Whangarei District Growth Strategy · 8 1,923.94 0.7 Retirement from production Cliffs/ mudflats/...

54: Whangarei District Growth Strategy

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the district with large quarries at Hikurangi, Otaika and Portland. There are a number of other quarries scattered across the district.

Present Land Use in the Whangarei DistrictFigure 42:

Source: Whangarei District Council, 2009.

Sustainable Environment2.

Land Use2.1 The Whangarei District has a wide range of primary land uses. These include pastoral farming, dairying, forestry, cropping, horticulture and viticulture. Pastoral (37%), dairying (21%), production forestry (21%), built land (10%) and lifestyle (10%) are the major land uses. Horticulture is a minor land use activity covering only 0.7% of the district.

Pastoralism is the most widespread land use in the district, with approximately 37% or 104,767ha of the land area used for grazing stock. Pastoral land use is spread through most suitable areas of the district. The district supports around 100,000 sheep, 115,000 beef cattle, 2,500 deer, 3,000 goats, 900 horses, plus pigs and poultry (Statistics New Zealand, 2007). Beef cattle and sheep are usually run on steeper country. Around 21% (59,360ha) of the land in the district is used for dairying. The district supports around 130,000 dairy cattle. Dairying remains one of the dominant agricultural land uses, generally on flat to gently rolling country.

The total production forest area for all purposes (both native and exotic) covers 59,648ha or 21% of the district area. Exotic forests cover approximately 44,009ha, equivalent to nearly 16% of the total district land area. Native forests cover 15,639ha, equivalent to 5% of the total district area. Over 80% of plantations are in Pinus Radiata with the remainder in eucalypts, acacia hardwoods and other species. Most of the areas attributed to native production forestry are historical rather than being actively harvested at present. These areas of native forest are now used for conservation or catchment protection purposes.

Most forestry blocks are found around the boundary of the district (e.g. the western part of the district towards Dargaville, northern part around Puhipuhi and the southern end of the Brynderwyn Range). There is a large forest at Glenbervie and small areas of forest blocks scattered across the district, particularly in Maungatapere, Ngunguru and Pataua. Some Crown Land reserves (managed by Department of Conservation) are located within the district and have been left under native vegetation.

Horticulture covers approximately 1,869ha or 1% of the district land area. This land use includes orchards, market gardening, glass houses and so on. Most horticultural activities occur along State Highway 14 in Maunu and between Kara Road and Whatitiri Road in the Maungatapere area. There are small areas of horticulture scattered around Three Mile Bush, Glenbervie, Maungakaramea and areas along State Highway 1 between Pipiwai and Apotu Roads. These areas are predominately located on volcanic soils, as evidenced by the presence of volcanic stone walls.

A total of 7,000 properties within the Whangarei District are identified as lifestyle blocks covering 25,519ha, with a mean area of 3.65ha (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 2009). Based on Council’s Property Database and Rating Assessment 2009, lifestyle blocks cover 28,108ha of the district. Lifestyle blocks are scattered throughout the district, particularly in areas around the urban fringes (e.g. Glenbervie, Three Mile Bush, Maunu and Maungatapere/Maungakaramea), along the coast (e.g. Matapouri and Parua Bay) and along road transit corridors. The number of lifestyle blocks has increased rapidly over recent years.

Urban land use is concentrated around the upper Whangarei Harbour. Whangarei City centre, the suburban centres of Kamo, Tikipunga, Otaika, Maunu, and Onerahi, along with the old port area, contain the greatest concentration of residential, commercial and industrial land uses. Other urban land uses are located in the townships of Hikurangi, Waipu, Marsden Point/Ruakaka, Parua Bay, and other scattered hamlets along the coast and in the rural area. There is some mining in

Whangarei District Growth Strategy :55

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Distribution of Land Use Capability in the Whangarei DistrictFigure 43:


Land Use CapabilityThe Land Use Capability framework is a tool that is used to assess capability of land for sustained primary production over the long term, together with the physical limitations of the land. Land is classified according to its physical characteristics, i.e. soil and topographical features, including steepness and drainage. The classification reflects the capacity of the land to support a particular land use in a long term sustainable manner (Harmsworth, 1996).

In New Zealand, there are eight land use capability classes. Land classes 1 to 3 are suitable for arable use and may also be suitable for pastoral or forestry use, while Classes 4 to 6 are not well suited to arable use, but are suitable for pastoral use and forestry. Class 7 land is suitable for forestry use, while Class 8 land is suitable for protection purposes only.

Class 1 and 2 land can be considered the versatile high class soils which form part of New Zealand’s limited resource of highly productive/versatile land. Class 1 and 2 land occupies 324ha and 4,734ha respectively and make up just 2% of the district land area. These elite soils can be found around Maungatapere, Maungakaramea, Maunu and Waipu. There are also 23,585ha of Class 3 land (8% of the district), most of which has potential for a wide range of land uses and should be considered as part of the potentially arable areas in the district. Class 3 land is found in Marsden Point/Ruakaka, Kamo, Glenbervie catchments and scattered around Maungakaramea and Maungatapere.

Land Use Capability Classes in the Whangarei DistrictTable 20:

Capability Class Land Area Land Use Activities LocationsHa %

1 323.52 0.1 All types Maunu/Maungakaramea

2 4,733.68 1.7 Horticulture/cropping Maunu/Maungatapere/ Maungakaramea/ Waipu

3 23,585.09 8.3 Pastoral farming/ horticulture/ cropping

Marsden Point/Ruakaka/ Matarau/ Ruatangata, Kamo, Glenbervie

4 75,389.66 26 Dairying/sheep/ beef/forestry Hikurangi/Hukerenui/Ruatangata/ Maungatapere/Maungakaramea/others

5 395.53 0.1 Sheep/beef Mangakahia

6 147,204.34 52 Sheep/beef/forestry Throughout district

7 24158.58 8.5 Sheep/forestry/land retirement Brynderwyn/Helena Bay/Whangaruru

8 1,923.94 0.7 Retirement from production Cliffs/ mudflats/ sand dunes

Other 7,100.53 2.5 Water/urban Throughout district

Total 284,814.85 100


About 61% of the district (171,758ha) has medium to low class soils, substantially suited to grazing and forestry (i.e. Classes 4, 5 and 6). These lands are extensively found across the district. There are 75,390ha (or 26% of the district) of Class 4 land suitable for dairying. Over 52% (147,204ha) of the district is Class 6 land the majority of which is stable, productive hill country. This class tends to be the less productive grazing lands although productivity varies.

Class 7 land in steep hill country is best suited for forestry use (i.e. Helena Bay, Whangaruru and Brynderwyn). Class 8 land mainly comprises high, mountainous country (e.g. Russell Forest, Taheke Scenic Reserve, Bream Head and Manaia Ridge Scenic Reserves) although it may include very steep slopes on hill country. These areas will generally not be suitable for productive purposes, due to topographical constraints.

Generally, present land use within the district aligns broadly with land use capability. However, providing environmental effects are adequately dealt with, there is some potential for increased production and increased economic outcomes for the district, either through a change in land use and/or an intensification of existing land use.


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Rural/Residential Development on High Class SoilsFigure 44:


Potential for Increased ProductionIn relation to pastoral use there appears to be limited potential for an expansion in land area except at the expense of other, at present, more productive uses (such as dairying). There appears to be some potential for intensification of use but this is probably limited. There is more potential for diversification or change of livestock produced, e.g. deer, sheep to beef, beef to sheep. However, this is largely determined by the profitability of different commodities on the global market at particular times.

There appears to be limited potential for the expansion of dairying in the district. There may be some potential for increased stocking rates but this too is probably limited due to potential effects on the environment, including soil and water quality. Once again, the profitability of dairying is strongly influenced by world commodity prices and the output from dairying will remain related to returns gained on the world market.

There is considerable potential for expansion in forestry production in the district. An increase in land area planted under forestry is not limited by suitable land but instead by competing, more profitable land uses. In some areas, e.g. steep hill country, it may be desirable to convert land to forests for soil conservation and catchment protection purposes. There is also potential for diversification of tree species harvested, including the commercial production of native species.

Horticulture and orcharding (and possibly viticulture) hold the most promise for increased primary production in the district over the long term. At present, only around half of Class 1 and 2 land is used for horticulture or orcharding. There is considerable potential for increasing economic returns to the district over the long term, together with increased employment opportunities for the community. Because of its versatility, there is considerable potential for diversification of crops grown on these soils. Future uses will depend on market demand for particular products but because of the nature of these soils there are few limitations as to what crops can be grown. In affluent markets, which are becoming increasingly discernible in regard to food safety and quality, there is significant potential for high quality, high return products. Demand for organic food is predicted to grow and these soils are well suited to the organic production of a wide range of products.

At the same time, because of their location on the urban fringes or within easy travelling distance to the City centre, these highly versatile and productive soils are most at risk from residential, rural residential and lifestyle development. Many areas are already compromised and future potential for productive use has been reduced or lost altogether. For example, many of the elite soils in Maunu have experienced subdivision activity as larger blocks are turned into small titles for urban land use and rural lifestyle blocks. In addition, rural residential development in these areas results an increased reverse sensitivity issues with established farming activities, which in turn may limit the use of productive farmland.

This process of urbanisation of highly productive agricultural land is likely to continue with the consequent loss of the potential for increased economic output and employment opportunities in the future. This is not considered a sustainable use of this limited and valuable land resource. Once these high class soils are converted to residential or rural residential development they are effectively removed from agricultural use. Given the very limited distribution of Class 1 and 2 land, the loss of these soils for productive use does not accord with the concept of sustainable management, particularly the requirement to meet the reasonably foreseeable needs of future generations. If this highly versatile and productive land resource is to be retained for primary production, strong planning provisions are required to ensure this.

Further Information: Whangarei District Council, 2009, Land Use Background Report


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Whangarei Coastal Storm SurgeFigure 45:

Coastal HazardsGiven the maritime nature of Whangarei District, and the preference to live in the coastal environment, it is not surprising that coastal hazards are a major risk. Coastal erosion is probably the most common issue, but some low lying areas of the district also face some coastal inundation from various sources. Given the number of extreme weather events in the past, and the increased numbers of people in the coastal environment, this issue ranks high in the assessment of priorities listed in the Northland Civil Defence Emergency Management Group Plan, as represented by the ranking of coastal – storm surges.

Coastal erosion refers to the wearing away of land (including sandy beaches and dunes) by water (waves generated by various sources or drainage) and, in some cases, wind. Coastal erosion may be mitigated or exacerbated by sediment supply to beaches, artificial and natural structures (although the presence of artificial structures can magnify the impact of erosion elsewhere), and sea and wave conditions (and the energy contained within them). Coastal inundation normally occurs during large storms, and may be a combination of factors including high water tables, overflow paths from the land, high tides and tsunami. Both types of hazard are driven by processes such as storm surges, tides, and wave action, as well as impacts from land development such as the removal of vegetation.

