not demand extreme asceticism, Buddhism became far more popular

• Merchants became prominent in the ranks of early Buddhists, and often used Buddhism monasteries as inns when they traveled in Northern India

www.time.com/time/

Appeal of Buddhism: Language

Language was another important reason for the immense and immediate appeal of Buddhism

The Buddha and his disciples avoided using Sanskrit (literary language used by the brahmins in their rituals)

They used vernacular, local tongues (like Kharosthi) instead that reached a much larger audience www.frithjof-schuon.com

Buddhist Shrines and Stupas

• Early Buddhists recognized holy sites that became focal points for devotion

• Pilgrims flocked to sites associated with the Buddha’s life

• Also popular were stupas - shrines housing relics of the Buddha and his first disciples

www.buddhanet.net/ sanchi.htm The Great Stupa at Sanchi, probably Constructed by Ashoka, 3rd Century BCE

Monastic Organization• Buddhists were also highly organized• From the days of the Buddha himself, converts joined

monastic communities where they dedicated their lives to the search for enlightenment

• Monasteries paid for and supported by gifts from pious lay supporters, allowing the monks to spend most of their time preaching and explaining the dharma to lay audiences

• During the centuries following Buddha’s death, monastic organization proved extremely efficient at spreading the Buddhist message and gaining converts

• Eventually Buddhist monasteries began to accept gifts from wealthy benefactors and regard these bequests as acts of generosity that merited salvation

• Thus wealthy individuals could enjoy the comforts of the world, avoid the sacrifices demanded by early Buddhism, and still ensure salvation

Takht-I-Bahi (Pakistan Today)This monastery flourished from the 2nd C BCE to the 4th C CE

Support of Ashoka

• Early Buddhist movement also benefited immensely from patronage of the Indian Mauryan dynasty

• Ashoka’s own account suggests he adopted Buddhism c. 260 BCE after being sickened by the violent war he had waged against the Kalingans

• From that moment on he decided to pursue his aims through virtue, benevolence and humanity, rather than war

• May have also seen Buddhism as a faith that could help united culturally members of his vast, multicultural empire

• Gave up hunting, banned animal sacrifices, and eliminated most meat dishes from his table

• Also built monasteries and stupas throughout the empire, made personal pilgrimages to the holy sites of Buddhism, and sent missionaries to Bactria and Sri Lanka

Developments in Later Buddhism

• Although Buddhism was more accessible than the extreme ascetic religions, it still made heavy demands on individuals seeking to escape the cycle of incarnation• Pure Buddhism involved much sacrifice – giving up personal property, desire for social standing, and detachment from family and the world• Between the 3rd Century BCE and 1st Century CE, however, developments in Buddhist theology opened new, less demanding avenues for salvation, leading to an explosion in popularity for the faith• The first of these developments were the deification of the Buddha• Although the Buddha did not consider himself a god, some of his later followers did, helping converts channel their energies and identify more closely with the faith

Boddhisatvas• Second important

development was the notion of the boddhisatva (‘an enlightened being’)

• Boddhisatvas were individuals who had reached spiritual perfection and merited the reward of nirvana, but who intentionally delayed their entry into nirvana to help others who were still struggling

• Like Christian saints, boddhisatvas served as examples of spiritual excellence and inspiration

palimpsest.stanford.edu Boddhisatva, Gandharan Sculpture, 2nd Century CE

Mahayana Buddhism• These developments in later Buddhism opened the faith to large numbers of people• Proponents of this reformed version called it Mahayana (‘the greater vehicle’ which

could carry more people to salvation)• The earlier form was

called Hinayana (‘the lesser vehicle’)

• During the early centuries of the Common Era Mahayana Buddhism spread

rapidly throughout India• Eventually, with the opening up of the Silk Roads,

Buddhist monks carried the faith to Central Asia, China, Japan, Korea and SE Asia

www.ibiblio.org

Hinduism

• Buddhism generated new ideas and attracted widespread popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era

• At the same time Hinduism underwent a similar evolution that also transformed it into a popular religion of salvation

• Contemporary Hinduism is a syncretic religion incorporating Vedic texts, pre-Aryan practices and a range of deities

• Changes in doctrine and observances eventually resulted in a faith that addressed the needs of ordinary people

Hindu Epics: The Mahabharata

The great epic poems the Mahabharata and the Ramayana illustrate the development of Hindu values

• Both works originated as secular tales transmitted orally about the great epic age of classical Indian history (c. 1500-500 BCE)