The other main coastal hazard is that of tsunami. Until recently, tsunamis were generally regarded as a low hazard risk, but this view has changed in recent years. A tsunami is an abnormal wave (or series of waves) generated by an unusual event. A tsunami is created when a large volume of water is rapidly displaced, whether by underwater landslide, earthquakes, volcanic eruption and so on. When tsunamis reach coastal areas, they can travel quickly, picking up debris, and even travelling up streams. Northland, as a whole, can be impacted by tsunamis generated from a wide variety of source locations, both local and very distant on the Pacific Rim. Historically, most tsunami events occur on the eastern coasts facing major generation sources, especially when the ocean floor topography funnels events.

Mining Hazards Coal was mined at various locations throughout the district, including Hikurangi, Kamo, and Ruatangata, with 1.6 million tonnes produced, and the last coal mine closing in 1955. Subsidence has occurred in some places such as Kamo (mainly between Kamo Road and the railway line), which led to further assessment of the hazard, and in turn, led to provisions being included in the Whangarei District Plan. All investigations to date acknowledge that there may be additional

Natural Hazards2.2 The key natural hazards investigated for Whangarei District included the following: flood hazards, extreme weather events, coastal hazards, droughts, biological hazards, volcanic hazards, earthquake hazards, land instability, mine subsidence, erosion prone land, and wildfire hazards. Northland-wide, the highest natural hazard risks are associated with flooding, coastal storm surges, ex-tropical cyclones, land instability, and biological risks such as pest and animal disease and the possibility of human epidemics. These are, likewise, regarded as the biggest risk factors for Whangarei District.

Northland is a long peninsula subjected to regular extreme weather events generated in the North Tasman Sea or in the Tropics. Most extreme events within Whangarei District arise from unstable weather patterns that generate heavy rain, thunderstorms and squally conditions. An ex-tropical cyclone travels within 500km of Northland every year, whereas the North Tasman Sea generated depressions that can form so-called weather bombs, such as the Waikato Weather Bomb in 2002, are more frequent and can affect the Whangarei District.

FloodingFlooding is generally accepted as having the highest risk potential within both Whangarei District and Northland as a whole. The bulk of Whangarei District’s population has historically been located within or close to areas with flooding risk because of other factors such as water, transport, key agricultural and horticultural areas, and difficulties in settling on steep hills. A flood event results when sufficient rainfall occurs in a given time period that cannot be dealt with by natural or artificial drainage systems. Whangarei District often experiences high and intense rainfall events, with a modelled one in 50 year return period of a 24 hour rainfall of 200-250mm occurring within the Whangarei District. The Eastern Hills north of Whangarei, such as the Puhipuhi plateau, can experience even higher intensities of rainfall.

The greater part of the flood susceptible area in Whangarei District is within the Hikurangi Swamp Basin and within the catchment of the Mangakahia River. Flooding in the Hikurangi Swamp Basin has been regular and the subject of many media images such as during the flood of 2007. The Mangakahia River floods regularly, with a recorded peak in 1936, when it rose 19m at Titoki. Both areas drain through important agricultural regions and in areas where important transportation links are located. Substantial flood susceptible areas can be found in the catchments around Marsden Point/Ruakaka, including Waipapa Stream and Ruakaka River. Finally, there are also considerable flood susceptible areas near the main urban areas, including Whangarei’s central business district and the industrial area in the vicinity of the old port. Flooding near to coastal areas is likely to be exacerbated by future sea level rise associated with climate change (see climate change section).

Land InstabilityThe second natural hazard of importance to future strategic planning is that of land instability. Many of the settlements in the district are located on, or contain, substantial areas of land subject to high or medium land instability risk. It should be noted that land instability is not an absolute constraint, but in general terms, there is a preference to avoid development in these areas. Northland has a complex geology with a wide variety of soft rocks susceptible to movement, including those on gentle slopes. The main trigger is intense or prolonged rainfall. Whangarei District has experienced several episodes of rainfall-induced landslide hazards, although not as significant as Cyclone Bola’s impact on the East Coast, or the 2004 storm impact in the lower North Island. Recent examples of landslides having a lasting impact on the district include those on Helena Bay Hill Road, which impacted strongly on community’s dependent on this transport link.


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Natural Hazards in Whangarei DistrictFigure 46: areas of workings that are unrecorded, but in general, the bulk of the mining hazards are identified on the District Plan maps (for Kamo and Hikurangi) and the provisions in the District Plan appear to be adequate to address the risks involved.

Future DevelopmentEstablished communities and households are already located within areas that experience natural hazard events such as flooding or coastal erosion/inundation, and people live in areas of moderate or high instability risk. This pattern has emerged for historical reasons, such as access to water, transport, and agricultural production, or lack of suitable alternatives in the vicinity of important resources. However, recent patterns of development are still occurring in at-risk areas within Whangarei District due to the quality of natural features such as coast, views, and water making these popular residential localities.

Table 21 shows recent development (by listing the number of lots created and building consents granted) in areas subject to one or more natural hazard constraints. A substantial number of lots were created in flood susceptible and unstable areas over the past ten years. The number of building consents issued for flood susceptible and unstable areas over the same time period was smaller than the numbers of lots created. This may indicate preferences for building away from potentially risky areas over time.

Recent Development on Land Subject to Natural Hazards 1996-2009Table 21:

Number of Lots (2009)

New Lots Created

Building Consents

Living 1 Zone

Living 2 Zone

Living 3 Zone

Total Living

Coastal Hazards 731 54 90 528 0 0 528 Flood Hazard 13,253 2,868 1,259 2,303 25 83 2,411 High/Med Instability 15,880 3,205 1,922 6,858 51 1,033 7,942 Erosion Prone Land 2,350 511 284 422 0 93 515 Total Parcels 47,834 11,833 5,721 21,968 506 1,529 24,003

Northland and Whangarei must consider their options on how to best manage natural hazards in the face of continuing development pressure. Overall, careful land use planning, taking into account natural hazard risk, is required when determining the future land uses in the district. Natural hazard constraints are not absolute constraints and development may occur on areas facing flood susceptibility or land instability following localised investigations and site specific solutions. However, there will be areas where development should be avoided and/or restricted to avoid an increase in hazard risk, particularly flooding, coastal erosion, and land instability. It is preferable to avoid such locations when feasible to do so.

Over and above determining the macro scale of the most risk-free settlement pattern for the district, careful (and more detailed) local analyses are required during structure planning of identified growth areas within the district. These structure plans should identify and direct development away from high risk areas towards areas of lesser risk. Structure plan directions then need to be incorporated into District Plan provisions and resource consent processes.

In addition, strong leadership in managing risks associated with natural hazards will continue to be necessary at the regional level, especially as many of the local risks result from similar patterns regionally. Whilst there are initiatives at the regional level, there is still a need to strengthen these to direct settlement away from hazardous areas.

Further Information: Whangarei District Council, 2009, Natural Hazard Constraints Report


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Climate change and global warming act to change environmental conditions by placing pressure on species and altering their distribution. It is difficult to predict the exact consequences of climate change, but reducing the effects of human induced changes through consolidated planning will allow for more habitat protection.

Collectively, invasive animal and plant pests pose the greatest single threat to our remaining natural ecosystems. The threat has increased with more and more development encroaching on natural habitats and predators, such as cats and dogs, being in close proximity to native species. Consolidating development growth in already compromised areas will help to ensure currently unthreatened and naturally significant environments are more likely to be retained.

Map of Formally Protected Land in Whangarei District.Figure 47:


Biodiversity2.3 The natural environment plays an important role in defining the character of Northland, including Whangarei. The varied landscapes within the district provide a diverse range of habitat, and encourage a high level of biodiversity (totality of living species). Our native species, their genetic diversity, and the habitats and ecosystems which support them are of considerable significance and their continued existence important. Biodiversity is also vital for developments in agriculture, forestry, fishing, aquaculture, and tourism, which are all dependent on sustainably managed natural resources, including biodiversity.

Whangarei District contains four broad indigenous ecosystem types: forests and shrublands; freshwater wetlands; coasts, dunelands and estuaries; and offshore islands and stacks. There are also eight ecological districts represented in the Whangarei District, comprised of varying characteristics and priorities for protection. Land cover in the Whangarei District is dominated by exotic grassland (53%), indigenous forest (22%), pine forest (11%), and manuka/kanuka (5%). The remaining land is comprised of such landscapes as wetland, duneland, fernland, gorse and broom, horticultural land, and urban areas.

Threats to BiodiversityIn terms of threatened environments, 12% of the land area of the district is ‘acutely threatened’, and 11% is ‘chronically threatened’. These areas come under the category ‘National Priority 1’, which is to protect indigenous vegetation on private land associated with land environments that have 20% or less remaining in indigenous cover. Further to this, 13% of land is classified as ‘at risk’, 46% ‘critically under protected’, 18% ‘l ess reduced and better protected’ and nearly 1% ‘under-protected’, with the remaining percentage undefined (Landcare Research, 2007).

There are 205 threatened species present in the Whangarei District. Forty five are described as ‘threatened’ and 160 ‘at risk’. Of the total, 117 are animals and 88 are plants. Table 22 shows the number and status of threatened species in the district. These include animals such as the New Zealand Fairy Tern, Brown Teal (Pateke), North Island Brown Kiwi and Long-Tailed Bat, along with plants such as the Kakabeak and Royal Fern.

Number and Status of Threatened and At Risk Species in Whangarei DistrictTable 22:

Threatened At Risk Subtotal Threatened

Subtotal At Risk Total

Critical Endangered Vulnerable Declining Recovering Naturally Uncommon Relict

Birds 4 2 11 7 5 9 3 17 24 41

Mammals - - 1 - - - - 1 0 1

Reptiles and Amphibians

- - - 4 - 8 - 0 12 12

Fish - - - 4 - 3 - 0 7 7

Invertebrates 2 4 1 5 - 52 - 7 57 64

Subtotal Animals

6 6 13 20 5 72 3 25 100 125

Plants 8 11 1 23 - 37 - 20 60 80

Total 14 17 14 43 5 109 3 45 160 205


National and regional state of the environment reports indicate a continuing loss of biodiversity. There are several main threats to biodiversity and reasons why it is in decline. The first of these is population growth and increased loss of indigenous habitat. Ecosystem degradation and habitat loss occurs as humans expand their activities and alter land uses.


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associated with further development, along with increased efforts to protect existing biodiversity from pests (including predators) and weeds.

Map of Land and Coast Care Groups in Whangarei District. Figure 48:


Further Information: Whangarei District Council, 2010, Biodiversity Background Report

Protection and Enhancement of BiodiversityThere is a range of legislation and national policy that address the need to protect biodiversity. These include: Reserves Act 1977, which provides for reserves and conservation covenants to be established; Conservation Act 1987, which established the Department of Conservation (DoC); Resource Management Act 1991, which includes protection of indigenous flora, fauna and habitat as a matter of national importance and the maintenance of indigenous biodiversity as a function of local and regional authorities; Treaty of Waitangi responsibilities under various statutes; the New Zealand Biodiversity Strategy 2000,which established a framework for the conservation and management of biodiversity; and a Statement of National Priorities for Biodiversity 2007.

Only a small proportion of land in the Whangarei District is under formal protection for biodiversity values (24,698ha comprising 9% of the district’s land area). This includes public conservation land (Department of Conservation), Northland Regional Council community pest controlled areas, Whangarei District Council reserves and conservation covenants, Queen Elizabeth II covenants, Nga whenua rahui kawenata (covenants on Maori land), Fish and Game wetlands, and a New Zealand Forest Restoration Trust reserve (see Table 23 and Figure 47).