• The Mahabharata deals with a massive war for control of northern India between two groups of cousins

• Originally a secular work, the brahmins revised it and created a prominent role for the god Vishnu

• Ramayana was also originally a tale of love and adventure involving the trial of the legendary Prince Rama and his wife Sita

• Rama traveled south to Sri Lanka to rescue his kidnapped wife from the demon king

• His alliance with Hanuman, the king of the monkeys, led to exciting clashes with his enemies

• Brahmins later revised the work to make Rama an incarnation of Vishnu, portraying Rama and Sita as the ideal Hindu husband and wife, devoted and loyal even in times of trouble

Rama and Sita – Indonesian Version!www.antarin.net

Ramayana

The Bhagavad Gita• A short poetic work, the Bhagavad Gita (‘song of the lord’)

illustrates both the obligations of Hinduism, and also its rewards• The Gita was composed by many poets between 300 BCE and

300 CE, taking its final revised form c. 400 CE• It illustrates an episode from the Mahabharata and takes the

form of a dialogue between Arjuna (a kshatriya warrior) and his charioteer Krishna, a human incarnation of the god Vishnu

• Arjuna is reluctant to fight because the enemy includes many friends and relatives, so Krishna uses several arguments to persuade him to fight

Krishna’s Arguments

1. Arjuna must not worry about his friends and relatives, because the soul does not die with the body; his weapons to not have the power to touch the soul

2. Arjuna’s caste imposes specific moral and social responsibilities upon him; the duty of shudras was to serve, of vaishyas to work, of brahmins to learn the scriptures, and of kshatriyas to govern and fight

3. Furthermore, and individuals social responsibilities also had spiritual significance – failure to fulfill caste duties is in fact a grievous sin, whereas their observance brought spiritual rewards

Hindu Ethics• Hindu ethics thus differed greatly from those of earlier Indian

moralists• As represented in the Bhagavad Gita, only by active

participation in the world and the meeting of caste responsibilities was it possible to attain salvation (i.e. not though detachment and renunciation of ordinary life)

• However, these duties should be performed in a detached fashion• i.e. humans should not become

emotionally involved in their actions, but should concentrate on the actions alone, with no thought of their consequences

• This led to the emergence of four specific aims of human life

Four Principal Aims of Life

1. Obedience to religious and moral laws (dharma)

2. The pursuit of economic well-being and honest prosperity (artha)

3. The enjoyment of social, physical and sexual pleasures (karma)

4. The salvation of the soul (moksha)A proper balance of the first three aims would help individuals attain moksha

Hindu Male Gods • Principal Hindu gods

are Vishnu, Shiva and Devi

• Vishnu evolved into a father-god who works continuously for the welfare of humanity

• Shiva a powerful god often associated with phallic symbols; represents the cosmic force of change, and the reconciliation of the extremes and opposites of violence and passivity, eroticism and asceticism

Vishnuperso.wanadoo.fr/revue

Shiva

www.asiasociety.org/arts

Hindu Female Gods• The wives of Vishnu (Lakshimi) and Shiva (Parvati) are powerful goddesses, stemming from a worship of female divinities as early as the Indus culture• Devi a fully developed supreme Goddess, both tender mother and ferocious warrior; wears a necklace of skulls and rides into battle on a lionShe represents the creative power of the universe

Lakshimi and Vishnuwww.jorgebastosgarcia

Dancing Deviwww.joelcooner.com/Asian

Growth in the Popularity

of Hinduism• Hinduism gradually replaced Buddhism as the most prominent

religion in India, once Buddhism began to grow more remote from the masses

• Later Buddhist monks did not seek to communicate their message to larger society as zealously as their predecessors, while Hinduism attracted increasing popular support and patronage from the wealthy

• Guptan emperors and their successors patronized Hinduism in the same way Ashoka had Buddhism

• In India today Hinduism (and even the more recent faith of Islam) have completely eclipsed Buddhism

Hinduism Today

• Most Indian Hindus today are devout followers of either Vishnu or Shiva, although there are thousands of Hindu gods, and animals like the cow are also considered as sacred

• Hinduism possesses no Bible or Koran; nor does it have a single personal founder like Mahavira or Buddha

• There is no precise body of doctrine – people are Hindu basically if they observe the rules of their caste

Part 2: Judaism and

Christianity• Hebrews - minor player in

history but responsible for three great world religions – Judaism, Christianity and Islam

• Only source for much of their history is the Old Testament (final form only approved by council of rabbis in 90 CE)

• Speakers of the ancient Hebrew language

• The Israelites were a branch of Hebrews who eventually settled in Palestine

• The Jews were descendants of southern Israelites who inhabited the kingdom of Judah

www.loc.gov/exhibits/world

Early Hebrews• Early Hebrews were pastoral nomads who inhabited lands

between Mesopotamia and Egypt during 2nd Millennium BCE

• As Mesopotamia prospered, some Hebrew’s settled in the region’s cities

score.rims.k12.ca.us

AbrahamThe Hebrew Patriarch Abraham came from the Sumerian city of Ur

Abraham (1900 BCE?) said to have led his people out of Ur to Palestine because of disorder in Sumer

Hebrews took with them Sumerian cultural customs, Hammurabi’s law and the flood idea from the Epic of Gilgamesh

Abraham

To Israel!• Eventually (1850/1700 BCE?) some Hebrews migrated from Palestine to Egypt

• According to the Bible, in c1300 under the leadership of Moses this branch moved from Egypt north to the land of Canaan (Palestine)

• Here they formed a loose confederation of 12 tribes, known as the Israelites

Moses Parts the Red Sea?www.planetkilmer.com/movies

Kingdom of Israel• Israelites abandoned tribal

structure; adopted Mesopotamian-style monarchy

• Women had rights in their society but power concentrated in hands of male kings

• Bitter conflicts broke out with the Canaanites, and then with more powerful Philistines ( Palestine) who captured the Ark of the Covenant

• Saul first king of Israel

www.ericlove.com

David Slays Goliath

From the South Face of the Abbey of St. Giles in Francewww.vrcol.fa

Saul’s successor David (1000-970?) slew the Philistine giant Goliath and recovered the Ark

Solomon

Under David’s successor Solomon (961-922 BCE) Israel reached the peak of its power - huge palace and large army based in cosmopolitan city of Jerusalem The Judgment of Solomon

c. 1620 Oil on canvas, 174 x 213 cmGalleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, Rome

VALENTIN DE BOULOGNE

• Archaeologists find no evidence of the reigns of David and Solomon• Old Testament states that after the reign of David, tribal tensions resulted in the Kingdom of Israel splitting in two weaker states

Israelite Religious

Beliefs

• After the time of Moses, the religious beliefs of the Israelites became increasingly distinctive

• Early Hebrews had recognized many of the Mesopotamian gods, and believed that nature spirits dwelt in trees, rocks and mountains

• Moses embraced monotheism – he believed there was only one god called Yaweh who was a supremely powerful deity and creator of the world

• When the kings of the Israelites built their capital in Jerusalem, they did not build a Mesopotamian ziggurat, but a temple in honor of Yaweh The Hebrew letters yud, hey, vav, hey -- often

depicted in English as YHWH or Yahweh -- spell the name of God.

www.killingthebuddha.com

The Ten Commandments• But as well as being the

omnipotent creator of the universe, he was also a very personal god, with high moral and ethical standards expected of his followers

• In the Ten Commandments Moses warned his followers against antisocial behavior like lying, theft, adultery and murder

• After Moses’ death the Israelites wrote a detailed and elaborate law code which provided protection for widows, orphans, slaves and the poor

www.jsmatt.com

Moses by Rembrandt

The Torah

• Between 1000-400 BCE the Israelite religious leaders compiled a set of holy scriptures (the Torah – ‘teachings’) – which laid out Yaweh’s laws and role in the affairs of mankind

• Torah taught that Yaweh would punish individuals and whole communities collectively if they did not obey his laws

www.forumuniversitaire.com

The Diaspora

• In 722 Assyrian forces conquered the northern kingdom of Israel, capturing 27,290 Israelite slaves and deporting them to other regions

• In 586 southern kingdom captured by king of Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar, who also sent his captives into exile• Persian king Cyrus allowed some captives to return home, but most of the Jews scattered all over the region• This scattering referred to as the ‘Diaspora’ (Greek for ‘scattering’)

Israelite prisoners and Assyrian guards, Nineveh

Religion• Israelite’s devotion to Yaweh only

strengthened during this period of turmoil• Between the 9th and 6th Cs a series of

prophets urged the Israelites to remain steadfast in their faith

• Prophets were moral and social critics who criticized materialism and an increasing interest in Mesopotamian fertility gods

• They warned that unless the Israelites changed their ways, Yaweh would punish them by sending conquerors