Formally Protected Areas in the Whangarei DistrictTable 23:

Organisation Type of protection Area (ha) % of DistrictDepartment of Conservation Reserves 17,695 6.5Northland Regional Council* Community Pest Control Areas 1,444 0.4Whangarei District Council** Reserves (Parks)

Conservation Covenants2,318

1,178.50.9 0.4

QEII Conservation Covenants 2,054 0.8Nga Whenua Rahui Kawenata 10 Less than 0.1Fish and Game*** Wetlands 56 Less than 0.1NZ Forest Restoration Trust Reserve 242 Less than 0.1Total 24,698 9%

Source: Whangarei District Council, 2010. * Plus 641ha of NRC owned land ** Plus 3,195ha of Council owned land *** Plus 20ha leased from WDC

Other conservation measures in the district include animal and plant pest control programmes undertaken by the Northland Regional Council as part of their pest management strategy together with funding to private landowners to restore and protect biodiversity. The Department of Conservation runs captive breeding, release and translocation programmes for threatened and endangered species, and Whangarei District Council establishes conservation covenants as conditions of subdivision consents and has provided funding to the Queen Elizabeth II National Trust for establishing further covenants.

In addition, there are numerous community initiatives in the district to protect biodiversity, including 25 land care groups, eight coast care and four weedbuster groups (refer Figure 48). Other organisations, such as the Biodiversity Northland Forum, New Zealand Kiwi Foundation and Fish and Game New Zealand, are involved in protecting and enhancing biodiversity. Many farmers and landowners are also undertaking valuable biodiversity conservation and enhancement initiatives on private land.

Future development and population growth will continue to threaten biodiversity in the Whangarei District. While it is recognised that this growth is necessary, much can be done to reduce the impact on biodiversity. By consolidating growth and intensifying development in already compromised areas, the effects on biodiversity can be reduced. There will be an on-going need for more formal protection of critically threatened areas to protect them from potential impacts


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and enhancement of amenity values, the quality of the environment (of which landscape is a subset), and the finite characteristics of natural and physical resources (section 7). The Local Government Act 2002 also requires councils to act in accordance with a sustainable development approach, including the need to maintain and enhance the quality of the environment (section 14). Environmental well being includes protecting landscapes, natural features and natural character.

Other documents formulated under the Resource Management Act, including the New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement (NZCPS), Regional Policy Statement for Northland (RPS), Regional Coastal Plan for Northland (RCP), Regional Water and Soil Plan for Northland (RWSP), and the Whangarei District Plan are all required to address landscape protection. The mandate for landscape protection set out in the Resource Management Act is passed down through these documents, each addressing particular aspects and scales of protection, at national, regional and local levels.

The NZCPS makes protection of the natural character of the coast, and the protection of landscapes, seascapes and landforms, national priorities. In terms of subdivision, use or development of areas of the coastal environment, the NZCPS recognises that activities on the coast should not have significant adverse effects on the coastal environment or amenity values. It directs policy statements and plans to identify landscape features that are important to the region or district, give them adequate protection from inappropriate subdivision, use and development, and define what appropriate uses might be. It also directs them to recognise how open space is an important contributor to the coastal environment.

Documents required to give effect to the NZCPS, include the RPS, the RCP, and the RWSP for Northland. The RPS contains issues, objectives, policies and methods relating to outstanding landscapes and outstanding natural features, regarding their identification and protection from inappropriate subdivision, development and use. This is echoed in the RCP, which also contains a list of outstanding geological features and landforms, and landscapes in the coastal marine area. The presence of outstanding natural landscapes and features is also used in the criteria to determine areas of important conservation value, and as an assessment criterion when determining whether to grant resource consent. The RWSP mentions rivers and lakes with outstanding values, but not outstanding landscapes and outstanding natural features specifically.

However, there are no landscape specific rules in the RWSP or RCP. Rules in the RWSP are centred upon soil conservation, indigenous vegetation, riparian management, and water quantity and quality, through which matters of visual amenity and landscape values are influenced indirectly. Case law has established that scenic amenity, natural character and water quality are all matters of reference to landscape values. Rules in the RCP also indirectly influence landscape values in Coastal Marine Areas and relate to matters such as water quality, use of coastal space (i.e. structures) and activities such as dredging. Whether a proposed activity is ‘situated near an identified area of outstanding landscape value’ and ‘the extent to which the activity will compromise the landscape values of that area’ is a matter of discretion which the Regional Council may exercise when deciding resource consents.

There are current provisions in the Whangarei District Plan regarding development in ‘outstanding’ and ‘notable’ landscapes, and Outstanding Natural Features and Geological Sites as identified in the planning maps (Figure 49). Development restrictions are more comprehensive in areas of outstanding landscape. No buildings or structures are permitted as of right, and require a resource consent which takes into account such factors as colour, design, landscaping and the effect on skylines and ridgelines. Specified earthworks and indigenous vegetation clearance are permitted in outstanding landscape areas, subject to certain conditions. The establishment of forestry is controlled by resource consent.

Landscape/Natural Character2.4 The Whangarei District has a wide range of landscapes. These include rural lifestyle, pastoral land, forestry, bush clad hills, river-scapes, and diverse coastal landscapes. The district is well endowed with landscapes of high scenic values, coastal areas of high natural character and a unique geology forming significant natural features. Additionally a high proportion of the district is regarded as having aesthetically pleasing qualities (amenity) within which to live, work and play. These natural characteristics give the district a special sense of place and make the district unique within New Zealand.

Landscapes are in part comprised of the natural features of the land - the combination of landforms, coast, rivers and wetlands, and the vegetation that grows on the land’s surface, ranging from naturally occurring bush to cultivated pasture. These are further defined by the way buildings, roads and other structures are set amongst them. The varied combinations of natural and built features, including those of cultural significance, provide a complexity that further characterises landscapes. Landscapes are also perceptual, in that they can mean different things to different people. Some people may appreciate a landscape for its visual beauty and scenic qualities, others may recognise it as an important place for biodiversity, others as a place for recreation, and yet others may see it as a site of cultural significance.

Landscapes can be prominent and obvious, for example Bream Head at the entrance to Whangarei Harbour, while other landscapes have local significance through cultural, amenity, recreational or heritage values. These landscapes can be less visually dramatic or prominent – such as river and wetland systems, estuaries, pastoral productive areas, historic settlements or event locations, archaeological sites, memorials, or built elements such as the stone walling of Maunu, Maungatapere, Three Mile Bush Road and Glenbervie areas.

In a study by the Ministry for Culture and Heritage (2008), landscape and the environment were regarded as the most important contributors to New Zealand’s sense of identity, over and above history, culture, sport, or science and technology. Landscapes contribute to health and well being, enjoyment and quality of life values. They are the setting in which we live, work, and play. Landscapes also contribute to people’s ‘sense of place’, which describes the essence of a place that people gain through experience and knowledge of an area. Sense of place can be formed from the physical environment, along with experiences within that environment including memories, names, stories and legends, that all contribute to an affiliation with the land and its history.

Landscapes are also important for economic reasons. In the Whangarei District, our landscapes are particularly important, as the naturalness and beauty they contain are the reason many people live in, and visit the area. Research by Statistics New Zealand shows that one of the main reasons people move to Northland is the quality of the environment, and the main reason for staying is, once again, the environment. Tourism is an important contributor to the local economy, and landscape is a strong attractor for visitors to the Northland Region and Whangarei District. Thus the identification and protection of important landscapes is vital for a sustainable economy, as well as a sustainable environment.

Statutory Framework for Landscape ProtectionThe statutory framework for landscape management and protection is established by the Resource Management Act 1991. The Act requires councils to protect the natural character of the coastal environment, wetlands, lakes, rivers and their margins, and to protect outstanding natural features and landscapes from inappropriate subdivision, use and development as matters of national importance (section 6). Councils are also required to have particular regard to the maintenance


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The only restriction on buildings in notable landscape areas is building height. Specified earthworks and indigenous vegetation clearance are also permitted subject to conditions. Outstanding Natural Features and Geological Sites in the Whangarei District are identified in Appendix 13 of the District Plan, and included on the Resource Area maps. The same rules regarding development apply as in outstanding landscape areas.

Landscape Protection in the Whangarei DistrictIt is necessary first to define or classify landscapes and natural features in order to protect them, as required under the Resource Management Act. There also need to be appropriate policies and methods to protect identified landscapes from ‘inappropriate subdivision, use and development’ in regional and district plans. To this end, a landscape assessment of the Northland Region, including the Whangarei District, was carried out in 1995 by LA4 Landscape Architects. A review of the Whangarei area of this assessment was carried out in 2005 by Steven Brown Environments Ltd. and Beca Consultancy.

In the 1995 assessment, LA4 developed a character description of the district landscapes. Such values as vividness, complexity/diversity, cohesion, legibility, mystery, endemic associations, cultural associations, uniqueness/rarity, land use, how ‘developed’ the land was, vegetation cover and type, topographic type and diversity, and exposure/visibility were used. Landscape units were then categorised into sensitivity classes ranging from 1-7, seven being the most sensitive to change and one being the least sensitive (Figure 50).

The report recommended that all units rated as a “6” or “7” be classified as ‘outstanding’ in accordance with the provisions of the Resource Management Act. Units rated “5” were deemed to be ‘significant’ at the district level. The Northland Regional Council adopted the LA4 recommendation of classification of landscape units 6 and 7 as outstanding. A map of these areas is available for use on the GIS domain, but the data is not included in the RPS, even though this document contains policies regarding outstanding landscapes and outstanding natural features. The recommendations of the LA4 study applied to the three Northland districts of Whangarei, Kaipara and the Far North. However, the approach and translation into district plans adopted by each territorial authority in using the landscape assessment was different, resulting in differing standards across Northland.

In terms of the LA4 criteria, 17.5% of the Whangarei District would have been classified as outstanding, and 16% as ‘significant’ (refer Table 24). However, in the Whangarei District Plan, only landscape units identified as ‘7’ were recorded as ‘outstanding’ in relation to the Resource Management Act’s use of the term. Units identified as having a sensitivity rating of ‘6’ were classified as ‘notable’ landscapes with lesser development restrictions. Consequently, there are only six areas of outstanding landscape identified in the district – three at Whangarei Heads, Ngunguru Sandspit, Poor Knights Islands and the Hen and Chicken Islands. Most of these areas, with the exception of the Ngunguru Sandspit, are public reserves. There is little private land classified as outstanding.

Percentage of Whangarei District’s Land Area According to Sensitivity RatingTable 24:

Low Sensitivity High SensitivityRating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7Proportion of District 0% 0.3% 30.6% 35.5% 16.1% 16.1% 1.4%

Source: LA4 Whangarei District Landscape Assessment (1995).

A review of this study was undertaken in 2005 by Stephen Brown Environments Ltd. and Beca Consultancy, taking into account developments in case law regarding landscapes, and the Environmental Defence Society’s review of landscape planning procedures and management policies.

Outstanding and Notable Landscape Areas Identified in Whangarei District PlanFigure 49:

Source: Whangarei District Plan.


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In particular, the Environmental Defence Society review highlighted that new Resource Management Act provisions relating to addressing cultural/heritage landscapes need to be taken into account when identifying outstanding landscapes, and that greater accuracy in translation from study findings into district plans needs to be achieved. The Environment Court has also provided guidance on the identification of outstanding landscapes, in particular in the Pigeon Bay Aquaculture Limited v Canterbury Regional Council case.

The Resource Management Amendment Act 2003 added further emphasis to the concept of ‘cultural landscapes’ in protecting historic heritage from inappropriate subdivision, use and development (a matter of national importance), by extending the definition of historic heritage to include “surroundings associated with natural and physical resources”. Heritage is sometimes embedded in the land rather than in individual items or sites, and certain landscapes are imbued with cultural and spiritual significance, in particular, for Maori.

New maps of identified outstanding landscapes, visual amenity landscapes, and coastal natural character areas were then generated as a result of this review (Figure 51). The landscapes identified as a result of the review broadly follow the original findings of the LA4 study for landscape units 6 and 7 (outstanding).

Landscapes and Development PressureThe current classification of landscapes in the Whangarei District, and provisions relating to landscape protection, are not proving effective in protecting the outstanding landscapes of the district or the natural character of the coast from inappropriate subdivision, use and development as required under the Resource Management Act. The case-by-case basis of approving resource consents for activities in these areas, or allowing them as of right, has resulted in cumulative effects of a ‘death by 1,000 cuts’ that encroach on our distinctive landscapes, particularly along the coast.

There has been a high level of subdivision and development activity in the district outside of the main urban centres. The Countryside and Coastal Countryside Environments contain the majority of identified outstanding landscapes. Presently, these environments occupy over 65% of the district’s land area. Subdivision trends within the district occurring over the last 15 years indicate much subdivision occurring within the identified outstanding and notable landscapes and high amenity areas (Table 26).

Since 1995, 17% of areas with a sensitivity rating of 5, 6, or 7 have been altered through subdivision. In terms of protection, 2% of these areas have been protected by covenants, and 24% have reserve status administered by the Department of Conservation or Whangarei District Council. Forty-eight percent have been identified as Significant Natural Areas by the Department of Conservation, although this proportion will be higher when the Manaia Ecological District report becomes available, as a great deal of category 7 land is held in this ecological district. Of the remaining, only a small portion of it is protected from inappropriate subdivision, use or development.

During the period 1995-2009, 14.5% of all land use consents approved occurred in identified ‘significant’ or ‘outstanding’ landscape areas – a further 38% of building consents, and 43% of new lots created from subdivisions also occurred within these areas. In addition, 22% of category 5 land, 13% of category 6 land, and 7% of category 7 land has been subdivided over this time period. Aside from protection by placing a reserve status over land, or privately covenanting the most significant areas, there needs to be improved management and protection of landscape values to prevent cumulative effects of development affecting important iconic landscapes in the district.

LA4 Landscape Sensitivity AreasFigure 50:

Source: LA4 Whangarei District Landscape Assessment (1995).


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Development Activity in Whangarei District 1995 – 2009Table 25:

New Lots Created Through Subdivision

New Dwellings/ Building Consent Granted

Land Use Consents Granted

LA4 Category Lots Created % of Total BCs Granted % of Total LUCs Granted

% of Total

5 3,301 29% 2,018 28% 717 10%6 1,606 14% 645 9% 275 4%7 49 0.4% 45 1% 35 0.5%

Total for District 11,437 43.4% 7,262 38% 2,848 14.5%

Land Subdivision in Whangarei District 1995 – 2009Table 26:

LA4 Category Land Area in District (ha) Area of Land Subdivided (ha)

Percent of Land Area Subdivided

5 43,279 9,391 22%6 43,281 5,763 13%7 3,621 245 7%

Total Land Area 90,181 15,399 17%

The landscapes of the Whangarei District are highly important in terms of natural and cultural significance, and significance to the economy, and they provide residents of the district with a unique sense of place that makes the district a special location to live, work and play. To continue to provide these highly valuable services, these landscapes need to be protected from development of a type and scale that threatens to overwhelm the very attributes that make them special. For this to happen a clear, consistent methodology in identifying outstanding and significant landscapes needs to be developed. In addition, provisions further to what are currently in place need to be established to ensure protection.

Moreover, a more collaborative approach is needed to address landscapes, and ensure consistency in applying the findings of landscape assessments. There also needs to be better integrated management between terrestrial landscapes and those in the coastal marine area, including acknowledgement that land based activities have impacts on landscapes in the coastal marine area, and vice versa. This requires co-ordination between regional and territorial authorities.

Landscape protection, including the identification, classification and regulation of outstanding and significant landscapes should be undertaken on a Northland-wide basis, so that a coherent and consistent approach is adopted at a regional level. For this to happen, the Northland Regional Council must take a leading role, and a collaborative approach amongst all local authorities on the Northland peninsula is necessary. In the meantime, however, Whangarei District Council must ensure landscape protection is effective within the Whangarei District.

Whangarei is a district which places a heavy emphasis on its natural environment, coastline and recreational attributes in promoting itself as a visitor destination and a place to live, work and play. Despite the strong statutory requirements, and the obvious benefits to the district from protecting our iconic landscapes, they are under threat from inappropriate subdivision, use and development. The cumulative effects of residential development in these landscapes are adversely affecting the very values that make them, and our district, unique, and give it its distinctive ‘sense of place’. If this continues, the natural legacy left to subsequent generations will be much poorer than that inherited from previous generations.

2005 Landscape Review AreasFigure 51:

Source: Stephen Brown Environments Ltd, Landscape Review (2005).


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The standards also brought in design standards for new wood burners, conditions for wood burners installed on properties of less than 2ha, banned activities that discharge significant quantities of dioxins and other toxics into the air, and required landfill sites of over 1 million tonnes to collect greenhouse gas emissions.

At a regional level, the Northland Regional Council maintains the Regional Air Quality Plan (RAQP), which regulates the effects of activities on air quality. It also requires air discharge consents where an activity is likely to cause an adverse effect on air quality. The RAQP covers all land based discharges of contaminants to air, except those that occur in the Coastal Marine Area (covered by the Regional Coastal Plan).

The approach to managing air quality taken by the plan is that of ‘best practicable option’, which means that the best method for preventing or minimising adverse effects on the environment is selected when granting consent for discharge. By adopting this approach, resource consent applications for air discharges are dealt with on a case-by-case basis. In addition, a precautionary approach may be adopted where the effects of activities are unknown or poorly understood, but there is reason to believe they may be significant.

Marsden Point AirshedOne of the reasons for identifying Marsden Point as an ‘airshed’ is the presence of heavy industrial operations, plus the potential for more industry to establish on the large amount of land zoned ‘Business 4’, but currently under-utilised. Industrial development around Marsden Point has the potential to significantly affect the air quality of the surrounding area. A separate strategy (the Marsden Point Air Quality Strategy) has been developed by the Northland Regional Council to manage air quality here. At the time this was introduced the Northland Regional Council noted particular concern for the residential areas of Whangarei Heads, Ruakaka and One Tree Point (Northland Regional Council, 2007).

Marsden Point AirshedFigure 52:

Source: Northland Regional Council, 2007.

Air Quality2.5 The overall standard of air quality in Northland and the Whangarei District is high. However, the location of the surrounding hills creates conditions that could lead to high levels of air pollution at certain times. This threat is somewhat offset by prevailing south-westerly winds that disperse pollutants, but also the absence of much heavy industry, the relatively low level of emissions and a low and relatively dispersed population base.

The Northland Regional Council has identified areas (airsheds) where issues regarding air quality are more likely to arise, and where air quality needs to be closely managed with regards to future development. There are two airsheds in the Whangarei District – one covering Whangarei City and one at Marsden Point. Increases in domestic and industrial air emissions can be expected with an increase in population and development activity over the next 30/50 years, leading to possible constraints on development, particularly within the identified airsheds (Northland Regional Council, 2008).

It is important to keep air clean and as pollutant free as possible, as poor air quality can seriously affect people’s health, plant life, the economy (e.g. tourism, agriculture), and potentially inhibit development. These constraints on development need to be taken into account when planning for the district over the next 30/50 years.

Management frameworkAir quality in New Zealand is mainly regulated by the Resource Management Act 1991. Regional councils (and unitary authorities) hold primary responsibility under the Act to manage air quality, while the main function of territorial authorities is to manage the effects of land use and subdivision that may impact upon air quality.

National environmental standards are issued under the Resource Management Act. The National Environmental Standards for Air Quality were introduced in October 2004, and include the Ambient Air Quality Standards and Guidelines. These provide minimum requirements for outdoor air quality in order to protect human health and the environment. The standards also require regional councils to identify areas (‘airsheds’) where the concentration of air pollutants may come close to relevant national standards at times.

National Ambient Air Quality StandardsTable 27:

Pollutant Standard Time Average Allowable Exceedences per year

Fine Particles (PM10) 50 μg/m³ 24-hours 1

Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) 350 μg/m³ 1-hour 9570 μg/m³ 1-hour 0

Carbon Monoxide (CO) 10 mg/m³ 8-hours (running mean) 1 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) 200 μg/m³ 1-hour 9 Ozone (O3) 150 μg/m³ 1-hour 0

Source: Ministry for the Environment, 2008.

In most cases, they represent areas where the PM10 (particulate matter less than 10 microns in size and able to enter the human respiratory system) standard is known to have been, or likely to be, exceeded (however, Marsden Point Airshed was gazetted on the basis of SO2). Where an airshed is known to breach the environmental standard, the regional authority must develop a plan to ensure compliance by 2013. If the standard is exceeded after this time, no new air discharge consents for that pollutant may be granted. Notices of requirement and land use consent applications may face constraints in airsheds that exceed the air standards.


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to be more complex, given the potential for a large increase in both population and industry. Future management of air quality will require a more proactive approach than that presently relied upon, and better collaboration between regional and local authorities.

Further Information: Whangarei District Council, 2010, Air Quality Background Report

Whangarei Airshed Figure 53:

Source: Northland Regional Council.

Contaminants identified as being critical in this area are particulate matter smaller than ten microns (PM10), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), with further potential for discharges of other contaminants. Emissions from the New Zealand Refining Company Ltd., together with emissions from the Carter Holt Harvey LVL Plant, were estimated to produce 98% of the PM10 levels, 99% of the NO2 levels, and 100% of the SO2 levels.

Monitoring indicates that PM10 levels are not presently exceeding air quality standards or guidelines. However, PM10 emissions constitute a critical contaminant for managing air quality. It will therefore be important to manage PM10 levels as residential areas are developed and emissions from domestic and industrial sources increase, particularly given the adoption of the newly introduced Marsden Point Structure Plan, which indicates significant potential for residential and industrial development in the area. Although monitoring indicates that ambient levels of nitrogen oxides are low, they may increase in the future, especially if large combustion facilities were to develop within the area.