• Many took Assyrian and Babylonian conquests as proof of what the prophets said

Hebrew Prophets c. 1300Stone, Cathedral, Strasbourg

Influence on Other Monotheistic Religions

• Exiles who returned home after the Babylonian conquest organized several small Jewish states as tributaries of the great empire that dominated SW Asia after the 6th C BCE

• They also built distinctive religious communities based on their special relationship with Yaweh, the teachings of the Torah, and a concern for righteousness

• In this way the Jews maintained a strong sense of identity as a separate and distinct people, even as they participated in the larger, complex society of SW Asia

• Eventually, Jewish monotheism, scriptures and moral concerns would profoundly influence the development of both Christianity and Islam

The Rise of Christianity Developments in Judaism During the Early Empire

• During the reign of the Julio-Claudians, Judaism underwent a major transformation

• Judea became a Roman protectorate ruled by procurators like Pontius Pilate (26-36 CE); Jews restless and unhappy, waiting for a Messiah

• Some groups like the Essenes developed a form of Judaism that became a link to the emergence of a new religion – Christianity

One of the Dead Sea Scrolls www.johnpratt.com

The Dead Sea Scrolls were written by the Essenes; John the Baptist an Essene

Destruction of JerusalemJewish nationalists eventually launched an uprising in 66 CE.

The Romans crushed the revolt and destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem!

All that remains of it today is the ‘Wailing Wall

Jerusalem: Temple Mount and Wailing Wall

Life and Teachings of Jesus• Jesus born in Bethlehem in

Judea c. 2 or 3 BCE• After working as a carpenter

traveled Judea preaching love for his fellow humans, and practicing miracles

• When he reached Jerusalem for Passover he was greeted by huge crowds, hoping that he would lead a radical nationalist movement against the Romans

• When they realized he had no intention of this, they turned against him

• Betrayed by Judas he was charged with treason by Pontius Pilate and crucified

Byzantine Icon of the Crucicixionwww.macedoniadirect.com

The Travels of Paul• Word spread that Jesus had been seen alive after his crucifixion, and small

Christian (Greek for ‘followers of Christ’) communities emerged • Paul (born Saul) an educated Hellenic Jew originally opposed to the Christians;

had an epiphany on the road to Damascus that converted him to Christianity• He then traveled the Roman world arguing that Jesus was the Son of God

who had died to atone for the sins of humanity• Traveled 8000 miles preaching; put to death in Rome in 65 CE. As a result

of his work, large numbers of Christian communities emerged

www.fccoc.org

Appeal of Christianity

Christianity spread because it upheld the equality of all, and was a dynamic, aggressively proselytizing religion offering salvation

• The simplicity of its demand of absolute allegiance to one god and rejection of all other creeds — offered permanent values in a time of confusion • Egalitarian: it stressed value of every soul, and common humanity, regardless of class or national background, and was a universal religion that all could join• Hope of afterlife — a compelling vision missing in traditional religions, as well as some sects of Judaism. While other mystery cults also stressed an afterlife, the courage of the Christian martyrs gave their beliefs credibility

Further Appeal of Christianity• It satisfied the universal need to

belong to a community. Older close-knit social structures such as the world of the poleis were long since gone; the Roman empire was filled with rootless and displaced individuals with few links to traditional communities. Persecution only strengthened the bonds of the early Christian church

• The Church gave communities social stability as well — it took care of the sick, widowed and orphaned, and gave a sense of self-respect to the poor.

Persecution of the Christians

• But Christianity seen as a subversive threat to Rome – traitors to the state religion!

• Christians a secret anti-social group; refused to join the army and condemned other religions

• Persecutions took place during the first two centuries of the Empire

• In the 3rd and 4th Cs, when the Empire was in danger of collapse, major persecutions launched

• Bloodiest under Diocletian (285 – 305) - Christian martyrs died rather than sacrifice to the pagan gods

• Eventually the Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity, and it became the state religion early in the 4th century

Christian martyrs in the Coliseumwww.artunfrance.com

Council of Nicaea

• In 313 Constantine decreed that Christianity would be ‘tolerated’ throughout the Empire (Edict of Milan)

• He invited all of the leading Christian thinkers of the time to assemble at the Council of Nicaea (325) which formally recognized Christianity

• By the reign of Theodosius I, pagans were being persecuted by Christians

• Eventually the roles were completely reversed when a Christian mob murdered the female philosopher Hypatia at Alexandria in 415, urged on by the Archbishop.