Atmospheric modelling has revealed that predictions of SO2 levels approach the National Environmental Standard for 1-hour averages within the immediate vicinity of the refinery, and that the airshed may be close to capacity for SO2 in this location. The modelling results furthermore suggest that particular care needs to be taken when considering proposals for future activities that may add to the existing levels of SO2. This may mean that plans for any new combustion processes to establish in the area need to undergo meticulous scrutiny. Any growth in the port operations may also translate into higher levels of SO2 due to shipping emissions (Northland Regional Council, 2007).

Given the potential for both significant residential and industrial development, as signalled in the Marsden Point/Ruakaka Structure Plan, air quality may well become a serious constraint in the Marsden Point Airshed, particularly in relation to particulate matter and SO2. Careful management of air emissions will be required over the longer term. This may well require a much more proactive management approach than that presently relied upon by the Northland Regional Council.

Whangarei AirshedAt the time of gazetting the Whangarei Airshed, the major contributors to contamination were a mixture of domestic home heating activities, vehicle emissions, and to a lesser extent, local industry. Under certain circumstances, such as during winter night-time inversion conditions, the Whangarei Airshed approaches, and sometimes exceeds, the National Environmental Standard for PM10. However, 2008/09 monitoring data indicates that PM10 levels did not exceed National Environment Standards within the specified monitoring period. Nevertheless, these areas will require continual monitoring. Historically, concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO) have also exceeded the relevant National Environmental Standard.

Over a time span of 30 to 50 years, additional development within the urban Whangarei area could mean that the standards are exceeded more frequently. This may have implications for managing growth over the longer term, including both residential expansion and industrial development in the Whangarei Port industrial area. It does not appear to be a serious constraint, but careful management of air emissions may be required, including domestic emissions, vehicle emissions and emissions from industry.

As the population in the Whangarei District grows, managing the air quality, particularly within the identified airsheds, will become more and more crucial. The cumulative impact of several sources of one contaminant, or a combination of different contaminants, may pose limits on the type and size of development that can take place in various locations. In the Whangarei Airshed, issues such as increases in vehicle emissions and the burning of fuel for home heating purposes may need to be considered as limiting factors. In the Marsden Point Airshed, future constraints appear


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Glenbervie aquifers are all considered ‘at risk’ due to high actual or potential demand. The main Bream Bay aquifer may also be at risk from salt water intrusion in the future due to rising sea levels.

For residential, agricultural and industrial development over the next 50 years water availability needs to be factored into planning. The provision of water to areas identified for residential and industrial development needs to be planned for in a proactive manner to ensure adequate water supply over the long term. This is a function of Infrastructure and Services Group at Whangarei District Council, which has developed robust plans for future water supply to urban areas to ensure adequate supply. Future needs are continuously identified and plans updated. The use of surface and groundwater for agricultural (and other) activities is controlled by the Northland Regional Council. Monitoring indicates that some catchments (particularly the Wairua catchment) and aquifers are over allocated.

At present, water of a certain volume is able to be taken as a permitted activity (i.e. without consent). These takes are not monitored, and so the total amount of water taken from a catchment or aquifer is not known. The cumulative effect could add up to a significant quantity of water that is not taken into account when making management decisions about allocation of remaining water. These takes should be monitored so that, once minimum flows have been set, the amount of water remaining for water takes can be assessed against what is already being taken. New regulations are being drafted to require larger water permit (consent) holders to measure their water takes. A proactive catchment-wide approach is needed to water management, taking into account the amount of available water, existing and potential land uses, current abstractions and accurate future allocation.

Location of Aquifers at Risk of High Actual or Potential Demand Figure 54:


Water Resources2.6 Sustainable water resources are vital to environmental, economic, social and cultural well being. Water is used for drinking, recreation and domestic purposes. It is used extensively in industry, agriculture, and horticulture, and is the foundation for aquaculture and water-based tourism. Rivers, streams, lakes and wetlands provide important ecosystem services such as water storage, groundwater recharge, flood attenuation, recycling nutrients, trapping sediments and filtering pollution, and provide habitat for many important indigenous species. Water also has a high cultural and spiritual value to Maori as a life-giving force, a habitat for important food species, and source of traditional materials.

Management of Water ResourcesThe Resource Management Act 1991 is the key legislation governing the management of freshwater and coastal water resources in New Zealand. Under the Act, regional and unitary authorities are responsible for making decisions on the allocation and use of water within their boundaries and for managing water quality. District councils are responsible for the effects of land use on physical resources, including water and, specifically, controlling any actual or potential effects of activities in relation to the surface water in river and lakes.

The Northland Regional Council carries out its functions relating to water using a number of planning documents including the Regional Policy Statement for Northland (RPS), the Regional Water and Soil Plan (RWSP) and the Regional Coastal Plan (RCP). The RPS sets the broad policy direction for managing inland and coastal waters, while the RWSP controls the allocation and quality of fresh water, and the RCP controls the quality of coastal water. The Whangarei District Council controls land use activities that may have effects on water quality through provisions in the Whangarei District Plan.

The Government has issued a draft National Policy Statement (NPS) on Freshwater Management, and a draft National Environmental Standard (NES) on Ecological Flows and Water Levels. The NPS creates objectives and policies regarding the management of freshwater as a matter of national significance. These have to be given effect to in regional and district plans, thus influencing water management at all levels. The NES is intended to impose limits and set methodology for assessing the minimum amount of water required in rivers and streams to maintain flow for environmental, cultural and ecological reasons.

Water QuantityAlthough Northland and Whangarei District generally receive significant rainfall, much of this water is quickly transferred to the sea due to rivers characteristically being short and catchments relatively small. The region and district are also prone to periodic droughts. Both of these factors tend to reinforce the fact that water availability for human use is sometimes constrained, and at times, severely constrained. Data collected also shows that, in some locations, surface and groundwater resources are already over-allocated, and constraints on use could worsen with future effects of climate change (such as increased evaporation, increased droughts, lowering of water tables and sea water intrusion of coastal aquifers).

As a result, future development in some locations may be constrained by water availability, and planning for such development needs to take these constraints into account. Particular concern arises around horticultural development on the highly versatile soils in the Whangarei District which have been identified as holding much promise for increased food production with associated potential for expanding exports and increasing employment opportunities. Aquifers underlying these soils are already under stress through over allocation and will become increasingly so in the future. In particular, the Maunu, Maungatapere, Maungakaramea, Three Mile Bush and


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that, nationwide, the level of non-compliance with resource consents for discharge of dairy farm effluent is the highest in the Northland Region, amounting to 27% of the total number of farms assessed.

Fresh Water Quality of Selected Rivers in the Whangarei District 2007 Table 28:

Site Number of years sampled % complying with recreational guidelineMangakahia River at Twin Bridges 5 72Raumanga Stream 5 71Hatea River at Whangarei Falls 5 72Lake Waro, Hikurangi 5 31Ocean Beach Stream 3 40Lang’s Beach Stream 3 31Wairua River at Purua 8 83Mangahahuru Stream at Main Rd 2 90Mangakahia River at Titoki 8 77Whakapara River 8 82Waiotu River at SH1 7 69Waiarohia Stream at Second Ave 2 50Mangahahuru Stream at Apotu Rd 8 33Mangere River 8 54Waiarohia Stream at Whau Valley Road 2 0


Sedimentation from land development requires better controls to ensure sediment is prevented from reaching waterways. Both the Northland Regional Council and Whangarei District Council have a responsibility to better control earthworks. In addition, fencing off riparian margins to exclude stock from waterways, together with riparian plantings, would decrease sedimentation from farmed land. Better controls on forest harvesting are also required to prevent sediment escape.

It is essential that discharges of sewage into waterways are reduced, both from reticulated and non-reticulated systems. To this end, the Whangarei District Council has initiated a major upgrade of the Whangarei wastewater system to reduce overflows into the upper harbour and the reticulated system is being extended to un-reticulated areas. These are positive moves that should improve water quality in the harbour and along the coast. Further analysis of stormwater and industrial discharges is needed to determine how best to reduce chemical contamination of waterways, particularly from urban areas.

Overall, water is not managed well in Northland. Reticulated urban supply is proactively planned for over a 30/50 year period, but allocation of surface water and aquifers does not appear to be adequately managed. Many catchments and aquifers are already over allocated (or there is insufficient information to determine this) and future water demands for agriculture may not be met. The quality of freshwater resources, given the population of Northland, is substandard compared to other regions. The quality of some coastal water is poor. Whilst many landowners and land (coast) care groups are undertaking tremendous efforts to improve water quality, much more needs to be done.

Future development throughout the district must be planned so that water quality is not adversely affected and, over time, existing water quality of both fresh and coastal water must be improved to the point where all water is safe for recreational use and for food gathering. Only by achieving this can development be considered sustainable over the long term.

Further information: Whangarei District Council, 2010, Water Resources Background Report

Percentage of Estimated Mean Annual Low Flow Allocated by Consented Water Figure 55: Take for Main Sub-catchments


Water QualityWater quality of both fresh water resources and some coastal waters in Northland and the Whangarei District is not good. Surface fresh water is overall of poor quality and is deteriorating further. Water in many streams and rivers is often not considered suitable for stock, or for recreational uses. Where monitoring has occurred, water quality of lakes in the district has also been shown to be poor. Groundwater is generally of better quality, although there needs to be more monitoring to improve data. Only 5% of wetlands remain in the district and these are vulnerable to further changes in hydrological regimes.

Coastal water in certain locations is of poor quality at particular times of the year, and on occasions is not safe for recreational bathing or gathering of shellfish. Results of monitoring indicate that at some beaches along the Whangarei coast the water is contaminated with human viruses and bacteria. In the Whangarei Harbour, monthly monitoring is carried out at 20 sampling sites. The results indicate there are high levels of faecal coliform in the upper harbour. There are also significant concentrations of heavy metals (lead, zinc, copper) in upper harbour sediments close to urban areas.

There are numerous contributors to poor water quality, but the four main ones appear to be agricultural practices (particularly dairying); sedimentation due to land development; sewage discharges, both from reticulated system overflows as well as seepage from individual on-site systems; and urban stormwater/industrial discharges. All four require serious attention if our water quality is not to deteriorate further.

Agricultural activities need to take a much more proactive approach to reducing point and non-point discharges to waterways. It is a function of the Northland Regional Council to ensure this approach is implemented, and compliance with discharge consents is achieved. The recently published yearly ‘snapshot of progress’ relating to the Dairying and Clean Streams Accord showed


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if the future land use is of a more sensitive nature (i.e. residential). The potential presence of contaminated land, along with development constraints, should be taken into account when planning the future spatial distribution of land uses.

Management FrameworkThere is currently a range of laws and regulations, guidelines and funding arrangements for managing land contamination in New Zealand. The seven main statutes cover prevention of contamination; contaminated land management; enforcement, remediation and liability; protection of the environment (including human health) from the effects of contaminated land; and access to information about contaminated land (as shown in Table 30 below).

Legislation Regarding Contaminated Land in New ZealandTable 30:

Prevention Management Protection of Environment Access to Information

Resource Management Act 1991

Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996

Health Act 1956

Health & Safety in Employment Act 1992

Building Act 2004

Food Act 1981

Local Government Official Information & Meetings Act

1987

Source: Ministry for the Environment.

A number of the statutes overlap in jurisdiction, particularly in the realm of environmental protection. Four of the five statutes governing this (excepting the Resource Management Act) have separate and distinct functions. The Health Act deals with public health nuisance from contaminated land; the Health and Safety in Employment Act with workplace safety; the Food Act with food safety; and the Building Act with suitability of land for proposed buildings.

The Resource Management Act 1991 is the core piece of legislation for controlling the effects of contaminated land on the environment and people. It also sets out the roles and responsibilities of local government in regard to managing contaminated land. Regional councils must identify and monitor land that is contaminated within their region. District and city councils have the responsibility of managing the effects of land use and subdivision of contaminated land, including the potential for land contamination. Because district and regional plans are prepared separately, there is a certain amount of variability between requirements and thresholds in terms of how they address contaminated land.

The Proposed National Environmental Standard for Assessing and Managing Contaminants in Soil was released by the Ministry for the Environment in February 2010. It proposes to set a standard at which land is considered safe for human habitation, and aims to ensure that land affected by contaminants in soil is appropriately identified and assessed at the time of being developed to make it safe for human use. Regional and district plans will have to incorporate the standard when it comes into effect, and thus have effect at regional and district levels (Ministry for the Environment, 2010).

Other measures to control the management of contaminated land include a series of contaminated land guidelines developed by the Ministry for the Environment as part of a work programme

Contaminated Land2.7 New Zealand has a legacy of land contamination due to historic use, storage and disposal of chemicals utilised in industry, agriculture and horticulture, the storage and use of hazardous substances, and the disposal of hazardous wastes. Activities that have caused, or potentially cause, contamination in the Whangarei District include: landfills, production, use and storage of petroleum products, timber treatment at sawmills and timber treatment plants, manufacture and use of pesticides, production of gas and coal products, historic mining, quarries, wastewater treatment plants, fertiliser works, and some agricultural and horticultural activities. Many of these activities were not known to be hazardous at the time, and environmental precautions were often minimal.

The Northland Regional Council maintains the Hazardous Activities and Industry List (HAIL) for the region, including the Whangarei District. This list identifies sites which, because of past or present land use, have been contaminated, or are at risk of contamination. Site status can range from confirmed contamination, contamination that is acceptable/managed/remediated, having verified or unverified history, or no identified contamination. Being listed on the register does not necessarily mean that the site is contaminated, and all contaminated sites are not necessarily listed either. The number and status of sites in the Whangarei District are shown in Table 29, and a spatial representation is given in Figure 56. Identified contaminated sites are mainly in urban areas. However, there are potentially many more unidentified sites in rural areas given the historical use of pesticides, herbicides and other chemicals associated with agriculture and horticulture.

Number and Type of Contaminated Sites in the Whangarei District Table 29:

Status NumberContamination Confirmed 22Contamination Acceptable/Managed/Remediated 18Verified History 268Unverified History 48No Identified Contamination 3No Data 1Total 358


Humans are exposed to a myriad of chemicals every day, however, this exposure generally occurs at low enough levels that health is not impaired. Contaminants become a problem when the hazardous substances are at a concentration and in a place where they have, or are reasonably likely to have, an adverse effect on human health and/or the environment, i.e. where food is grown, or in close proximity to buildings, people, water bodies and important habitats. The effects of hazardous substances can be far reaching, as they may infiltrate through the soil into groundwater, or be carried to nearby land in waterways and rainwater. Hazardous gases can also pollute the air, and be returned to the land when it rains. As well as endangering human life and the environment, the presence of contaminants can also cause corrosion and threaten buildings and structures, limiting use of land, and reducing land values.

The Resource Management Act 1991 requires local authorities to maintain records of contaminated sites within their respective regions and districts. However, there are potentially many more rural horticultural and agricultural sites that, through historical use of herbicides and pesticides and other contaminants, may be contaminated but are not listed as such. The fact that we do not know about these sites can potentially have serious consequences on future development. Future land use and subdivision may occur on unidentified contaminated sites, causing concern, particularly


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Contaminated and Potentially Contaminated Land in Whangarei District Figure 56:

Source Data: Northland Regional Council.

to address the risks to land from historical contamination. This builds on the policy foundation established under the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council in 1992. Under the Stockholm Convention, New Zealand is also obliged to remove stockpiles of persistent organic compounds, such as agrichemicals like DDT, by 2013. Consequently, since 2003, approximately 270 tonnes of agrichemicals have been collected and removed from rural properties across New Zealand.

Future ManagementMajor constraints on the effective management and prevention of contaminated land, currently and in the future, are the varying sets of legislation and guidelines covering the issue, and the lack of consistency around identifying contaminated sites. This can cause confusion and conflict over roles and responsibilities of organisations, what level of contamination is acceptable, if any, and the location of potentially contaminated sites.

Amendments to the Resource Management Act in 2005 clarified the roles and responsibilities of regional and district councils with regard to contaminated land management. However, it is indicated that these requirements need to be updated in district and regional plans. Also, guidance from the Government over standardised identification and assessment procedures for contaminated land (Proposed National Environmental Standard for Assessing and Managing Contaminants in Soil) will go some way to increasing knowledge and gaining consistency in identifying contaminated land. However, it may be some time before the standard is enacted, and the standard will also only impact on new land use decisions and resource consent applications.

Given the current inadequate checks, controls and information on the use, subdivision and development of land affected by soil contamination, there is a real risk of exposing people and the environment to contaminants when future development occurs. This is especially so when the land is developed into a more sensitive land use (i.e. lower tolerance for contamination). For obvious reasons, there are inherent constraints in developing land that is contaminated.

These constraints can come in the form of costs to human life and the environment, the cost of remediating contamination, or the cost of having land that is not suitable for further development. Identifying where historic activities make land contamination a possibility requires significant human and financial resources. However, it is an important step in managing future land uses and avoiding development on contaminated land.

The effectiveness of the Whangarei District Council to control the effects of land uses in regard to contaminated sites is limited by the lack of information on the number and location of such sites. Until this information is available, the council is constrained in its statutory role, both in regard to disseminating information on, and managing the effects of, contaminated land. With the likely future increase in residential development in the district, it will be critical to identify potentially contaminated sites, and carry out investigations to ensure that the land is safe for human habitation.

Proposals for future development and growth in the Whangarei District will have to be cognisant of the latent dangers and prospective costs associated with the identification, mitigation, remediation and/or management of potentially contaminated land, particularly where development involves the use of rural land (about which little is known concerning contamination).

Further Information: Whangarei District Council, 2010, Contaminated Land Report


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In New Zealand, mean air temperature increased by approximately 1.0°C from 1855 – 2004 with a rise of 0.4°C occurring since 1950. On the coasts around New Zealand, local sea surface temperature has risen by 0.7°C since 1871. Relative sea level rise has averaged 1.6 +/-0.2 mm per year since 1900 (Ministry for the Environment, 2008).

Future ProjectionsSimilar to the international context, temperatures in New Zealand are expected to increase along with changes in amount/distribution of rainfall over New Zealand. Overall, annual temperatures are projected to increase by 0.9°C by 2040, and 2.1°C by 2090. However, there could be substantial seasonal differences.

Projected Temperature Increases for Northland (°C) *Table 31:

Region Decade Summer Autumn Winter Spring AnnualNorthland 2040 1.1 [ 0.3, 2.7] 1.0 [ 0.2, 2.9] 0.9 [ 0.1, 2.4] 0.8 [ 0.1, 2.2] 0.9 [ 0.2, 2.6]

2090 2.3 [ 0.8, 6.6] 2.1 [ 0.6, 6.0] 2.0 [ 0.5, 5.5] 1.9 [ 0.4, 5.5] 2.1 [ 0.6, 5.9]Auckland 2040 1.1 [ 0.3, 2.6] 1.0 [ 0.2, 2.8] 0.9 [ 0.2, 2.4] 0.8 [ 0.1, 2.2] 0.9 [ 0.2, 2.5]

2090 2.3 [ 0.8, 6.5] 2.1 [ 0.6, 5.9] 2.0 [ 0.5, 5.5] 1.9 [ 0.4, 5.4] 2.1 [ 0.6, 5.8]

Source: Ministry for the Environment, 2008.*Note the figures in brackets indicate the range of temperature change.

Whilst 1 or 2°C mean temperature increase may not sound like a large change, it can have a very significant influence on the occurrence of ‘extreme weather’. For example, Auckland has a mean of 21.3 hot days (above 25°C) and Tauranga has approximately 23.3 hot days annually. Whangarei would have similar numbers to both these centres. Under projected climate change, the number of hot days could double by 2040, and increase by 40 - 50 extra days per annum by 2090 within Whangarei District if the mean annual temperature is 2.3°C above present (Gardiner et al., 2008). This would change the frequency of hot days from the equivalent of three weeks per annum to almost ten weeks per annum. Higher numbers of hot days can have an impact on issues such as increased energy use for cooling and air-conditioning, flora and fauna, agriculture, and many other parameters.

Projected Differences in Seasonal and Annual Precipitation (mm)*Table 32:

Region Location Decade Summer (%) Autumn (%) Winter (%) Spring (%) Annual (%)Northland Kaitaia 2040 1 [−15, 20] −0 [−14, 16] −5 [−23, 1] −6 [–18, 4] −3 [−13, 5]

2090 −1 [−26, 21] −3 [−22, 11] −8 [−32, 2] −11 [−33, 8] −6 [−22, 5]Whangarei 2040 1 [−14, 23] 1 [−15, 33] −9 [−38, −1] −9 [−25, 3] −4 [−16, 7]

2090 0 [−20, 19] 1 [−27, 26] −12 [−45, −0] −16 [−45, 1] −7 [−28, 2]Auckland Warkworth 2040 1 [−16, 20] 1 [−13, 22] −4 [−22, 2] −6 [−18, 6] −3 [−13, 5]

2090 −2 [−31, 20] −1 [−20, 12] −4 [−24, 5] −12 [−33, 6] −5 [−19, 6]Mangere 2040 1 [−17, 20] 1 [−14, 17] −1 [−10, 5] −5 [−15, 10] −1 [−10, 6]

2090 −1 [−33, 20] −2 [−21, 12] −1 [−12, 9] −9 [−30, 11] −3 [−13, 9]

Source: Ministry for the Environment, 2008.*Note that the figures in brackets indicate the range of precipitation change.

As well as changes in temperature, there are also projected changes in precipitation. The overall prospect is for reduced precipitation annually, but especially in winter and spring seasons. Whilst future changes in temperature are roughly comparable across the whole district and much of the region, the precipitation projections have more geographic variability, according to the season, with an overall decline in precipitation. In terms of seasonal changes, major decreases are likely in winter and spring precipitation, and very small changes (and possible increases) in summer and autumn around the eastern hills north of Whangarei Harbour, but an overall decline south

Climate Change2.8 Climate change has long been perceived as a threat to the environment, but in recent years this threat perception has expanded to include social, cultural, security, and economic concerns. The theory underpinning human induced climate change, put very simply, is that increased emissions of so-called greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane and others) into the atmosphere traps more energy from solar sources which, in turn, can raise global temperatures, although final impact is variable across the globe. As global temperature rises, climate change is projected to have an impact on the habitable ranges of flora and fauna, increase natural hazard risk, impact on traditional methods and areas of food production, increase infrastructure costs, and impact on many other areas of human life.