Byzantine painting of the Council of Nicaea www.sfusd.k12.ca.us

The Nicaean Creed• Delegates at Nicaea decided on this declaration, which later

became known as the Nicaean Creed:• I believe in one God, the Father Almighty, maker of heaven

and earth, and of all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, and born of the Father before all ages. (God of God) light of light, true God of true God

• Begotten not made, consubstantial to the Father, by whom all things were made

• Who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven

• And was incarnate of the Holy Ghost and of the Virgin Mary and was made man; was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate, suffered and was buried; and the third day rose again according to the Scriptures.

Nicaean Creed Continued

• And he ascended [went up] into heaven, sits at the right hand of the Father, and shall come again with glory to judge the living and the dead, of whose Kingdom there shall be no end

• And (I believe) in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of life, who proceeds from the Father (and the Son), who together with the Father and the Son is to be adored and glorified, who spoke by the Prophets. And one holy, catholic, and apostolic Church

• We confess (I confess) one baptism for the remission of sins. And we look for (I look for) the resurrection [coming back to life] of the dead and the life of the world to come. Amen."

 

Part Three: Islam• The word Islam means ‘submission’, signifying

obedience to the will of Allah (the only god in this monotheistic religion)

• One who accepts the Islamic faith is a Muslim, i.e. ‘one who has submitted’

• Islam quickly attracted followers and took on political and social significance, as well as religious

• During the first century of the new faith’s existence it reached far beyond its Arabian homeland

• And by the 8th Century the world of Islam was matched only by Byzantium as the great political and social structure of the postclassical world

Origins of Islam –The Bedouins

• Islam arose in the Arabian Peninsula and reflected the conditions of its homeland

• In the desert agriculture is only possible at oasis cities like Medina

• Yet nomadic Bedouin peoples have occupied the region for millennia as, organized in clan groups

• In this harsh environment strong clan loyalties developed, and these survived for centuries even after the arrival of Islam

www.robertlandau.com/

Early Life of Muhammad (b. 570 CE as Muhammad ibn Abdullah)

• The prophet Muhammad was born into this world of nomadic Bedouin pastoralists and merchants in about 570 CE

• His parents died before he was six, and he was raised by his uncle and grandfather

• He was also employed by a wealthy woman – a widow named Khadija, who he married in c. 595

• By the age of 30 he was a successful merchant living in Mecca, where the people recognized many gods, and where there were many Jewish and Christian communities

Spiritual Transformation

• About 610, aged 40, Muhammad underwent a profound spiritual transformation

• He became convinced that there was only one true deity (Allah = ‘God’), and that recognition of other gods was wicked

• Muhammad experienced visions we he interpreted as revelations (delivered through the archangel Gabriel – a messenger from god)

• Without meaning to found a new religion, he told his family and friends of these revelations, and by 620 a zealous minority of Meccans had joined Muhammad’s circle

The Quran

• As Muhammad spoke about the revelations he had received, some of his followers prepared written texts of his teachings

• During the early 650s, devout followers compiled these written versions and issued them as the Quran (‘recitation’) – the holy book of Islam

• A work of superb poetry, the Quran powerfully expounds Muhammad’s understanding of Allah and his relation to the world

• Serves as the definitive authority for Islamic religion and social organization

• There are also a number of other important Islamic sources, including the hadith (9th – 11th Centuries)

Muhammad’s Migration to Medina

• The growing popularity of Muhammad’s preaching brought him into religious conflict with the rulers of Mecca (because monotheism offended the polytheistic Arabs)

• Muhammad’s attack on idolatry and greed was seen as dangerous to many merchants, and many of his followers were forced to flee to Ethiopia

• Eventually the pressure mounted until in 622 Muhammad also fled to the rival trading city of Yathrib, which Muslims soon started calling Medina (‘the city of the prophet’)

• Known as the hijra (migration) Muhammad’s move to Medina serves as the official starting date for the Islamic calendar

Ruins of the old city of Medina

Muhammad in Medina

• In Medina Muhammad found himself at the head of a growing society in exile, and he organized his followers into a cohesive community called the umma (community of the faithful)

• Personally led the umma in daily prayers, and in various battles with enemies in Medina, Mecca and other places

• Also organized successful commercial ventures, and used the profits to provide relief for widows, orphans and the poor

• He also began to refer to himself as the final prophet through whom Allah would reveal his message to humanity

• He also accepted earlier prophets like Abraham, Moses and Jesus, and held the Hebrew scriptures and Christian Bible in very high esteem