Higher global temperatures can also affect the global biogeochemical cycles by changing various rates of reaction at massive scales. It is also generally recognised that future temperature changes will not necessarily rise in a relatively predictable linear fashion, but instead will consist of tipping points, in which one action causes further reactions across the board that either speed up or slow down the rate of temperature increase.

It has been estimated that approximately 900 billion tonnes of CO2 has been released through industrial activity and land use changes since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, of which 450 billion tonnes is estimated to remain in the atmosphere. This would mean that the other 450 billion tonnes has been removed from the atmosphere through biogeochemical processes such as absorption within the ocean, uptake in forests, and other large scale environmental processes. Reported atmospheric CO2 concentrations reached 387 parts per million (ppm) in 2008, which is much higher than any other time within the last 650,000 years, during which the CO2 concentrations ranged between 180-300ppm. The recent CO2 concentrations are in uncharted territory for humanity in terms of underlying climate. It is this unprecedented nature of climate change that makes policy difficult to develop.

At the global level, there is intense research and discussion as to what changes are taking place, how fast change is, what needs to be done, and who is responsible. Politicians across the world continue to discuss and debate such issues, with the result that there is no clear policy direction. Meanwhile, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration State of the Environment Report stated that the last decade is the warmest on record.

Effect of Climate Change on Average and Extreme TemperaturesFigure 57:

Previous climate New climate

Probabilityof occurance

(a)

Less coldweather

More hotweather

More recordhot weather

COLD AVERAGE HOT

Increase in mean temperature



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damaging to local productivity and the district economy. An increase in water storage may be an option to reduce vulnerability, but it may not be possible in all locations, and requires further research. These climatic changes will likely impact on overall capacity for agricultural production in some areas in Whangarei District.

Many of the high priority natural hazards found in Northland and Whangarei are driven by extreme weather events such as storms, ex-tropical cyclones and other factors that influence rainfall and wind patterns. All impact on agricultural production. In terms of key agricultural viability parameters, water is expected to be a key limiting factor in future production. Parts of Northland already have a natural shortfall of water during the growing seasons. Low level droughts do occur regularly, and occasionally these low level events have occurred over consecutive growing seasons.

The final impact of climate changes is dependent on a range of factors, including historical responses to natural hazard risks, local flexibility in agricultural practice, and relative dependence on permanent infrastructure for production, e.g. high intensity methods using confined animal feeding operations that cannot be moved easily. Whangarei District’s significant dependence on primary production means that this risk is substantial.

Biological DiversityClimate change will exacerbate the impacts of threats to biodiversity such as habitat fragmentation, resource availability, competition from other species, and pest/weed invasion. Northland is significant in terms of biological diversity in New Zealand. Conversely, it also has the highest number of threatened species across all regions, and much of the remaining productive lowland forests are heavily fragmented. The favourable climate has also led to Northland having one of the highest invasion and naturalization rates of invasive species for any region in New Zealand, in both terrestrial and aquatic environments. Climate change is expected to exacerbate this pest/weed invasion.

Whangarei District has approximately 14-16% of its land area covered by indigenous habitat, of which only 6.5% is formally protected as Department of Conservation reserves. This indigenous habitat is heavily fragmented, with most patches located on steep hills that are not connected very well to other patches. Whilst habitat destruction has slowed considerably in recent years, the fragmentation and modification of remaining habitat patches through land use changes remains a threat, because such patches are open to weed invasion and have reduced levels of recruitment of indigenous species. Fragmented forests, especially in lowland areas, are also vulnerable to drying out, with an expected increase in fire hazard risks.

Specialist species of biota are expected to suffer major reductions in their ranges or may be outcompeted by exotic species as resource availability changes the environment. Whilst much decline can be attributed to predator and pest invasion and habitat fragmentation, climatic impacts on the quality of food and other resources is important. Increased temperatures can also change resource requirements and metabolic rates of individual members of many species. Extreme weather events such as drought have already been implicated in the decline or disappearance of species historically found in, or close to, Whangarei District, such as Weka, Pateke, and kiwi.

Research has indicated that drought was a major driver in the replacement of native dune grasses by marram grass, which can cope with much drier conditions for longer periods. This finding has implications for longer term dune restoration programmes along northern coastlines. Streams, and their corresponding biota, are highly susceptible to the impacts of climate change, with higher water temperatures, shifting sedimentation patterns, and changes to the invertebrate communities being expected. Such changes in invertebrate communities can reduce the capacity of streams to provide ecosystem services such as high water quality.

and west of Whangarei City. Despite these projected reductions in precipitation, rainfall intensity is projected to increase.

Projected Seasonal Changes in Precipitation for Whangarei DistrictFigure 58:

Spring Precipitation Changes

Autumn Precipitation Changes

Summer Precipitation Changes

Winter Precipitation Changes

Whangarei

Whangarei

Whangarei

Whangarei


A changing climate can have a significant impact on many issues within the district, including the following:

InfrastructureA changing climate will have an impact on infrastructure in Whangarei District, with larger peak flows in stormwater systems, potential water supply problems, effects on wastewater disposal, damage to roading infrastructure, and changes in the coastline all being of importance. In recent years, the cost of storm damage to roading infrastructure in Whangarei has been high and any changes in storm frequency or intensity is likely to have further impact on the roading network, and the subsequent resources required for repairs, especially in areas that already have risks associated with high land instability. The settlements located in areas already exposed to natural hazards such as flooding or coastal erosion/inundation are likely to have additional cost imposed due to climatic damage. Sea level rise can also have an impact on coastal infrastructure, with wave, current, and tidal flow patterns all projected to change along the coast, and in estuaries and harbours.

AgricultureFuture climate projections suggest that Northland is likely to have sub-optimal conditions for the production of many of its ‘traditional’ primary products, with subsequent loss of productivity in many years. Two types of impacts on primary production are expected from climatic changes, these being long run changes on the overall climatic conditions for production growth, and the short-medium term impacts of extreme weather conditions. Adaptation measures may provide viable alternatives to present methods or inputs, with changes in farming technique, investigations into alternative feed crops, and a re-evaluation of some land uses all being expected to occur over time.

Climate change projections especially point to an overall reduction in water availability in Whangarei District, especially as there are no alpine fed rivers available to reduce water vulnerability. Repeated low level drought conditions carrying over consecutive years are expected to occur more regularly, from approximately 30% chance to 40% over time. The likelihood of consecutive extreme drought rises from 1% to 5% probability or from a one in 100 year Annual Return Interval (ARI) to a one in 20 year ARI. The impacts of such a scenario would be extremely


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HealthWhangarei District is at risk from a large variety of biological invaders, including diseases associated with warmer climates, which have an impact on human health. This is because the more benign climate can allow the presence of invertebrates that transmit disease that would have otherwise have been killed off during winter periods. In recent years, avian and H1N1 influenza have received much publicity, but other types of disease, such as the Ross River Virus, could become established in Northland given an increase in potential vector species. Infectious diseases of note that are vector-borne include the salt-marsh mosquito capable of transmitting Ross River Virus, and Barmah Forest Virus. Extreme weather can also have health impacts. For example, higher incidences of flooding can impact on infrastructure such as water supply, which in turn can increase the risk from waterborne disease. Likewise, extreme heat waves such as those experienced in Europe recently have been linked to increased mortality and social distress.

Other ImpactsBeyond the impacts noted above, climate change is projected to have impacts on other aspects of importance to Whangarei District. These impacts include, but are not limited to:

As extreme weather events increase in intensity, more damage to council property and assets • is likely. These include buildings, roads, pipelines, parks and economic assets. If maintenance costs increase substantially, other projects may not be able to be implemented. Long term damage to local iconic features, such as increasing landslide risk for some natural features within the district, washing out of some popular beaches, and drying out of bush, may occur.Should in-stream water levels drop markedly, there can be resultant decreased water quality as • the stream water temperature rises, which, in turn, allows better growing conditions for some algae. In addition, if smaller flows are not accompanied by a decreased shift in external inputs to the stream, water quality will reduce as the receiving waters are less able to cope with the inputs.There can be increased calls to infrastructure providers to provide higher levels of water security • following any severe drought. This can result in unexpected costs for the water provider. Increased water temperatures within private and public water storage tanks may be suitable for pathogens suited to high temperatures. This can create higher health risks, and may require higher levels of treatment, which can be costly.Many buildings in New Zealand, and around Whangarei District, may not be designed to suit • new conditions, which may become a problem given that much of the present housing stock will continue into the new climatic environment. Recent calls for future-proofing dwellings will aid new stock, but older stock may be prohibitively expensive to retro-fit.

Secondary ImpactsIncreases in Council operational costs were already noted above, but there will be higher • operational costs across the wider community for maintenance of building and structures, leading to downstream effects on the ability of some to pay rates. Changes in the policy environment may occur as legislation at Central Government level shifts • the focus onto local government activities. Over time, it is expected that Central Government endeavours to mitigate and adapt to climate change will increase, especially as increased information becomes available, and as the international policy direction becomes clearer.

Overall, climate change and associated sea level rise is a serious issue that needs to be taken into account when planning the future spatial arrangement of land uses along with infrastructure provision. Costs to existing land users and to Council are likely to rise over time as a result of climate change, and these increased costs need to be factored in to planning processes.

Further Information: Whangarei District Council, 2009, Climate Change Constraints Report

Present and Future Climate Parameters for Whangarei DistrictTable 33:

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC YEARMEAN MONTHLY AIR TEMPERATURE (°C) Data are mean monthly values for the 1971-2000 period for locations having at least 5 complete years of data WHANGAREI - Present

19.9 20 19 16.5 14 12.2 11.2 11.7 12.9 14.3 16.4 18.2 15.5

2040 21 21.1 20 17.5 15 13.1 12.1 12.6 13.7 15.1 17.2 19.3 16.42090 22.2 22.3 21.1 18.6 16.1 14.2 13.2 13.7 14.8 16.2 18.3 20.5 17.6MEAN DAILY MAXIMUM AIR TEMPERATURE °C) Data are mean monthly values for the 1971-2000 period for locations having at least 5 complete years of data WHANGAREI - Present

24.4 24.2 23 20.4 18 16 15.1 15.6 16.8 18.3 20.6 22.6 19.6

2040 25.5 25.3 24 21.4 19 16.9 16 16.5 17.6 19.1 21.4 23.7 20.52090 26.7 26.5 26.1 23.5 20.1 18.9 17.1 18.5 19.5 20.2 22.5 24.9 21.7MEAN DAILY MINIMUM AIR TEMPERATURE (°C)Data are mean monthly values for the 1971-2000 period for locations having at least 5 complete years of dataWHANGAREI - Present

15.4 15.7 15 12.6 10.1 8.3 7.2 7.8 9 10.4 12.2 13.7 11.4

2040 16.5 16.8 16 13.6 11.1 9.2 8.1 8.6 9.8 11.2 13 14.6 12.32090 18.8 19.1 17.1 14.7 12.2 10.3 9.2 9.8 10.9 12.3 14.1 16 13.5MEAN NUMBER OF DAYS OF GROUND FROST Data are mean monthly values of the number of days with ground frosts for the 1971-2000 period for locations having at least 5 complete years of data WHANGAREI - Present

0 0 0 0 1 3 4 2 1 0 0 0 11

By 2080 -no frost days

MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (%) Data are mean monthly values of 9am relative humidity for the 1971-2000 period for locations having at least 5 complete years of dataWHANGAREI -Present

80.7 83.6 83.8 86.4 87.4 89 88 84.6 80.2 81.2 77.9 78.5 83.1

MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL (mm) Data are mean monthly values for the 1971-2000 period for locations having at least 5 complete years of dataWHANGAREI - Present

90 112 142 129 120 179 151 146 130 116 80 92 1490

2040 90.9 113.1 143.4 130.3 162.9 137.4 132.9 118.3 105.6 72.8 92.9 1430.42090 90 112 143.4 103.3 121.2 150.4 126.8 122.6 109.2 97.4 61.2 92 1385.7MEAN MONTHLY WET-DAYS - with at least 1.0 mm of rain Data are mean monthly values for the 1971-2000 period for locations having at least 5 complete years of dataWHANGAREI -Present

7 8 10 11 11 14 15 14 13 10 9 8 132


Based upon present climate parameters and projected climatic changes, Table 33 displays possible monthly changes in temperature and precipitation. The mean monthly number of wet days and relative humidity for 1971-2000 are included in this table. Climate change may influence both climate parameters, but projections on how they may change are not available.


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(especially run off, flooding, and aquifer recharge); erosion regulation; water purification and waste treatment (especially around settlements); pest plants and animal regulation; pollination; natural hazard regulation (reducing damage from natural hazard events such as storms, or retaining enough moisture to reduce fire risk); recreation and ecotourism opportunities; nutrient cycling (efficiency of soil micro-organisms in processing and making available nutrients); and soil formation.

These ecosystem services are important because they can have an influence on community well being, especially as they are not easy or are costly to replace. Broad examples of how they are connected can be found in Figure 59 below.

Connections Between Well Being and Ecosystem ServicesFigure 59:

Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

Ecosystem Services Constituents of Well Being

Low

Medium

High

Arrow’s ColourPotential for mediation bysocioeconomic factors

Weak

Medium

Strong

Arrow’s WidthIntensity of linkages between ecosystemservices and human well being

Life on Earth - Biodiversity

SupportingNutrient CyclingSoil FormationPrimary Production...

RegulatingClimate RegulationFlood RegulationDisease RegulationWater Purification ...

CulturalAestheticSpiritualEducationalRecreational ...

ProvisioningFoodFresh WaterWood and FiberFuel...

Personal safetySecure resource accessSecurity from disasters

Adequate livelihoodsSufficient nutritious foodShelterAccess to goods

StrengthFeeling wellAccess to clean airand water

Social cohesionMutual respectAbility to help others

Oppourtunity to beable to achieve

what an individualvalues doing

and being

Security

Basic materialfor good life

Health

Good social relations

Freedomof choice

and action

Source: Ranganathan., et al (2008), World Resources Institute.

The delivery of many ecosystem services often requires well functioning ecosystems, and overall quality of function requires major contributions from biological diversity. The way the resources are managed has an impact on the delivery and quality of those ecosystem services. Taking an ecosystem services delivery approach expands the focus beyond understanding how development affects ecosystems to include understanding about how development is dependent on ecosystem services. In other words, the relationship between development and environment is not uni-directional but is, in fact, bi-directional. Development is dependent on the environment just as the environment is affected by development. Without ecosystem services much development would not be possible, or would be difficult or less productive.

Ecosystem Services2.9 Ecosystem services refer to the many goods and services emanating from the functioning of ecosystems. People benefit from many different ecological functions, from water purification services within water bodies through to wild pollination and pest control. Many of these beneficial services are simply by-products of natural processes and functions within ecosystems, but as environmental pressures increase, more attention is focussed globally on benefits derived from these historically ‘free’ services.

Some products of ecosystem functions, for example, commodities like timber, food production, and fibre, are actively traded and provide the foundation to much of New Zealand’s original and ongoing wealth. Some ecosystem services are less widely known or are not actively traded (services such as flood attenuation, properties of riparian vegetation, nutrient cycling within soils, and water purification), although such benefits and services may be reasonably well known within technical circles. Some ecosystem services are not very well known at all and have only recently emerged as topics of interest, including pollination services provided by birds, lizards and invertebrates, pest control services provided by predatory insects, and even the existence of invertebrates deep in the soils that help purify groundwater.

In urban areas, ecosystem services such as the water filtration properties of vegetation that reduce run off, the presence of invertebrates in people’s gardens that pollinate plants or remove waste, or the air purification properties of trees are all examples of ecosystem services important for urban living. Research has shown that the presence of vegetation within urban areas also provides mental and physical health benefits and can enhance economic productivity.

Some ecosystem functions and subsequent services are produced by single species, whereas others, such as water quality, are the result of a larger number of species. Services provided by individual species include forms of biological control used in New Zealand such as a particular parasitic wasp species, or the use of the New Zealand Falcon as a predator within vineyards. If a preferred service requires a single species for its generation, programmes to maintain and enhance that species’ numbers become important.

Ecosystem services are produced in all landscapes, whether indigenous or modified, but the types and range of services provided can differ markedly, even within the same industry, e.g. kiwifruit, as different patterns of land management can increase or decrease levels of service delivery. The supply of ecosystem services from modified landscapes is dependent upon the way the land is managed, with methods such as low input farming or organic farming tending to increase the supply of ecosystem services beyond food and fibre provision. The sources, and delivery, of ecosystem services are not limited to rural areas or bush, but also occur within cities and other urban areas.

Most ecosystem services such as flood attenuation or wider pollination services are provided by a wider group of species, at least more efficiently. Most pollination in New Zealand tends to be undertaken by a wider set of invertebrates including introduced honey bees, birds, hoverflies and beetles, although bees are the most commercially favoured. Likewise, wider biological control is undertaken by a group of predatory insects, rather than individual species, and erosion regulation is served by a mixture of vegetation.

Key Ecosystem ServicesThe key areas of interest in terms of ecosystem services and future development would be food and fibre production (dairying, pastoral, horticulture, forestry); freshwater provision (drinking and potential irrigation); air quality regulation (especially, but not limited to, urban areas); local climate regulation (especially in built up urban areas); global climate regulation; water quality regulation


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e.g. horticulture, then another suite of ecosystem services in the same area will likely decline, unless trade-offs are managed.

Some uses will have temporary impacts that do not have long term consequences for an ecosystem. Other uses can have much more permanent impact, perhaps disrupting a service for a very long period of time. For example, water taken from a relatively high flow stream may not have longer term consequences for the system. Water taken from a low flow stream will have more consequences. Perhaps a particular invertebrate predator becomes locally extinct, which in turn leads to a profusion of its prey species which causes further problems.

Over time, invertebrate predators from another system may re-enter the water system, grow in numbers, and eventually reduce the number of herbivores. But if all water from the system is removed, then most of the stream’s biotic community is also removed. Even when water returns to the system there is not a well functioning biotic community that can recuperate, unless the stream community is specialised in dealing with such shocks.

If the ecosystem service that declines is common, easily replaceable, not highly valued, or it does not play a critical role in local well being, then this can be a worthwhile trade-off for both individuals and their community. However, should this activity expand excessively and disrupt the delivery of other suites of ecosystem services, all of which are highly critical in one way or another, this may not necessarily be a worthwhile trade-off for the individual or the community.

For example, increasing food production to extreme levels compared with the relative fertility of the productive land can lead to decline in water quality or loss of habitat for predatory insects. In more developed countries, this loss of other ecosystem services is often buffered by increased dependence on external inputs such as fertilizers for increased soil productivity, chemically based pest control means, or mono-cultural crops for simple harvesting methods.

Planning for ecosystem service delivery tries to ensure that the trade-offs between the provision of these different ecosystem services are worthwhile, in that oversupply of one service does not lead to the undersupply of another. Using ecosystem services as a framework can aid the identification of the wider set of beneficiaries of high environmental quality across communities.

For example, settlements downstream of farmlands may benefit from the flood attenuation effect of vegetation located on up-river farms or reserves. The farms themselves may benefit from upper bush clad catchments in terms of their available water quality or quantity for irrigation, or, in some cases, benefit from wild pollination of some crops or forage material like clover. Local fisheries will benefit from riparian vegetation within a catchment intended to reduce sedimentation of a river.

Whangarei District faces the challenge of melding an increasing population and continued reliance on natural resources for its well being, whether for food and fibre production, recreational and tourism activities for residents and visitors, and so on. Apart from the economic benefits, ecosystem services play a critical role in maintaining a quality of life for all our communities through natural hazard mitigation, the provision of water, or the aesthetic values that attract people and vitality to this district. A healthy environment has more resilient ecosystems that ensure the delivery of ecosystem services which can allow for more development opportunities. This, in turn, can improve economic, social, cultural and environmental well being over the longer term.

Future planning should take into account the provision of ecosystem services, and evaluate the trade-offs involved when undertaking spatial land use planning and infrastructure provision.

Further Information: Whangarei District Council, 2010, Ecosystem Services Report

Relationship Between Development and Ecosystem ServicesFigure 60:

Ecosystem Services sustain development

Development impacts Ecosystem Services

Source: Ranganathan., et al (2008), World Resources Institute.

Agriculture has been, and continues to be, of high importance to New Zealand’s and Whangarei’s economic, social and cultural well being. This emphasis on agriculture has led to many changes in the landscape. New Zealand has some of the most modified landscapes in the world, in which much of the forest and wetlands existing before human settlement have been changed to agricultural landscapes. Agriculture extends over half of New Zealand’s terrestrial land area, dominating the land use of most middle and lower catchments of freshwater systems.

Whangarei has a highly modified landscape, especially when compared with New Zealand as a whole. Production land across New Zealand covers approximately 58% of the land area, whilst in Whangarei District it is closer to 74%, with a further 9.7% classified as lifestyle. Early periods of development in Whangarei District saw the conversion of other land uses into production based land uses.

In some locations, almost complete replacement of native species has occurred, with an overall general trend for intensification (in terms of present production land). Much of New Zealand’s agricultural system is based upon approximately 140 species, most of which are exotic in origin. Modified landscapes supply ecosystem services as well, irrespective of whether it is forestry, pastoral landscape, or dairying. In the course of fulfilling the primary functions of food and fibre production, secondary services will also occur. However, agricultural production tends to simplify landscapes and biodiversity, which generally reduces capacity for secondary services. There is now much research into building more complexity into the agricultural ecosystem, with the ultimate goal of creating multi-functional landscapes.

Planning for Ecosystem Services DeliveryFuture planning revolves around the best use of different resources, whether for environmental, financial, efficiency, or other reasons. Some ecosystems can be very far removed from their original state, but are quite capable of providing a range of services, whether it is agricultural land or urban land. However, if one activity using a particular suite of ecosystem services is promoted,

Whangarei District Growth Strategy · 8 1,923.94 0.7 Retirement from production Cliffs/ mudflats/...

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Transcript of Whangarei District Growth Strategy · 8 1,923.94 0.7 Retirement from production Cliffs/ mudflats/...