Muhammad preaching in Medina

Establishment of Islam in Mecca• By 630 Muhammad and his followers were so strong that they attacked

and conquered Mecca• They forced the elites to accept Allah, and instituted a government devoted to

Allah• They destroyed pagan shrines and built mosques, buildings that sought to

instill a sense of community where Muslims gathered for prayer• They retained one old pagan shrine – the huge Kaba (black rock) which was

transformed into a shrine to Allah, which only the faithful could approach

• Muhammad himself led the first pilgrimage (hajj) to the Ka’ba, establishing the hajj as an example for all devout Muslims

This image and overleaf –The Kaba in Mecca today

www.bible.ca/islam/ islam-photos-islam-today.htm

Spread of Islam Throughout Arabia

Muhammad and his followers then launched a series of campaigns against other towns and Bedouin clans, and by the time of his death in 632, much of Arabia was under their control

The Further Expansion of

Islam• After Muhammad’s death his advisors selected one of his closest

friends and disciples to serve as caliph (deputy)Abu Bakr became head of the Islamic state, as well as chief judge and religious and military leader

• Under his leadership Islamic armies then began to carry their message into the Byzantine and Sasanian worlds beyond Arabia

• They attacked at precisely the moment that these great civilizations were exhausted and soon conquered Palestine and Mesopotamia

Islamic Conquests of West and Central Asia

• During the 640s Arab forces conquered Egypt and North Africa

• By 661 they had toppled the Sasanians and incorporated Persia into their realm

• By 711 they were in Afghanistan and N. India, and in 718 they crossed the Straits of Gibraltar and conquered most of Spain

Straits of Gibraltar from space

The Expansion of Islam

Disagreements Over Succession

• Disagreements over succession led to the emergence of the Shia sect, which offered an alternative to the standard Sunni (traditionalist) version

• The Shia had favored the appointment of Ali (Muhammad’s son-in-law) as successor instead of Abu Bakr

• Eventually Ali was assassinated, and his supporters organized their own Shia (‘party’)

• Ever since the Shia has functioned as a source of support for those who opposed the policies of the Sunni leadership

The Five Pillars of Islam

Muhammad’s faith was based on five obligations:1. Muslims must acknowledge Allah as the only god,

and Muhammad as the last prophet2. The must pray to Allah daily while facing Mecca3. They must fast during the daylight hours of the

month of Ramadan4. They must contribute alms for the relief of the

poor5. They must try and undertake the hajj at least

once in their lives

Changing Status of Women• Pre-Islamic society was patriarchal, but women enjoyed

unusual rights (to inherit property, divorce their husbands, engage in business)

• The Quran enhanced the security of women by outlawing female infanticide and ensuring dowries went directly to brides, not their husbands

• Women are portrayed not as possessions but honorable individuals equal to men before Allah

• Muhammad’s own kindness and respect to his wives served as an example of this

Male Dominance • But for the most part the Quran (and later sharia law) reinforced male dominance

• Succession was through the male line, and a premium was placed on genealogical purity

• To ensure the legitimacy of heirs the social and sexual lives of women were subject to strict control by men

• Reinforcing patriarchy, men could also have up to four wives, women only one husband

Veiling of Women• When Islam moved into Central Asia and Byzantium, it adopted long-

standing traditions like the veiling of women (which had been practiced in Mesopotamia since the 13th C BCE)

• Women were forced to veil in public, and could only leave home in the company of servants or chaperones

• The increased emphasis on male authority (as interpreted by jurists and Quran interpreters) thus reflected the influence of older strongly patriarchal societies conquered by Islam

Islamic Law:

The Sharia• Islamic holy law (the sharia) emerged in the centuries

after Muhammad’s death, offering guidance on all aspect of daily life

• Worked out by legal experts, the sharia was inspired by the Quran

• It offers precise guidance on marriage and family life, inheritance, slavery, business dealings, politics and crime

• Through the sharia Islam became more than a religious doctrine, but a way of life with a complete set of social and ethical values

Conclusion: Islam and World History

• Muhammad did not intend to found a new religion, but to express his faith in Allah and perfect the teachings of earlier Jewish and Christian prophets

• But his message attracted prophets, and by his death most of Arabia had adopted Islam

• Arab conquerors then spread Islam throughout Afro-Eurasia, leading to the creation of a massive trade and communication network

• As a result of the cultural exchange that ensued, the dar al Islam became the most prosperous and cosmopolitan society of the post-classical world

• And so endeth the lesson!